PART  HIA) . 5 . The Arians ('See also:

• APE (Old Eng. ape; Dutch aap; Old Ger. a ffo; Welsh epa; Old Bohemian op; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an imitation of the animal's chatter)

Ape?oL, Pers . Haraiva), in the vicinity of the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• ARIUS ("Apews)

Arius (Heri-rud), which derived its name from them . This name, which survives in the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• HERAT

Herat, has of course no connexion with that .of the See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans . 6 . The Drangians (Zaranka in See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius, Sarangians in See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. iii . 93, 117, vii . 67), situated See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the Arians, in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of See also:

• AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan (Arachosia) by the western affluents of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Hamun, and extending to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• SEISTAN, or SISTAN (SEJISTAN)

Seistan . 7 . Arachotians (Pers . Harauvati), in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of the Helmand and its tributaries, See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round See also:

• KANDAHAR

Kandahar .

They are mentioned in the lists of Darius, also by the Greeks after See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander . In See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place is taken by the Pactyans, whose name survives to thepresent See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the word See also:

• PUSHTU

Pushtu, with which the Afghans denote their See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language (Herod. iii . 102, iv . 44, vii . 67, 85) . Probably it was the old tribal name; Arachosia being the See also:

• LOCAL

local designation . The Thamanaeans, who appear in Herodotus (iii . 93, 117), must be classed with them . 8 . The Bactrians (Pers . Bakhtri), on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern declivity of the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu Kush, as far as the See also:

• OXUS

Oxus . Their See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital was Bactra, the modern See also:

• BALKH

Balkh (see See also:

• BACTRIA (Bactriana)

BACTRIA) .

9 . The Sogdians (Pets . Sugudu), in the mountainous district between the Oxus and Jaxartes . to . The Chorasmians (Khwarizmians, Pers . Uvarazmiya), in the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis of See also:

• KHIVA

Khiva, which still bears the name Khwarizm . They stretched far into the midst of the nomadic tribes . 11 . The Margians (Pers . Margu), on the river Margus (See also:

• MURGHAB

Murghab); chiefly inhabiting the oasis of See also:

• MERV, MERU

Merv, which has preserved their name . Darius mentions the district of Margu but, like Herodotus, omits them from his See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of peoples; so that ethnographically they are perhaps to be assigned to the Arians . 12 .

The Sagartians (Pers . Asagarta) ; according to Herodotus (vii . 85), a nomadic tribe of horsemen; speaking, as he expressly declares, the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian language . Hence he describes them (i . 125) as a subordinate See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan of the Persians . They, with the Drangians, Utians and Myci, formed a single satrapy (Herod. iii . 93) . See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy (vi . 2, 6) speaks of Sagartians in the Eastern Zagros in See also:

• MEDIA

Media . 13 . We have already touched on the nomadic peoples (Ddha, Dahans) of Iranian See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality, who occupied the See also:

• STEPPES

steppes of See also:

• TURKESTAN
• TURKESTAN, or HAZRET

Turkestan as far as the Sarmatians and Scythians of South See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia . That these were conscious of their See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan origin is proved by the names Ariantas and Ariapeithes See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by Scythian (Scolot) See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings (Herod, iv .

76, 87) . Still they were never counted as a portion of See also:

• IRAN

Iran or the Iranians . To the settled peasantry, these nomads of the See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe were always " the enemy " (See also:

• DANA, CHARLES ANDERSON (1819–'897)
• DANA, FRANCIS (1743-1811)
• DANA, JAMES DWIGHT (1813-1895)

dana, daha, that, Dahae) . See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side by side with this name we find " Turan " and " Turanian "; a designation applied both by the later Persians and by modern writers to this region . The origin of the word is obscure, derived perhaps from an obsolete tribal name . It has no connexion what-ever with the much later " See also:

• TURKS

Turks," who penetrated thither in the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century after See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ . Though found neither in the See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions of Darius nor in the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek authors, the name Turan must nevertheless be of great antiquity; for not merely is it repeatedly found in the Avesta, under the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form Tura, but it occurs already in a hymn, which, without doubt, originates from Zoroaster himself, and in which " the Turanian Fryana " and his descendants are commemorated as faithful adherents of the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet (Yasna, 46, 62) . The dividing See also:

• LINE

line between Iranian and See also:

• INDIAN

Indian is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by the Hindu Kush and the Soliman mountains of the See also:

• INDUS

Indus district . The valley of the See also:

• KABUL

Kabul (Cophen) is already occupied by Indian tribes, especially the Gandarians; and the Satagydae (Pers . Thatagu) there See also:

• RESIDENT

resident were presumably also of Indian stock . The non-Aryan See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Iran itself has been discussed above . Of its other neighbours,-we must here mention the Sacae, a warlike equestrian See also:

• PEOPLE

people in the mountains of the pamir See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau and northward; who are probably of Mongol origin .

