PEARL  . Pearls are calcareous concretions of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar lustre, produced by certain molluscs, and valued as See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament . The experience of pearl-fishers shows that those shells which are irregular in shape and stunted in growth, or which See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear excrescences, or are honeycombed by See also:

• BORING

boring parasites, are those most likely to yield pearls . The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which lines the interior of many shells and is known as " See also:

• MOTHER

mother-of-pearl." See also:

• SIR

Sir D . See also:

• BREWSTER, SIR DAVID (1781–1868)
• BREWSTER, WILLIAM (c. 1566–1644)

Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this substance was an See also:

• OPTICAL

optical phenomenon due to the interference of rays of See also:

• LIGHT

light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the See also:

• SURFACE

surface —an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on a suit-able See also:

• MEDIUM

medium . When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell is digested in See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid the calcareous layers are dissolved away, leaving a very delicate membranous pellicle, which, as shown by Dr See also:

• CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840)
• CARPENTER, MIRY (1807-1877)
• CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885)

Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as it is undisturbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched . It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form it must have remained loose in the substance of the muscles or other soft tissues of the mollusc . Frequently, however, the pearl becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment thus interfering with its symmetry . In this position it may receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimately form a pearl of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it may be See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat on one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and See also:

• CONVEX

convex on the other, forming what jewelers know as a " perle bouton." In the course of growth the pearl may become involved in the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of mother-of-pearl, and be ultimately buried in the substance of the shell . It has thus happened that See also:

• FINE

fine pearls have occasionally been unexpectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in the workshop . When a pearl See also:

• OYSTER

oyster is attacked by a boring See also:

• PARASITE (From Gr. irapa, beside, Tiros food)

parasite the mollusc protects itself by depositing nacreous See also:

• MATTER

matter at the point of invasion, thus forming a hollow See also:

• BODY

body of irregular shape known as a " See also:

• BLISTER (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Blase; it is ultimately connected with the same root as in " blow," cf. " bladder ")

blister pearl." Hollow warty pearl is sometimes termed in See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade " coq de perle." Solid pearls of irregular form are often produced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are termed " peries baroques," or " barrok pearls." It appears that the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans in the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the Decline restricted the name unio to the globular pearl, and termed the See also:

• BAROQUE

baroque margaritum . It was fashionable in the 16th and 17th centuries to See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

mount curiously shaped baroques in See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel so as to form ornamental objects of See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character .

A valuable collection of such mounted pearls by Dinglinger is preserved in the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green vaults at See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden . A pearl of the first See also:

• WATER

water should possess, in jewelers' See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, a perfect " skin " and a fine " orient "; that is to say, it must be of delicate texture, See also:

• FREE

free from speck or flaw, and of clear almost translucent See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen . It should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a symmetrical See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear-shape . On removing the See also:

• OUTER

outer layer of a pearl the subjacent surface is generally dull, like a dead See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish-See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, but it occasionally happens that a poor pearl encloses a " lively See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel," and may therefore be improved by careful peeling . The most perfect pearl in existence is said to be one, known as " La Pellegrina," in the museum of Zosima in See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow; it is a perfectly globular See also:

• INDIAN

Indian pearl of singular beauty, weighing 28 carats . The largest known pearl is one of irregular shape in the See also:

• BERESFORD, JOHN (1738-1805)
• BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER (1846- )
• BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD, VISCOUNT (1768–1854)

Beresford See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

Hope collection at the See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria and See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert Museum . This magnificent pearl weighs 3 OZ., has a circumference of 41 in., and is surmounted by an enamelled and jewelled gold See also:

• CROWN

crown, forming a See also:

• PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang)

pendant of See also:

• GREAT

great value . Pearl See also:

• FISHERIES

Fisheries.—The ancients obtained their pearls chiefly from See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Gulf, but at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time they are also procured from the Sulu seas, the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, the shores of Central See also:

• AMERICA

America and some of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Pacific Islands . The See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient fisheries of See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf of See also:

• MANAAR, GULF OF

Manaar, the fishing-See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks lying from 6 to 8 m. off the western See also:

• SHORE

shore, a little to the south of the isle of Manaar . The See also:

• TINNEVELLY

Tinnevelly See also:

• FISHERY (LAW OF)

fishery is on the See also:

• MADRAS

Madras side of the strait, near See also:

• TUTICORIN

Tuticorin . These Indian fishing-grounds are under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government inspectors, who regulate the fisheries . The oysters yield the best pearls at about four years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age .

