See also:

• PART

PART VIII  .-PHYSIOGRAPHICAL See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

GEOLOGY This See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological inquiry investigates the origin and See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• PRESENT

present topographical features of the See also:

• LAND

land . As these features must obviously be related to those of earlier See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time which are recorded in the rocks of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's crust, they cannot be satisfactorily studied until at least the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main outlines of the history of these rocks have been traced . Hence physiographical See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research comes appropriately after the other branches of the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science have been considered . From the stratigraphy of the terrestrial crust we learn that by far the largest See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• AREA

area of dry land is built up of marine formations; and therefore that the present land is not an aboriginal portion of the earth's See also:

• SURFACE

surface, but has been overspread by the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea in which its rocks were mainly accumulated . We further discover that this submergence of the land did not happen once only, but again and again in past ages and in all parts of the See also:

• WORLD

world . Yet although the terrestrial areas varied much from See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age to age in their extent and in their See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution, being at one time more See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental, at another more insular, there is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe that these successive diminutions and expansions have on the whole been effected within, or not far outside, the limits of the existing continents . There is no See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that any portion of the present land ever See also:

• LAY

lay under the deeper parts of the ocean . The abysmal deposits of the ocean-See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor have no true representatives among the sedimentary formations anywhere visible on the land . Nor, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, can it be shown that any part of the existing ocean abysses ever See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose above sea-level into dry land . Hence geologists have See also:

• DRAWN

drawn the inference that the ocean basins have probably been always where they now are; and that although the continental areas have often been narrowed by submergence and by denudation, there has probably seldom or never been a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete The Geological See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

Record or See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

Order of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession of the Stratified ,Formations of the Earth's Crust . See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America .

. c- ... Historic, up to the present time . Similar to the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European 'de- r P . Prehistoric, comprising deposits of the velopment, but with scantier t -.a E See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron, See also:

• BRONZE

Bronze, and later See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone Ages. traces of the presence of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . s— a, See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic—See also:

• ALLUVIUM

alluvium, See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat, See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake-dwell- h' 00x ings, See also:

• LOESS (Ger. Loss)

loess, &c: See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

Palaeolithic— See also:

• RIVER

river-gravels, See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave-de- posits, &c . o Ta Older Loess and valley-gravels; cave- As in Europe, it is hardly pos- 0. o deposits. sible to assign a definite `c ' q Strand-lines or raised beaches; youngest See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to each r o moraines. of the various deposits of finis Upper See also:

• BOULDER
• BOULDER (short for " boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed. bullersten, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a stream, from bullra, to make a loud noise)

Boulder-See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays; eskers; marine See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, terrestrial and marine . sands and clays . They generally resemble the Interglacial deposits . European See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . The charac- See also:

• LOWER

Lower boulder-See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay or Till, with striated teristtc marine, fluviatile and See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-surfaces below. lacustrine terraces, which overlie the older drifts, have been classed as the Champ- lain See also:

• GROUP

Group . c Newer:—See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• FOREST

Forest-See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

Bed Group; On the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic border repre- o Red and See also:

• NORWICH
• NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, EARL OF (1583?-1663)

Norwich See also:

• CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. creag, Manx creg, and Welsh and modern Scots craig)

Crag; Amstelian sented by the marine Floridian c, and Scaldesian See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium series; in the interior by a _—~ and See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland; Sicilian and Astian of subaerial and lacustrine series; See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy. and on the Pacific border by Older :—English Coralline Crag; See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

Dies- the thick marine series of See also:

• SAN

San tian of Belgium; Plaisancian of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south- Francisco . ern France and Italy .

o Wanting in See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain; well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in Represented in the Eastern France, S . E . Europe and Italy; divis- States by a marine series ible into the following groups in (See also:

• YORKTOWN

Yorktown or Chesapeake, descending order: (s) Pontian; (2) Chipola and Chattahoochee Sarmatian; (3) Tortonian; (4) See also:

• HEL, or HELA

Hel- groups), and in the interior vetian; (5) Langhian (Burdigalian). by the lacustrine Loup See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

Fork (See also:

• NEBRASKA

Nebraska), Deep River, and See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

Day groups . _ o In Britain the "fluvio-marine series" of On the Atlantic border no r" o the Isle of See also:

• WIGHT, ISLE OF

Wight; also the volcanic equivalents have been satis- c en plateaux of See also:

• ANTRIM
• ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1636)
• ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1609-1683)

Antrim and Inner See also:

• HEBRIDES, THE, or WESTERN ISLES

Hebrides factorily recognised, but on r'o O and those of the See also:

• FAEROE (also written FAROE or THE FAEROES, Danish Faeroerne or Fliroerne, "the sheep islands ")

Faeroe Isles and See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

Ice- the Pacific See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side there are i '7; land . In continental Europe the marine deposits in N . W . U following subdivisions have been See also:

• OREGON

Oregon, which may represent established in descending order: . (s) this See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division . In the interior Aquitanian, (2) Stampian (Rupelan), the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent is believed to (3) Tnngrain (Sannoisian). be the fresh-See also:

• WATER

water See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White River series, including (t) Prelo- ceras beds, (2) See also:

• OREODON (i.e. " hillock-tooth ")

Oreodon beds, and (3) Titanothervum beds . o ii See also:

• BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH (1766-1815)
• BARTON, BERNARD (1784–1849)
• BARTON, CLARA (1821– )
• BARTON, ELIZABETH (c. 1506–1534)

Barton sands and clays; Ludian series See also:

• WOODSTOCK

Woodstock and Aquia See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek N `o of France. groups of See also:

• POTOMAC

Potomac River; ' Bracklesharti Beds; Lutetian (Calcaire See also:

• VICKSBURG

Vicksburg, See also:

• JACKSON
• JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845)
• JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819)
• JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (186o– )
• JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831–1885)
• JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903)
• JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640)
• JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863)
• JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803)

Jackson, Clai- o grossier and Caillasses) of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin. See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne, Buhrstone, and Lig- u 's See also:

• LONDON

London clay, See also:

• WOOLWICH

Woolwich and See also:

• READING

Reading nitic groups of See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi . Ja Beds; See also:

• THANET, ISLE OF

Thanet sands; Ypresian or In the Interior a thick series of e . Londinian of N .

France and Belgium; fresh-water formations, See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn- Spardacian and Thanetian groups. prising, in descending order, the Uinta, Bridger, See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

Wind River, Wasatch, Torrejon, and Puerco groups . On the Pacific side the marine Tejon series of Oregon and See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California . Daman—wanting in Britain; uppermost On the Atlantic border both See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone of See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark. marine strata and others See also:

• CON

con- Senonian —Upper See also:

• CHALK

Chalk with Flints of taming a terrestrial See also:

• FLORA

flora re- See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England; Atari= and Emscherian present the Cretaceous series stages on the European See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent. of formations . Turonian—See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Chalk with few In the interior there is also a flints, and comprising the Angoumian commingling of marine with and Ligerian stages. lacustrine deposits . At the Cenomanian—Lower Chalk and Chalk See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top lies the See also:

• LARAMIE

Laramie or Lig- sfarl. nitic series with an abundant See also:

• ALBIAN (Fr. Albien, from Alba = Aube in France)

Albian=Upper See also:

• GREENSAND

Greensand and See also:

• GAULT

Gault. terrestrial flora, passing down See also:

• APTIAN (Fr. Aptien, from Apt in Vaucluse, France)

Aptian — Lower Greensand; Marls and into the lacustrine and limestones of See also:

• PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza)

Provence, &c. brackish-water See also:

• MONTANA

Montana Urgonian (Barremian)—Atherfield clay; series . Of older date, the massive Hippurite limestones of See also:

• COLORADO

Colorado series contains, an See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern France. abundant marine See also:

• FAUNA

fauna, yet Neocomian—See also:

• WEALD, THE

Weald clay and See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

Hastings includes also some See also:

• COAL

coal-seams . See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand; Hauterivian and Valanginian The Niobrara marls and See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime- sub-stages of See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland and France. stones are likewise of marine origin, but the lower members of the series (See also:

• BENTON, THOMAS HART (1782-1858)

Benton and Dakota) show another See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of fresh-water sedimentation with lignites and coals . In California a vast succession of marine deposits (Shasta- Chico) represents the Cre- taceous See also:

• SYSTEM

system; and in western See also:

• BRITISH

British N . America coal-seams also occur . See also:

• PURBECKIAN

Purbeckian—Purbeck beds; Mfinder Representatives of the Middle , . Mergel; largely present in See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West- and lower See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic forma- o phalia. tions have been found in "-' See also:

• PORTLANDIAN

Portlandian—See also:

• PORTLAND
• PORTLAND, EARL OF
• PORTLAND, ISLE OF
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, EARL
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK

Portland group of Eng- California and Oregon, and land, represented in S . France by the farther north among the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic . thick Tithonian limestones. islands .