Herodotus relates that the Persians distinguished " all the Scythians all the northern nomads—as Sacae; and this statement is confirmed by the inscriptions of Darius . The Babylonians employ the name Gimiri (i.e . Cimmerians) in the same sense . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and in many views See also:

• COMMON

common to both peoples . A great number of gods—Asura, See also:

• MITHRAS

Mithras, the See also:

• DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with SEpeoµay " see," and interpreted as " sharp-sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. trache, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake,

Dragon-slayer Verethraghna (the See also:

• INDRA

Indra of the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians), the See also:

• WATER

Water-shoot Apam napat (the See also:

• LIGHTNING

lightning), &c.—date from this era . So, too, See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, especially of the sacrificial See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame; the preparation of the intoxicating See also:

• SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to press)

soma, which fills See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man with divine strength and uplifts him to the gods; the See also:

• INJUNCTION (from Lat. injungere, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a burden or charge on, to enjoin)

injunction to " See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good thoughts and good See also:

• WORKS

works," imposed on the pious by Veda and Avesta alike: the belief in an unwavering See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order (rta)—a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law controlling gods and men and dominating them all; yet with this, a belief in the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of magical formulae (mantra), exclamations and prayers, to whose compulsion not merely demons (the evil See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of deceptiondruh) but even the gods (daeva) must submit; and, lastly, the institution of a priesthood of fire-kindlers (athravan), who are. at once the repositories of all sacral traditions and the mediators in all intercourse between See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth and See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven . The transition, moreover, to settled See also:

• LIFE

life and See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture belongs to the Aryan Aryan Religion . See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period; and to it may be traced the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar sancitity of the evident that before the Achaemenids there were in Bactria only small local principalities of which Vishtaspa's was one: and it is possible that the primeval See also:

• EMPIRE

empire of the See also:

• SAGA (literally a story committed to writing)

Saga is only a reflection of the Achaemenid and See also:

• SASSANID, or SASSANIAN DYNASTY (Or SASANIAN)

Sassanid empires of reality, whose existence See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend See also:

• DATES

dates back to the beginning of the See also:

• WORLD

world, simply because legend is pervaded by the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that the conditions obtaining in the present are the natural conditions, and, as such, valid for all See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Closely connected as are the See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

Mythology and Religion of Indian and Iranian, no less clearly marked is the fundamental difference of intellectual and moral standpoint, Difference which has led the two nations into opposite paths between the of See also:

• HISTORY

history and culture . The tendency to religious Iranian and thought and to a speculative See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, compre- Indian hending the world as a whole, is shared by both and Rettion . is doubtless an See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance from the Aryan period . But with the Indians this See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation leads to the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete abolition of all barriers between See also:

• GOD

God and man, to a mystic See also:

• PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

pantheism, and to absorption in the universal Ego, in contrast with which the world becomes an unsubstantial phantasm and sinks into nothingness .

For the Iranian, on the contrary, See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical life, the real world, and with them the moral commandment, fill the foreground . The new gods created by Iran are ethical See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers; those of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, abstractions of worship (See also:

• BRAHMAN

brahman) or of philosophy (atman) . These fundamental features of Iranian sentiment encounter us not only in the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of Zoroaster and the confessions of Darius, but also in that magnificent product of the See also:

• PERSIA

Persia of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam—the Sufi See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

mysticism . This is pantheistic, like the Brahman philosophy . But the pantheism of the Persian is always See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive, —affirming the world and life, taking joy in them, and seeking its ideal in See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union with a creative god: the pantheism of the Indian is negative—denying world and life, and descrying its ideal in the cessation of existence . This contrast in intellectual and religious life must have See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early . Probably, in the remote past violent religious disputes and feuds See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out: for otherwise it is almost inexplicable that the old Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European word, which in India, also, denotes the gods—See also:

• DEVA (mod. Chester)
• DEVA (Sanskrit " heavenly ")

deva—should be applied by the Iranians to the See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

malignant demons or devils (daeva; mod. div); while they denote the gods by the name bhaga . Conversely the Asuras, whose name in Iran is the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of the supreme god (a/See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura, See also:

• AURA (from the Gr. for " breath " or " breeze ")

aura), have in India degenerated to evil spirits . It is of great importance that among the See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic peoples the same word bogu distinguishes the deity; since this points to See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient cultural influences on which we have yet no more precise See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . Otherwise, the name is only found among the Phrygians, who, according to See also:

• HESYCHIUS

Hesychius, called the Heaven-god (See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus) Bagaeus; there, however, it may have been borrowed from the Persians . We possess no other See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence for these events; the only document we possess for the history of Iranian religion is the sacred. See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing, containing the doctrines of the prophet who gave that religion a new form . This is the Avesta, the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible of the modern Parsee, which comprises the See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation of Zoroaster .

As to the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home and time of Zoroaster, the Parsee tradition yields us no sort of information which could possibly be of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical service . Its contents, even if they go back Zoroaster. to lost parts of the Avesta, are merely a See also:

• LATE

late patch- See also:

• WORK

work, based on the legendary tradition and devoid of historical See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation . The attempts of West (See also:

• PAHLAVI, or PEHLEVI

Pahlavi Texts Translated, vol. v.) to turn to historical See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account the statements of the Bundahish and other Parsee books, which date Zoroaster at 258 years before Alexander, are, in the present writer's See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion, a complete failure . See also:

• JACKSON
• JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845)
• JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819)
• JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (186o– )
• JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831–1885)
• JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903)
• JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640)
• JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863)
• JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803)

Jackson (Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran, 1901) sides with West . The Greek theory, which relegates Zoroaster to the mists of antiquity, or even to the period of the fabulous See also:

• NINUS

Ninus and See also:

• SEMIRAMIS (c. 800 B.C.)

Semiramis, is equally valueless . Even the statement that he came from the north-west of Media (the later Atropatene), and his See also:

• MOTHER

mother from Rai (Rhagae) in eastern Media, must be considered as problematic in the extreme . Our only trustworthy information is to be gleaned from his own testimony and from the history of his religion . And here we may take it as certain that the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of his activity was laid in cow in India and Persia . For the cow is the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal which voluntarily yields nourishment to man and See also:

• AIDS

aids him in his daily labours, and on it depends the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of the See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant as contrasted with the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• DESERT

desert brigand to whom the cow is unknown . Very numerous are the legends common to both nations . These, in part, are rooted in the primeval Indo-European days, though their ultimate form dates only from the Aryan See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch . Foremost among them is the myth See also:

• RELATING

relating the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of a See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-god (Ind .

Trita, generally replaced by Indra, Iran . Thraelona) against a fearful See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent (Ind . Ahi, Iran . Azhi; known moreover as Vrtra) : also, the legend of See also:

• YAMA (Sanskrit " twin," in allusion to his being twin with his sister Yami, traditionally the first human pair)

Yama, the first man, son of Vivasvant, who, after a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and blessed life in the happy years of the beginning, was seized by See also:

• DEATH

death and now rules in the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of the departed . Then come a See also:

• HOST

host of other tales of old-world heroes; as the " Glorious One (Ind . Sushrava, Pers . Husrava, Chosrau or See also:

• CHOSROES

Chosroes), or the Son who goes on a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to seek his See also:

• FATHER

father, and, unknown, meets his end at his hands . These legends have lived and flourished in Iran at every period of its history; and neither the religion of Zoroaster, nor yet Islam, 'Iranian has availed to suppress them . Zoroastrianism—at saga. least in that form in which it became the dominant creed of the Iranians—legitimized not only the old gods, but the old heroes also; and transformed them into pious helpers and servants of Ahuramazda; while the creator of the great See also:

• NATIONAL

national epic of Persia, Firdousi (A.D . 935-1020), displayed astonishing skill in combining the ancient tradition with Islam . Through his poem, this tradition is perfectly See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to every Persian at the present day; and the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive features of tales, whose origin must be dated 4000 years ago, are still preserved with fidelity . This tenacity of the Saga stands in the sharpest contrast with the fact that the historical memory of the Persian is extremely defective .