Fishing generally commences in the second See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March, and lasts for from four to six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks, according to the See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season . The boats are grouped in fleetsof from sixty to seventy, and start usually at midnight so as to reach the oyster-banks at sunrise . Each See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat generally carries ten See also:

• DIVERS

divers . On reaching the See also:

• BANK

bank a See also:

• SIGNAL

signal-See also:

• GUN

gun is fired, and diving commences . A See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone weighing about 40 lb is attached to the See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord by which the See also:

• DIVER

diver is let down . The divers See also:

• WORK

work in pairs, one See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man diving while the other watches the signal-cord, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of oysters, arld finally raising the diver himself . On an See also:

• AVERAGE

average the divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though exceptional instances are cited of men remaining below for as long as six minutes . After resting for a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute or two at the surface, the diver descends again; and so on, until exhausted, when he comes on See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board and watches the rope, while his comrade relieves him as diver . The native descends naked, carrying only a See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle for the support of the See also:

• BASKET

basket in which he places the pearl oysters . In his submarine work the diver makes skilful use of his toes . To See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm himself against the attacks of the sharks and other fishes which infest the Indian See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters he carries spikes of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-wood; and the genuine Indian diver never descends without the incantations of See also:

• SHARK

shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the boat while others remain on shore . As a See also:

• RULE

rule the diver is a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived man .

The diving continues from sunrise to about See also:

• NOON

noon, when a gun is fired . On the arrival of the See also:

• FLEET

fleet at shore the divers carry their oysters to a See also:

• SHED

shed, where they are made up into four heaps. one of which is taken by the diver . The oysters are then sold by See also:

• AUCTION

auction in lots of r000 each . The pearls, after removal from the dead oysters, are " classed " by passing through a number of small See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass colanders, known as " baskets," the holes in the successive vessels being smaller and smaller . Having been sized in this way, they are sorted as to colour, weighed and valued . Since the days of the Macedonians pearl-fishing has been carried on in the Persian Gulf . It is said that the oyster-beds extend along the entire Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief centre of the trade is the See also:

• PORT

port of Lingah . Most of the products of this fishery are known as " Bombay pearls," from the fact that many of the best are sold there . The shells usually present a dark colour about the edges, like that of " smoked pearl." The yellow-tinted pearls are sent chiefly to Bombay, while the whitest go to See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad . Very small pearls, much below a'See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea in See also:

• SIZE

size, are generally known as " See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed-pearls," and these are valued in India and See also:

• CHINA

China as constituents of certain electuaries, while occasionally they are calcined for chunam, or See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, used with betel as a masticatory . There is a small pearl-fishery near See also:

• KARACHI, or KURRACHEE

Karachi on the coast of Bombay .

From the time of the See also:

• PTOLEMIES

Ptolemies pearl-fishing has been prosecuted along the coast of the Red See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, especially in the neighbourhood of Jiddah and Koseir . This fishery is now insignificant, but the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs still obtain from this See also:

• DISTRICT

district a quantity of mother-of-pearl shells, which are shipped from See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria, and come into the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market as " Egyptians." Very fine pearls are obtained from the Sulu See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago, on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of See also:

• BORNEO

Borneo . The mother-of-pearl shells from the Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and back, which unfits them for many ornamental purposes . Pearl oysters are also abundant in the seas around the Aru Islands to the south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of New See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea . From See also:

• LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word labuh-an, signifying an " anchorage ")

Labuan a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good many pearl shells are occasionally sent to See also:

• SINGAPORE (Malay, Singapiira, i.e. " The City of the Lion")

Singapore . They are also obtained from the neighbourhood of See also:

• TIMOR
• TIMOR (Timur i Leng, the lame Timur)

Timor, and from New See also:

• CALEDONIA

Caledonia . The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific, mostly in the clear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though fine shells are also found in deep water outside the See also:

• CORAL

coral reefs . The Polynesian divers do not employ sink-stones, and the See also:

• WOMEN

women are said to be more skilful than the men . They anoint their bodies with oil before diving . Fine pearl-shells are obtained from Navigators' Islands, the Society Islands, the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low Archipelago or Paumota Isles and the See also:

• GAMBIER
• GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833)

Gambier Islands . Many of the Gambier pearls present a bronzy tint . Pearl-fishing is actively prosecuted along the western coast of Central America, especially in the Gulf of See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, and to a less extent around the Pearl Islands in the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• PANAMA

Panama .

