See also:

• PEONAGE (Span. peon; M. Lat. pedo (pes)

PEONAGE (Span. peon; M. See also:

• LAT

Lat. pedo (pes)  , primarily a See also:

• FOOT

foot-soldier, then a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day-labourer), a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of agricultural See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude See also:

• COMMON

common in See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish See also:

• AMERICA

America, particularly in See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico . In the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early days the Spanish See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of protecting the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians, exempted them from compulsory military service, the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of See also:

• TITHES

tithes and other taxes, and regulated the system of labour; but See also:

• LEFT

left them practically at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of the Spanish See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors . The peons, as the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian labourers were called, were of two kinds: (1) the agricultural workman who was See also:

• FREE

free to See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract himself, and (2) the criminal labourers who, often for slight offences, or more usually for See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, were condemned to See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery . Though legally See also:

• PEONAGE (Span. peon; M. Lat. pedo (pes)

peonage is abolished, the unfortunate peon is often lured into debt by his employer and then kept a slave, the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law permitting his forcible detention till. he has paid his debt to his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master . several smaller streams, while the Moksha and Sura are important means of See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is harsh, the See also:

• AVERAGE

average temperature at the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city .af See also:

• PENZA

Penza being only 38° . The See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population consists principally of Russians, together with See also:

• MORDVINIANS

Mordvinians, See also:

• MESHCHERYAKS, or MESHCHERS

Meshcheryaks and See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars . The Russians profess the Orthodox See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek faith, and very many, especially in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, are Raskolniks or Nonconformists, The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief occupation is See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal crops are See also:

• RYE

rye, oats, See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp, potatoes and beetroot . See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

Grain and See also:

• FLOUR

flour are considerable exports . The See also:

• LOCAL

local authorities have established depots for the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of See also:

• MODERN

modern agricultural machinery . There are several agricultural and horticultural See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, and two See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model See also:

• DAIRY

dairy-farms .

See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

Cattle breeding and especially See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-breeding are comparatively flourishing . See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

Market-gardening is successfully carried on, and improved varieties of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees have been introduced through the imperial botanical See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden at Penza and a private school of gardening in the Gorodishche See also:

• DISTRICT

district . See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep-breeding is especially See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in Chembar and Insar . The Mordvinians devote much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-keeping . The forests (22 % of the See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area) are a considerable source of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, especially in Krasnoslobodsk and Gorodishche . The manufactures are few . .Distilleries come first, followed by See also:

• BEET

beet See also:

• SUGAR

sugar and oil See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, with woollen See also:

• CLOTH

cloth and See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper mills, tanneries, See also:

• SOAP

soap, See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, machinery and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-See also:

• WORKS

works . See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade is limited to the export of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits, See also:

• TIMBER

timber, hempseed-oil, See also:

• TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful)

tallow, hides, See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey, See also:

• WAX

wax, woollen cloth, potash and cattle, the chief centres for trade being Penza, Nizhni-Lomov, See also:

• MOKSHANY

Mokshany, Saransk and Krasnoslobodsk . The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns of which are Penza,Gorodishche, Insar, Kerensk, Krasnoslobodsk, Mokshany, Narovchat, Nizhni-Lomov, Saransk and Chembar . The See also:

• PRESENT

present government of Penza was formerly inhabited by Mordvinians, who had the Mescheryaks on the W. and the Bulgars on the N . In the 13th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century these populations See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell under the dominion of the Tatars, with whom they fought against See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow . The Russians founded the See also:

• TOWN

town of Mokshany in 1535 .

Penza was founded in the beginning of the 17th century, the permanent See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement dating as far back as 1666 . In 1776 it was taken by the See also:

• REBEL, JOHANN PETER (176o-1826)

rebel Pugashev . The town was almost totally destroyed by conflagrations in 1836, 1839 and 1858 .