Even the glories of the Achaemenid Empire faded rapidly, and all but completely, from recollection; so also the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Alexander, and the Hellenistic and See also:

• PARTHIAN

Parthian eras . In Firdousi, the legendary princes are followed, almost without a break, by See also:

• ARDASHIR

Ardashir, the founder of the Sassanid See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty: the intervening See also:

• EPISODE

episode of Darius and Alexander is not drawn from native tradition, but borrowed from Greek literature (the Alexander-See also:

• ROMANCE

romance of the Pseudo-See also:

• CALLISTHENES (c. 360–328 B.C.)

Callisthenes) in precisely the same way as among the nations of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages.' Needless to say, however, this long period saw the Saga much recast and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded . Many new characters—Siyawush, Rustam, &c.—have swelled the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original list: among them is See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King Gushtasp (Vishtaspa), the See also:

• PATRON

patron of Zoroaster, who was known from the poems of the prophet and is placed at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the legendary See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . The old gods and mythical figures reappear as heroes and kings, and their battles are fought no longer in heaven but upon earth, where they are localized for the most part in the east of Iran . In other words, the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of the gods has degenerated to the war between Iranian See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization and the Turanians . Only the evil serpent Azhi Dahaka (Azhdahak) is domiciled by the Avesta in See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon (Baum) and depicted on the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of Babylonian gods and demons: he is a king in human form with a serpent growing from either See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder and feeding on the brains of men . In these traits are engrained the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general conditions of history and culture, under which the Iranians lived: on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the contrast between Iranian and Turanian; on the other, the dominating position of Babylon, which influenced most strongly the civilization and religion of Iran . It is idle, however, to read definite historical events into such traits, or to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt, with some scholars, to convert them into history itself . We cannot deduce from them a conquest of Iran from Babylon: for the Babylonians never set See also:

• FOOT

foot in Iran, and even the Assyrians merely conquered the western portion of Media . Nor yet can we make the favourite assumption of a great empire in Bactria . On the contrary, it is historically ' The fundamental work on the history of the Iranian Saga is Nbldeke., Das iranische Nationalepos 1896 (reprinted from the Grundriss der Iran . Philologie, ii.) .

the east of Iran, in Bactria and its neighbouring regions . The contrast there existing between peasant and nomad is of vital consequence for the whole position of his creed . Among the adherents whom he gained was numbered, as already mentioned, a Turanian, one Fryana and his See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household . The west of Iran is scarcely ever regarded in the Avesta, while the districts and See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of the east are often named . The language, even, is markedly different from the Persian; and the fire-priests are not styled Magians as in Persia—the word indeed never occurs in the Avesta, except in a single late passage—but athravan, identical with the atharvan of India (rupatboy " fire-kindlers," in See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo xv . 733) . Thus it cannot be doubted that the king Vishtaspa, who received Zoroaster's doctrine and protected him, must have ruled in eastern Iran: though strangely enough scholars can still be found to identify him with the homonymous Persian See also:

• HYSTASPES (the Greek form of the Persian Vishtaspa)

Hystaspes, the father of Darius . The possibility that Zoroaster himself was not a native of East Iran, but had immigrated thither (from Rhagae?), is of course always to be considered; and this theory has been used to explain the phenomenon that the Gathas, of his own See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, are written in a different See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect from the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the Avesta . On this See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis, the former would be his mother-See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue: the latter the speech of eastern Iran . This district is again indicated as the starting-point of Zoroastrianism, by the fact that dead bodies are not embalmed and then interred, as was usual, for instance, in Persia, but See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast out to the See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs and birds (cf . Herod. i . 14o), a practice, as is well known, strictly enjoined in the Avesta, ruthlessly executed under the Sassanids, and followed to the present day by the See also:

• PARSEES, or PARSIS

Parsees .