The fishing-grounds are in water about 4o ft. deep, and the season of Teh-tsing, where it forms the See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of several villages, lasts for four months . An See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary fishing-party expects to obtain about three tons of shells per See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, and it is estimated that one shell in a thousand contains a pearl . The pearls are shipped in barrels from See also:

• SAN

San Francisco and Panama . Some pearls of rare beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulege, near Los Coyetes, in the gulf of California; and in 1882 a pearl of 75 carats, the largest on See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record from this district, was found near La Paz in California . The coast of See also:

• GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL

Guayaquil also yields pearls . See also:

• COLUMBUS
• COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -15o6)

Columbus found that pearl-fishing was carried on in his time in the Gulf of See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico, and pearls are still obtained from the Carib-See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean Sea . In the West Indies the best pearls are obtained from St See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas and from the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• MARGARITA

Margarita, off the coast of See also:

• VENEZUELA

Venezuela . From Margarita See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip II. of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain is said to have obtained in 1579 a famous pearl of 250 carats . Of See also:

• LATE

late years good pearls have been found in Shark's Bay, on the coast of West Australia, especially in an inlet termed Useless See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

Harbour . Mother-of-pearl shells are also fished at many other points along the western coast, between the 15th and 25th See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels of south See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude . An important pearl-fishery is also established in Torres Strait and on the coast of See also:

• QUEENSLAND

Queensland . The shells occur in water from four to six fathoms deep, and the divers are generally See also:

• MALAYS

Malays and See also:

• PAPUANS (Malay pap4wah or puwah-puwah, " frizzled," " woolly-haired," in reference to their characteristic hair-dressing)

Papuans, though sometimes native Australians .

On the western coast of Australia the pearl-shells are obtained by dredging rather than by diving . Pearl-shells have also been found at Port See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin and in Oakley See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek, New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand . See also:

• RIVER

River pearls are produced by the See also:

• SPECIES

species of Unio and Anodonta, especially by Unio rnargaritiferus . These species belong to the See also:

• FAMILY

family Unionidae, See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order Eulamellebranchia . They inhabit the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-streams of temperate climates in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern hemisphere—especially in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales, See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, Bohemia, See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

Lapland and See also:

• CANADA

Canada . The pearls of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain are mentioned by See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus and by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny; and a breastplate studded with See also:

• BRITISH

British pearls was dedicated by See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar to See also:

• VENUS

Venus Genetrix . As See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1355 Scotch pearls are referred to in a See also:

• STATUTE

statute of the goldsmiths of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris; and in the reign of See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles II. the Scotch pearl trade was sufficiently important to attract the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament . The Scotch pearl-fishery, after having declined for years, was revived in 186o by a See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German named See also:

• MORITZ, KARL PHILIPP (1757-1793)

Moritz Unger, who visited Scotland and bought up all the pearls he could find in the hands of the peasantry, thus leading to an eager See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search for more pearls the following season . It is estimated that in 1865 the produce of the season's fishing in the Scotch See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers was See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth at least £12,000 . This yield, however, was not maintained, and at the present time only a few pearls are obtained at irregular intervals by an occasional fisherman . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal rivers in Scotland which have yielded pearls are the See also:

• SPEY

Spey, the See also:

• TAY
• TAY, LOCH

Tay and the South Esk; and to a less extent the Doon, the See also:

• DEE
• DEE (Welsh, Dyfrdwy;, Lat.., and in Milton, Deva)

Dee, the See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don, the Ythan, the Teith, the Forth and many other streams . In North Wales the See also:

• CONWAY (Conwy, or Aberconwy)
• CONWAY, HENRY SEYMOUR (1721-1795)
• CONWAY, HUGH
• CONWAY, MONCURE DANIEL (1832–1907)
• CONWAY, SIR WILLIAM MARTIN (1856– )

Conway was at one time celebrated for its pearls; and it is related that Sir See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• WYNN, SIR JOHN (1553-1627)

Wynn, See also:

• CHAMBERLAIN (0. Fr. chamberlain, chamberlenc, Mod. Fr. chambellan, from O. H. Ger. Chamarling, Chamarlinc, whence also the Med. Lat. cambellanus, camerlingus, camerlengus; Ital. camerlingo; Span. camerlengo, compounded of 0. H. Ger. Chamara, Kamara [Lat.
• CHAMBERLAIN, JOSEPH (1836— )
• CHAMBERLAIN, JOSHUA LAWRENCE (1828– )
• CHAMBERLAIN, SIR NEVILLE BOWLES (1820-1902)

chamberlain to the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen of Charles II., presented her with a Conway pearl which is believed to occupy a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the British crown .