Kimmeridgian—Kimmeridge Clay of Strata containing Lower Turns- England; Virgulian and Plerocerian sic marine fossils appear in groups of N . Prance; represented by See also:

• WYOMING

Wyoming and Dakota; and thick limestones in the Mediterranean above them come the Atlanto- ba,See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin. sauces and Baptanodon beds, Europe . North America . o t; See also:

• CORALLIAN (Fr. Corallun)

Corallian-See also:

• CORAL

Coral Rag, Coralline Oolite; which have yielded so large a ti Sequanian stages of the Continent, variety of deinosaurs and other comprising the sub-stages of Astartian vertebrates, and especially the and Rauracian. remains of a number of genera See also:

• OXFORDIAN

Oxfordian—See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford Clay; Argovian and of small mammals . Neuvizyan stages . Calloviain—Kellaways Rock, Divesian sub-See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of N . France . Batlioaian—series of English strata from See also:

• CORNBRASH

Cornbrash down to See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

Fuller's Earth . See also:

• BAJOCIAN

Bajocian—Inferior Oolite of England . Liassic—divisible into (s) Upper See also:

• LIAS

Lias or Toarcian, (2) Middle Lias, See also:

• MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

Marl- stone or Charmouthian, (3) Lower Lias of Sineinurian and Hettangian . ° J In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and western Europe this In New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, See also:

• CONNECTICUT

Connecticut, New •g l division represents the deposits of See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick, and Nova See also:

• SCOTIA (Gr. o'Karca, shadow or darkness)

Scotia inland seas or lagoons, and is divisible a series of red See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone into the following stages in descending (See also:

• NEWARK
• NEWARK (NEWARK-UPON-TRENT)
• NEWARK, DAVID LESLIE, LORD (1601-1682)

Newark series) contains land- order; See also:

• PLANTS

plants and labyrinthodonts order; (s) See also:

• RHAETIC (Fr. Rhetien or Rhcetien; Ger. Rhdt or Rhktisch; It. Retico)

Rhaetic, (2) See also:

• KEUPER

Keuper, (3) like the See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon type of central See also:

• MUSCHELKALK

Muschelkalk, (4) See also:

• BUNTER

Bunter . In the and western Europe .

On the eastern See also:

• ALPS

Alps and the Mediterranean Pacific slope, however, marine basin the contemporaneous sediment- equivalents occur, represent- ary formations are those of open clear See also:

• ING

ing the pelagic type of south- sea, in which a thickness of many eastern Europe . thousand feet of strata was accumu- la ted . v T huringian—Zechstein, Magnesian To this division of the geologi- a Limestone; named from its develop- cal record the Upper Barren ment in Thuringia; well represented See also:

• MEASURES

Measures of the coal-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of also in See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria and Bohemia . See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• EDWARD

Edward Saxonian—Rothliegendes Group; Red See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, Nova Scotia and Sandstones, &c . New Brunswick have been Autuni an—where the strata present the assigned . lagoon facies, well displayed at See also:

• AUTUN

Autun Farther south in See also:

• KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State ")

Kansas, See also:

• TEXAS

Texas, in France; where the marine type is and Nebraska the representa- predominant, as in See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, the group lives of the division have an has been termed Artinskian. abundant marine fauna . v Stephanian or Uralian—represented in Upper productive Coal- p Russia by marine formations, and in measures . U central and western Europe by numer- Lower Barren measures . ous small basins containing a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar Lower productive Coal- flora and in some places a great variety measures . of See also:

• INSECTS

insects . See also:

• POTTSVILLE

Pottsville See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate . . .

W e s t p h a l i a n or Moscovian—Coal- Mauch Chunk shales; lime- measures, Millstone Grit. stones of See also:

• CHESTER
• CHESTER, EARLS OF

Chester, St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis, &c . C See also:

• ULM

ulm or Dinantian—Carboniferous Lime- Pocono series; Kinder See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook stone and Calciferous Sandstone series. limestone . ro o Devonian type . OldRed Sand- See also:

• CATSKILL
• CATSKILL (formerly KAATSKIL.) MOUNTAINS

Catskill red sandstone; Old stone type . Red Sandstone type: the Yellow E 0 JFamennian. and red strata below show the Upper Frasnfan. sandstone with ' Devonian type . See also:

• HALO

Halo p tychlus, Chemung Group . Bolhriolepis,&c . ,Genesee See also:

• CAITHNESS

Caithness See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

Flag- stones with M b Givetan . Osteolepus See also:

• DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep ")

Dip- { See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton Group_ a Middle Eifelian. terns, Homo- See also:

• MARCELLUS

Marcellus a, {Gedientzian. stews, &c . ' Cormferous Lime- Upper Lower Gedinnian . Red and See also:

• PURPLE

purple stone . See also:

• HELDER

Helder= sandstones and See also:

• ONONDAGA

Onondaga Lime- See also:

• BERG (Ducatus Montensis)

berg conglomerates stone .

Group . ehtes See also:

• ORISKANY

Oriskany Sandstone . w i t h c p aspis, See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

Pier- aspis, &c . See also:

• LUDLOW
• LUDLOW, EDMUND (c. 1617-1692)

Ludlow Group . Lower Helderberg Group . Upper 'I See also:

• WENLOCK

Wenlock Water-Lime . See also:

• LLANDOVERY (Llan-ym-ddyffri)

Llandovery" See also:

• NIAGARA
• NIAGARA, FORT

Niagara Shale and Limestone . See also:

• CLINTON
• CLINTON, DE WITT (1769-1828)
• CLINTON, GEORGE (1739-1812)
• CLINTON, HENRY FYNES (1781-1852)
• CLINTON, SIR HENRY (c. 1738-1795)

Clinton Group . See also:

• MEDINA
• MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- )

Medina a (Caradoc or See also:

• BALA

Bala Group . See also:

• CINCINNATI

Cincinnati Group. See also:

• MICA

mica Lower Trenton (Ordovician) Sl Arenig Chazy Arenig Calciferous Aren U Upper or Olenus series—Tremadoc slates Upper or See also:

• POTSDAM

Potsdam series with andLingulaFlags . Olenus and Dicelocephalus Middle or Paradoxides series—Mene- fauna . vian Group .

Middle or See also:

• ACADIAN

Acadian series with Lower or Olenellus series—See also:

• LLANBERIS

Llanberis Paradoxides fauna . and See also:

• HARLECH (perhaps for Hardd lech, fair slate, or Harleigh, an Anglicized variant)

Harlech Group, and Olenellus- Lower or Georgian.series with See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone . Olenellus fauna o In See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, underneath the See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian In See also:

• CANADA

Canada and the Lake Olenellus group, lies unconformably See also:

• SUPERIOR

Superior region of the See also:

• UNITED

United a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of red sandstone and con- States a vast succession of glomerate (See also:

• TORRIDONIAN

Torridonian) 8000 or so,000 rocks of Pre-Cambrian age ft . thick, which rests with a strong has been grouped into the unconformability on a series of coarse following subdivisions in de- B gneisses and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists (Lewisian) . A scending order: (r) Keweena- o thick series of slates and phyllites lies wan, lying unconformably on E below the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest Palaeozoic rocks in . (2) Animikie, separated by a central . Europe, with coarse gneisses strong unconformability from below . (3) Upper Huronian, (t) Lower V Huronian with an unconform- able See also:

• BASE

base, (5) Goutchiching, (6) Laurentian . In the eastern part of Canada, Newfound- land, &c., and also in Mon- See also:

• TANA

tana, estat sedimentary formations See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low Cambr an s one have been found to contain some obscure organisms . disappearance of land . The fact that the sedimentary formations of each successive geological period consist to so large an extent of mechanically formed See also:

• TERRIGENOUS

terrigenous detritus, affords See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good evidence of the coexistence of tracts of land as well as of extensive denudation . From these See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general considerations we proceed to inquire how the existing topographical features of the land arose . Obviously the co-operation of the two great geological agencies of hypogene and epigene See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy, which have been at See also:

• WORK

work from the beginning of our globe's decipherable history, must have been the cause to which these features are to be assigned; and the task of the geologist is to ascertain, if possible, the part that has been taken by each .