The See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive of this, indeed, is to be found in the sanctity of Earth, which must not be polluted by a See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse; but its origin is evidently to be traced in a barbaric See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes who leave the dead to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie on the steppe; and we know from Greek See also:

• SOURCES

sources that this custom was widely diffused among the tribes of eastern Iran . The next See also:

• CLUE

clue towards determining the period of Zoroaster is, that Darius I. and all his successors, as proved by their inscriptions and by Greek testimony, were zealous adherents of the pure word of Zoroastrianism; which consequently must already have been accepted in the west of Iran . That See also:

• CYRUS
• CYRUS (Gr. KDpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr. Koresh)

Cyrus too owned See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance to the creed, cannot be doubted by an unprejudiced mind, although in the dearth of contemporary monuments we possess no See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof at first hand . The See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian inscriptions demonstrate, however, that Zoroaster's teaching was dominant in Media two centuries before Cyrus . For in the list of Median princes, to which we have already referred, are two bearing the name of Mazdaka—evidently after the god Mazda . Now this name was the invention of Zoroaster himself; and he who names himself after Mazda thereby makes a See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

confession of faith in the religion of Zoroaster whose followers, as we know, termed themselves Mazdayasna, " worshippers of Mazda." Thus, if the doctrine of Zoroaster predominated in Media in 714 B.C., obviously his See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in the role of prophet must have been much earlier . A more definite date cannot be deduced from the evidence at our disposal, but his era may safely be placed as far back as l000 B.C . The religion which Zoroaster preached was the creation of. a single man, who, having pondered long and deeply the problems of existence and the world, propounded the See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution he found as a divine revelation . Naturally he starts from the old views, and is indebted to them for many of his tenets and ideas; but out of this material he builds a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• SYSTEM

system which bears throughout the impress of his own See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect . In this world, two See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of powers confront each other in a truceless war, the powers of Good, of See also:

• LIGHT

Light, of creative Strength, of Life and of Truth, and the powers of Evil, of Darkness, Destruction, Death and Deceit . In the See also:

• VAN

van of the first stands the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Spirit (spenta mainyu) or the " Great See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

Wisdom " Mazdao . His helpers and vassals are the six powers of Good Thought (vohu See also:

• MANOR

manor 'thiav6s), of Right Order (asha, Ind. eta, Pers. See also:

• ARIA (Ital. for " air ")

aria, " lawfulness "), of the Excellent Kingdom (khshathra vairya), of Holy See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

Character (spenta armaiti), of See also:

• HEALTH

Health (haurvatat), and of See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

Immortality (ameretat) .

These are comprised under the general title of "undying holy ones " (amesha spenta, amshaspand) ; and a host of subordinate angels (yazata) are ranked with them . The powers of evil are in all points the opposite of the good; at their See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head being the Evil Spirit (See also:

• ANGRA, or ANGRA

angra mainyu, See also:

• AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apecµavios in Aristotle, or 'Apeiµav+7s in Agathias; in the Avesta, Angr3 Mainyush)—" the Destructive Spirit ")

Ahriman) . These evil demons are identical with the old gods of the popular faith—the devas (div)—while Mazdao bears the name Ahura, above discussed; whence Ahuramazda (Ormuzd) . From this it will be See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest that the figures of Zoroaster's religion are purely abstractions; the See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete gods of vulgar belief being set aside . All those who do not belong to the devils (devas), might be recognized as inferior servants of Ahuramazda: See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief among them being the Sun-god Mithras (see MITHRAS) ; the goddess of vegetation and fertility, especially of the Oxus-stream, Anahita Ardvisura (Anaitis) ; and the Dragon-slayer Verethraghna (Gr . Artagnes), with the god of the intoxicating Haoma (the Indian Soma) . In the religion of the people, these divinities always survived; and the popularity of Mithras is evinced by the numerous Aryan proper names thence derived (See also:

• MITHRADATES

Mithradates; &c.) . The educated community who had embraced the pure doctrine in its completeness scarcely recognized them, and the inscriptions of Darius ignore them . Only once he speaks of " the gods of the clans," and once of " the other gods which there are." Not till the time of See also:

• ARTAXERXES

Artaxerxes II. were Mithra and Anaitis received into the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official religion of the Persian kings . But they always played a leading part in the propaganda of the Persian cults in the West . Only one See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the old Aryan belief was preserved by Zoroaster in all its sanctity: that of Fire—the purest manifestation of Ahuramazda and the powers of Good . Thus fire-altars were every. where erected ; and, to the prophet also, the Fire-kindlers (athravan) were the ministers and priests of the true religion and the intermediaries between God and man; at last in the popular mind, Zoroastrianism was identified with Fire-worship pure and See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, —inadequate though the See also:

• TERM

term in reality is, as a description of its essentials .