In Ireland the rivers of See also:

• DONEGAL

Donegal, See also:

• TYRONE
• TYRONE, EARLS OF

Tyrone and See also:

• WEXFORD

Wexford have yielded pearls . It is said that Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622)
• HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789)

Hawkins the circumnavigator had a patent for pearl-fishing in the Irt in See also:

• CUMBERLAND
• CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718)
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811)
• CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Cumberland . Although the pearl-fisheries of Britain are now neglected, it is otherwise with those of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . The most important of these arc in the See also:

• FOREST

forest-streams of Bavaria, between Ratisbon and See also:

• PASSAU

Passau . The Saxon fisheries are chiefly confined to the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the White See also:

• ELSTER

Elster, and those of Bohemia to the Horazdiowitz district of Wotawa . For more than two centuries the Saxon fisheries have been carefully regulated by inspectors, who examine the streams every See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, and determine where fishing is to be permitted . After a See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract has been fished over, it is See also:

• LEFT

left to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest for ten or fifteen years . The See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

fisher-folk open the valves of the mussels with an iron See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument, and if they find no pearl restore the See also:

• MUSSEL (0. Eng. muscle, Lat. musculus, diminutive of mus, mouse, applied to small sea fish and mussels)

mussel to the water . River pearls are found in many parts of the See also:

• UNITED

United States, and have been systematically worked in the Little See also:

• MIAMI

Miami river, See also:

• WARREN
• WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (183o-1882)
• WARREN, JOSEPH (1741—1775)
• WARREN, MERCY (1728—1814)
• WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907)
• WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877)
• WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART
• WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888)

Warren See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county, See also:

• OHIO

Ohio, and also on the See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi, especially about See also:

• MUSCATINE

Muscatine, See also:

• IOWA

Iowa . The season extends from See also:

• JUNE

June to See also:

• OCTOBER

October . See also:

• JAPAN

Japan produces fresh-water pearls, found especially in the Anodonta ,japonica . But it is in China that the culture of the pearl-mussel rs carried to the greatest perfection .

The See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese also obtain marine pearls, and use a large quantity of mother-of-pearl for decorative purposes . More than twenty-two centuries before our era pearls are enumerated as a See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute or tax in China; and they are mentioned as products of the western See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire in the Rh'ya, a See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary compiled earlier than moo B.C . A See also:

• PROCESS

process for promoting the artificial formation of pearls in the Chinese river-mussels was discovered by Ye-jin-yang, a native of Hoochow, in the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; and this process is still extensively carried on near the cityand is said to give employment to about 5000 See also:

• PEOPLE

people . Large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of the mussels are collected in May and June, and the valves of each are gently opened with a spatula to allow of the introduction of various See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign bodies, which are inserted by means of a forked See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo stick . These " matrices " are generally pellets of prepared mud, but may be small bosses of See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone, brass or wood . After a number of these objects have been placed in convenient positions on one See also:

• VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve, the unfortunate mollusc is turned over and the operation is repeated on the other valve . The mussels are then placed in shallow ponds connected with the canals, and are nourished by tubs of See also:

• NIGHT

night-See also:

• SOIL

soil being thrown in from time to time . After several months, in some cases two or three years, the mussels are removed, and the pearls which have formed over the matrices are cut from the shells, while the molluscs themselves serve as See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food . The See also:

• MATRIX

matrix is generally extracted from the pearl and the cavity filled with white See also:

• WAX

wax, the See also:

• APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open)

aperture being neatly sealed up so as to render the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the pearl as perfect as possible . Millions of such pearls are annually sold at Soo-chow . The most curious of these Chinese pearls are those which present the form of small seated images of See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha . The figures are See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast in very thin See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, or stamped in See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, and are inserted as previously described .

Specimens of these Buddha pearls in the British Museum are referred to the species Dipsas plicata . It should be mentioned that See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus, probably ignorant of what had long been practised in China, demonstrated the possibility of producing artificial pearls in the fresh-water mussels of See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden . See also:

• PINK

Pink pearls are occasionally found in the great See also:

• CONCH (Lat, concha, Gr. rdyxn)

conch or See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain shell of the West Indies, Strombus gigas, L.; but these, though much prized, are not nacreous, and their tint is See also:

• APT

apt to fade . They are also produced by the chank shell, Turbinella scolymus, L.' Yellowish-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown pearls, of little or no value, are yielded by the Pinna squamosa, and See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad-coloured concretions are formed by the Placuna See also:

• PLACENTA (Lat. for a cake)

placenta.' See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black pearls, which are very highly valued, are obtained chiefly from the pearl oyster of the Gulf of Mexico . The See also:

• COMMON

common marine mussel Mytilus edulis also produces pearls, which are, however, of little value . According to the latest researches the cause of pearl-formation is in most cases, perhaps in all, the dead body of a minute parasite within the tissues of a mollusc, around which nacreous deposit is secreted . The parasite is a See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the See also:

• LIFE

life See also:

• HISTORY

history of a Trematode in some cases, in others of a Cestode; that is to say of a form resembling the common See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver-See also:

• FLUKE (probably connected with the Ger. flack, flat)

fluke of the See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, or of a tape-See also:

• WORM

worm . As long ago as 1852 Filippi of See also:

• TURIN

Turin showed that the species of Trematode Distomum duplicatum was the cause of a pearl formation in the fresh-water mussel Anodonta . Kuchenmeister subsequently investigated the question at Elster in Saxony and came to a different conclusion, namely that the central body of the pearl was a small specimen of a species of water See also:

• MITE

mite which is a very common parasite of Anodonta . Filippi however states that the mite is only rarely found within a pearl, the Trematode occurring in the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of cases . R . See also:

• DUBOIS
• DUBOIS, FRANCOIS CLEMENT THEODORE (1837– )
• DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656–1723)
• DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848)
• DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905)
• DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-c. 1312)

Dubois and Dr H .

Lyster See also:

• JAMESON (or JAMESONE), GEORGE (c. 1587–1644)
• JAMESON, ANNA BROWNELL (1794-1860)
• JAMESON, LEANDER STARR (1853– )
• JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854)

Jameson have made See also:

• SPECIAL

special investigations of the process in the common mussel Mytilus edulis . The latter states that the pearl is produced in a See also:

• SAC

sac which is situated beneath the epidermis of the See also:

• MANTLE

mantle and is lined by an epithelium . This epithelium is not derived from the cells of the epidermis but from the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal connective-See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue cells . This statement, if correct, is contrary to what would be expected, for calcareous matter is usually secreted by the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external epidermis only . The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a species of Trematode belonging to the genus Leucitkodendrium, a species closely resembling and probably identical with L. somateriae, which lives in the adult See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state in the See also:

• EIDER
• EIDER (Icelandic, idur)

eider See also:

• DUCK

duck . At Billiers, See also:

• MORBIHAN

Morbihan, in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, the See also:

• HOST

host of the adult Trematode is another species of duck, namely the common See also:

• SCOTER

Scoter, Oedemia See also:

• NIGRA, COSTANTINO, COUNT (1828-1907)

nigra, which is notorious in the locality for its avidity for mussels . See also:

• TREMATODES

Trematodes of the family Distomidae, to which the parasite under See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration belongs, usually have three hosts in each of which they pass different stages of the life history . In this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the first host at Billiers is a species of bivalve called Tapes decussates, but at Piel in See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire there are no Tapes and the first stages of the parasite are found in the common See also:

• COCKLE
• COCKLE, SIR JAMES (1819-1395)

cockle . The Trematode enters the first host as a minute newly hatched embryo and Strombus gigas, L., is a Gastropod belonging to the family Strombidae, of the order Pectinibranchia . Turbinella scolymus, Lam., is a Gastropod of the same order . ' Placuna placenta, L., belongs to the family Anomiidae; it is found on the shores of North Australia . Pinna squamosa, See also:

• GMELIN

Gmelin, belongs to the Ostreacea; it occurs in the Mediterranean .

Both are Lamellibranchs . leaves it in the form called Cercaria, which is really an immature See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the adult . The Cercaria makes its way into the tissues of a mussel and there becomes enclosed in the cyst previously described . If the mussel is then swallowed by the duck the Cercariae develop into adult Trematodes or flukes in the liver or intestines of the See also:

• BIRD

bird . In the mussels which See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape being devoured the parasites cannot develop further, and they See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die and become embedded in the nacreous deposit which forms a pearl . Dr Jameson points out that, as in other cases, pearls in Mytilus are common in certain special localities and rare elsewhere, and that the said localities are those where the parasite and its hosts are plentiful . The first See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion that the most valuable pearls obtained from pearl oysters in tropical oceans might be due to parasites was made by Kelaart in reports to the government of Ceylon in 1857-1859 . Recently a special investigation of the Ceylon pearl fishery has been organized by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Herdman . Herdman and See also:

• HORNELL

Hornell find that in the pearl oyster of Ceylon Margaritifera vulgaris, Schum, the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the pearl is, in all specimens examined, the larva of a Cestode or tapeworm . This larva is of globular form and is of the type known as a cysticercus . As in the case of the mussel the larva See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies in its cyst and its remains are enshrined in nacreous deposit, so that, as a