There is a natural tendency to see in a stupendous piece of scenery, such as a deep See also:

• RAVINE

ravine, a range of hills, a See also:

• LINE

line of precipice or a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of mountains, evidence only of subterranean convulsion; and before the subject was taken up as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of strict scientific See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction, an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to former cataclysms was considered a sufficient See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the problems presented by such features of landscape . The rise of the See also:

• MODERN

modern Huttonian school, however, led to a more careful examination of these problems . The important See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share taken by erosion in the determination of the present features of landscape was then recognized, while a fuller appreciation of the relative parts played by the hypogene and epigene causes has gradually been reached . r . The study of the progress of denudation at the present time has led to the conclusion that even if the See also:

• RATE

rate of See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste were not more rapid than it is to-day, it would yet suffice in a comparatively brief geological period to reduce the dry land to below the sea-level . But not only would the area of the land be diminished by denudation, it could hardly fail to be more or less involved in those widespread movements of subsidence, during which the thick sedimentary formations of the crust appear to have been accumulated . It is thus See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest that there must have been from time to time during the history of our globe upward movements of the crust, whereby the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance between land and sea was redressed . Proofs of such movements have been abundantly preserved among the stratified formations . We there learn that the uplifts have usually followed each other at See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long intervals between which subsidence prevailed, and thus that there has been a prolonged oscillation of the crust over the great continental areas of the earth's surface . An examination of that surface leads to the recognition of two great types of upheaval . In the one, the sea-floor, with all its thick accumulations of sediment, has been carried upwards, sometimes for several thousand feet, so equably that the strata retain their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original flatness with hardly any sensible disturbance for hundreds of square See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles . In the other type the solid crust has been plicated, corrugated and dislocated, especially along particular lines, and has attained its most stupendous disruption in lofty chains of mountains .

Between these two phases of uplift many intermediate stages have been developed, according to the direction and intensity of the subterranean force and the varying nature and disposition of the rocks of the crust . (a) Where the uplift has extended over wide spaces, without appreciable deformation of the crust, the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat strata have given rise to low plains, or if the amount of uprise has been great enough, to high plains, plateaux or tablelands . The plains of Russia, for example, See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie for the most part on such tracts of equably uplifted strata . The great plains of the western interior of the United States See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a great See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau or tableland, 5000 or 6000 ft. above the sea, and many thousands of square miles in extent, on which the Rocky Mountains have been ridged up . (b) It is in a great See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-chain that the complicated structures developed during disturbances of the earth's crush can best be studied (see Parts IV. and V. of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article), and where the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of these structures on the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography of the surface is most effectively displayed . Such a chain may be the result of one See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal disturbance; but those of high geological antiquity usually furnish proofs of successive uplifts with more or less intervening denudation . Formed along lines of continental displacement in the crust, they have again and again givenrelief from the See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain of See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression by fresh crumpling, fracture and uprise . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide in tracing these successive stages of growth is supplied by unconformability . If, for example, a mountain-range consists of upraised See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian rocks, upon the upturned and denuded edges of which the Carboniferous Lime-stone lies transgressively, it is clear that its original upheaval must have taken place in the period of geological time represented by the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between the Silurian and the Carboniferous Limestone formations . If, as the range is followed along its course, the Carboniferous Limestone is found to be also highly inclined and covered unconformably by the Upper Coal-measures, a second uplift of that, portion of the ground can be proved to have taken place between the time of the Limestone-and that of the Upper Coal-measures . By this See also:

• SIMPLE

simple and obvious See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of evidence the relative ages of different mountain-chains may be compared . In most great chains, however, the rocks have been so intensely crumpled, and even inverted, that much labour may be required before their true relations can be deter-See also:

• MINED

mined .

The Alps furnish an instructive example of the long series of revolutions through which a great mountain-system may have passed before reaching its present development . The first beginnings of the chain may have been upraised before the oldest Palaeozoic formations were laid down . There are at least traces of land and See also:

• SHORE

shore-lines in the Carboniferous period . Subsequent submergences and uplifts appear to have occurred during the Mesozoic periods . There is evidence that thereafter the whole region sank deep under the sea, in which the older See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary sediments were accumulated, and which seems to have spread right across the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the Old World . But after the deposition of the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene formations came the gigantic disruptions whereby all the rocks of the Alpine region were folded over each other, crushed, corrugated, fractured and displaced, some of their older, portions, including the fundamental gneisses and schists, being squeezed up, torn off, and pushed horizontally for many miles over the younger rocks . But this upheaval, though the most momentous, was not the last which the chain has undergone, for at a later See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in Tertiary time renewed disturbance gave rise to a further series of ruptures and plications . The chain thus successively upheaved has been continuously exposed to denudation and has consequently lost much of its original height . That it has been See also:

• LEFT

left in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of instability is indicated- by the frequent earthquakes of the Alpine region, which doubtless arise from the sudden snapping of rocks under intense strain . A distinct type of mountain due to See also:

• DIRECT

direct hypogene See also:

• ACTION

action is to be seen in a See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano . It has been already pointed out (Part IV. See also:

• SECT

sect . I) that at the vents which maintain a communication between the molten magma of the earth's interior and the surface, eruptions take place whereby quantities of See also:

• LAVA

lava and fragmentary materials are heaped See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round each orifice of See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge .

A typical volcanic mountain takes the form of a perfect See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone, but as it grows in See also:

• SIZE

size and its main. vent is choked, while the sides of the cone are unable to withstand the force of the explosions or the pressure of the ascending See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column of lava, eruptions take place laterally, and numerous parasitic cones arise on the flanks of the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent mountain . Where lava flows out from long fissures, it may See also:

• PILE

pile up vast sheets of rock, and See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

bury the surrounding See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country under several thousand feet of solid stone, covering many hundreds of square miles . In this way volcanic tablelands have been formed which, attacked by the denuding forces, are gradually trenched by valleys and ravines, until the original level surface of the lava-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field may be almost or wholly lost . As striking examples of this physiographical type reference may be made to the plateau of See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia, the See also:

• GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally " the Landing Stairs " from the sea, or " Passes ")

Ghats of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, the plateaux of Antrim, the Inner Hebrides and See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland, and the great lava-plains of the western territories of the United States . 2 . But while the subterranean movements have upraised portions of the surface of the See also:

• LITHOSPHERE (Gr. XLOoc , a stone, and Q4aepa, a sphere)

lithosphere above the level of the ocean, and have thus been instrumental in producing the existing tracts of land, the detailed topographical features of a landscape are not solely, nor in general even chiefly, attributable to these movements . From the time that any portion of the sea-floor appears above sea-level, it undergoes erosion by the various epigene agents . Each See also:

• CLIMATE

climate and geological region has its own development of these agents, which include See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, aridity, rapid and frequent alternations of wetness and dryness or of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat and See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain, springs, frosts, See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, glaciers, the sea, plant and See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal See also:

• LIFE

life . In a dry climate subject to great extremes of temperature the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and rate of decay will differ from those of a moist or an arctic climate . But it must be remembered that, however much they may vary in activity and in the results which they effect, the epigene forces work without intermission, while the hypogene forces bring about the upheaval of land only after long intervals . Hence, trifling as the results during a human life may appear, if we realize the multiplying influence of time we are led to perceive that the apparently feeble superficial agents can, in the course of ages, achieve stupendous transformations in the aspect of the land . If this efficacy may be deduced from what can be seen to be in progress now, it may not less convincingly be shown, from the nature of the sedimentary rocks of the earth's crust, to have been in progress from the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early beginnings of geological history .

Side by side with the various upheavals and subsidences, there has been a continuous removal of materials from the land, and an equally persistent See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of these materials under water, with the consequent growth of new rocks . Denudation has been aptly compared to a See also:

• PROCESS

process of sculpturing wherein, while each of the implements employed by nature, like a See also:

• SPECIAL

special kind of graving See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool, produces its own characteristic impress on the land, they all combine harmoniously towards the achievement of their one See also:

• COMMON

common task . Hence the present contours of the land depend partly on the original configuration of the ground, and the influence it may have had in guiding the operations of the erosive agents, partly on the vigour with which these agents perform their work, and partly on the varying structure and See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of resistance possessed by the rocks on which the erosion is carried on . Where a new See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of land has been raised out of the sea by such an energetic See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement as See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up the crust and produced the complicated structure and tumultuous See also:

• EXTERNAL

external forms of a great mountain chain, the influence of the hypogene forces on the topography attains its highest development . But even the youngest existing chain has suffered so greatly from denudation that the aspect which it presented at the time of its uplift can only be dimly perceived . No more striking See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of this feature can be found than that supplied by the Alps, nor one where the geotectonic structures have been so fully studied in detail . On the See also:

• OUTER

outer flanks of these mountains the See also:

• LONGITUDINAL