Midway in this opposition of the powers of Good and Evil, man is placed . He has to choose on which side he will stand: he is called to serve the powers of Good: his See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty lies in speaking the truth and combating the lie . And this is fulfilled when he obeys the commands of law and the true order; when he tends his See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, in contrast with the lawless and predatory nomad (Dahae) ; when he See also:

• WARS

wars on all harmful and evil creatures, and on the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil-worshippers; when he keeps See also:

• FREE

free from pollution the pure creations of Ahuramazda—fire foremost, but also earth and water; and, above all, when he practises the Good and True in thought, word and work . And as his deeds are, so shall be his See also:

• FATE

fate and his future See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot on the Day of See also:

• JUDGMENT

Judgment; when he must See also:

• CROSS

cross the See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge Gillett', which, according to his works, will either See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide him to the See also:

• PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

Paradise of Ahuramazda or precipitate him to the See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

Hell of Ahriman . Obviously, it was through this See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching of a judgment to come and a See also:

• DIRECT

direct moral responsibility of the individual man, that, like See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet among the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, Zoroaster and his disciples gained their adherents and exercised their greatest See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . In this creed of Zoroastrianism three important points are especially to be emphasized: for on them depend its peculiar characteristics and historical significance 1 . The abstractions which it preaches are not products of See also:

• META

meta-See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical speculation, as in India, but rather the ethical forces which dominate human life . They impose a duty upon man, and enjoin on him a positive line of See also:

• ACTION

action—a definite activity in the world . And this world he is not to eschew, like the Brahman and the Buddhist, but to work in it, enjoying existence and life to the full . Thus a man's birthday is counted the highest festival (Herod . I . 133) ; and thus the joie de vivre, See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich banquets and carousals are not rejected by the Persian as godless and worldly, but are even prescribed by his religion .

To create offspring and people the world with servants of Ahuramazda is the duty of every true believer.' 2 . This religion See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up in the midst of a settled peasant population, whose mode of life and views it regards as the natural disposition of things . Consequently, it is at once a product of, and a See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in civilization; and is thereby sharply differentiated from the Israelite religion, with whose moral precepts it otherwise coincides so frequently . 3 . The preaching of Zoroaster is directed to each individual man, and requires of him that he shall choose his position with regard to the fundamental problems of life and religion . Thus, even though it arose from national views, in its essence it is not national (as, for instance, the Israelite creed), but individualistic, and at the same time universal . From the first, it aims at propaganda; and the nationality of the convert is a See also:

• MATTER

matter of indifference . So Zoroaster himself converted the Turanian Fryana with his kindred (see above) ; and the same tendency to proselytize See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien peoples survived in his religion . Zoroastrianism, in fact, is the first creed to work by See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions or to See also:

• LAY

lay claim to universality of See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance . It was, however, only natural that its adherents should be won, first and chiefly, among the countrymen of the prophet, and its further success in gaining over all the Iranian tribes gave it a national See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp . So the Susan See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of Darius' See also:

• BEHISTUN

Behistun inscription i These ideas are strongly exposed in a polemic against the Christians contained in an official See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict of the Persian creed to the Armenians by Mihr Narseh, the See also:

• VIZIER

vizier of Yazdeggerd II- (about A.D . 450), preserved by the Armenian historian, Elishe .

terms Ahuramazda " the god of the Aryans." Thus the creed and from a few allusions in the Old Testament . Of the Median became a powerful factor in the development of an See also:

• UNITED

united Iranian nationality, That a. religion, which See also:

• LAYS

lays its chief stress upon moral precepts, may readily develop into See also:

• CASUISTRY (from the Lat. casus, a point of law)

casuistry and See also:

• EXTERNAL

external formalism, with an infinity of See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute prescriptions, injunctions on purity and the like, is well known . In the Avesta all these recur ad nauseam, so much so that the primitive spirit of the religion is stifled beneath them, as the doctrine of the ancient prophets was stifled in Judaism and the See also:

• TALMUD

Talmud . The Sasse nid Empire, indeed, is completely dominated by this formalism and ritualism; but the earlier testimony of Darius in his inscriptions and the statements in Herodotus enable us still to recognize the original healthy life of a religion capable of awakening the enthusiastic devotion of the inner man . Its formal character naturally germinated in the priesthood (Herod. i . 140; cf . Strabo xv . 733, &c.) . The priests diligently practise all the precepts of their See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual—e.g. the extermination of noxious animals, and the exposure of corpses to the dogs and birds, that earth may not be polluted by their presence . They have See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice for every contingency in life, and can say with precision when a man has been defiled, and how he may be cleansed again; they possess an endless stock of formulae for See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer, and of sentences which serve for See also:

• PROTECTION

protection against evil spirits and may be turned to purposes of magic . How the doctrine overspread the whole of Iran, we do not know . In the West, among the Medes and Persians, the guardianship The and See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry of Zoroastrianism is vested in an exclusive Maglaas. priesthood—the Magians .

Whence this name—unknown as already mentioned, to the Avesta—took its rise, we have no knowledge . Herodotus (i. tot) includes the Magians in his list of Median tribes; and it is probable that they and their teaching reached the Persians from Media . At all events, they See also:

• PLAY

play here not merely the role of the " Fire-kindlers (athravan) in the Avesta, but are become an hereditary sacerdotal See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste, acting an important part in the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state-advisers and spiritual guides to the king, and so forth . With them the ritualism and magical character, above mentioned, are fully developed . In the narrations of Herodotus, they interpret dreams and predict the future; and in See also:

• GREECE

Greece, from the time of Herodotus and See also:

• SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles (Oed . See also:

• TYR

Tyr . 387) onward, the word Magian connotes a magician-See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest . See further, ZOROASTER and works there quoted . IV . Beginnings of History.—A connected See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of historical evidence begins with the time when under See also:

• SHALMANESER [Ass. Sulmanu-afarid, " the god Sulman (Solomon) is chief "]

Shalmaneser (Sal-Assyrian manassar II.), the Assyrians in 836 B.C. began for Conquest the first time to penetrate farther into the mounof media. tains of the east; and there, in addition to several non-Iranian peoples, subdued a few Median tribes . These wars were continued under successive kings, till the Assyrian power in these regions attained its See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith under See also:

• SARGON

Sargon (q.v.), who (715 B.c.) led into See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile the Median chief Dayuku (see See also:

• DEIOCES (O771.6rc17s)

DEIOCES), a See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal of the Minni (Mannaeans), with all his See also:

• FAMILY

family, and subjected the princes of Media as far as the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain of Bikni (See also:

• ELBURZ, or ALBURZ (from O. Pers. Hara-bere-zaili, the " High Mountain ")

Elburz) and the border of the great desert . At that time twenty-eight Median "See also:

• TOWN

town-lords" paid See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute to See also:

• NINEVEH (Heb. m}'?, in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; LXX. Ntsetni, Nnveun: Assyrian Nind or Ninua)

Nineveh; two years later, (713 B.C.) no fewer than See also:

• FORTY

forty-six .

Sargon's successors, down to See also:

• ASSUR
• ASSUR (Auth. Vera. Asshur)

Assur-bani-See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal (668–626 B.c.), maintained and even augmented their See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty over Media, in spite of repeated attempts to throw off the yoke in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with the Mannaeans, the Saparda, the Cimmerians—who had penetrated into the Armenian mountains—and others . Not till the last years of Assur-bani-pal, on which the extant Assyrian See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals are silent, can an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent Median Empire have arisen . As to the history of this empire, we have an ancient account in Herodotus, which, with a large admixture of the legendary, The still contains numerous historical elements, and a Median completely fanciful account from See also:

• CTESIAS

Ctesias, preserved Bemire. in Diodorus (ii . 32 sqq.) and much used by later writers . In the latter Nineveh is destroyed by the Mede See also:

• ARBACES

Arbaces and the Babylonian Belesys about 88o B.C., a period when the Assyrians were just beginning to lay the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of their power . Arbaces is then followed by a long list of Median kings, all of them fabulous . On the other hand, according to Herodotus the Medes revolt from See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria about 710 B.C., that is to say, at the exact time when they were subdued by Sargon . Deioces founds the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy; his son See also:

• PHRAORTES

Phraortes begins the work of conquest; and his son See also:

• CYAXARES (Pers. Uvakhshatra)

Cyaxares is first overwhelmed by the Scythians, then captures Nineveh, and raises Media .to a great power . A little supplementary information may be gleaned from the inscriptions of King Nabonidus of Babylon (555–539) Empire