See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

PERIOD I  .: THE PRINCIPATE, 27 B.C.-A.D . 284—(a) The Constitution of the Principate.—The conqueror of See also:

• ANTONIUS

Antonius at See also:

• ACTIUM (mod. Punta)

Actium, the See also:

• GREAT

great-See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew and See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir of the See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar, was now summoned, by the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general consent of a See also:

• WORLD

world wearied out with twenty years of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war and anarchy,' to the task of establishing a See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government which should as far as possible respect the forms and traditions of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic, without sacrificing that centralization of authority which experience had shown to be necessary for the integrity and stability of the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . It was a task for which Octavian was admirably fitted . To great administrative capacity and a quiet tenacity of purpose he See also:

• UNITED

united deliberate caution and unfailing tact; while his See also:

• BOURGEOIS
• BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE (1851– )

bourgeois See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth' and genuinely See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian sympathies enabled him to win the confidence of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman community to an extent impossible for Caesar, with his dazzling pre-See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence of patrician descent, his daring disregard of forms and his See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan tastes . The new See also:

• SYSTEM

system which was formally inaugurated by Octavian in 28-27 B.C.4 assumed the shape of a restoration of the republic The under the leadership of a princeps.' Octavian volun-`4ugustan tarily resigned the extraordinary See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which he had system, held since 43, and, to quote his own words, " handed 28-27= over the republic to the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate and 726-27. See also:

• PEOPLE

people of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome."" The old constitutional machinery was once more set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion; the senate, See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly and magistrates resumed their functions;7 and Octavian himself was hailed as the " restorer of the See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth and the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of freedom."8 It was not so easy to determine what relation he himself, the actual See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of the Roman world, should occupy towards this revived republic . His See also:

• ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one)

abdication, in any real sense of the word, would have simply thrown everything back into confusion . The interests of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace and See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order required that he should retain at least the substantial See also:

• PART

part of his authority;' and this See also:

• OBJECT

object was in fact accomplished, and the See also:

• RULE

rule of the emperors founded, in a manner which has no parallel in See also:

• HISTORY

history . Any revival of the kingly See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title was out of the question, and Octavian himself expressly refused the dictatorship." Nor was any new See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office created or any new See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official title invented for his benefit . But by senate and people he was invested according to the old constitutional forms with certain powers, as many citizens had been before him, and so took his See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the lawfully appointed magistrates of the republic; —only, to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark his pre-eminent dignity, as the first of them all, the senate decreed that he should take as an additional cognomen that of "See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus,"" while in See also:

• COMMON

common parlance he was hence-forth styled princeps, a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple title of See also:

• COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie)

courtesy, See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to re-publican usage, and conveying no other See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea than that of a 1 He celebrated his See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph on the 13th, 14th and 15th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August; Dio li . 21; See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy, Epit. exxxiii . For the closing of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• JANUS

Janus, see Livy i . 19; Vell. ii .

38; See also:

• SUET (M. Eng. sewet, a diminutive of O. Fr. seu, suis, mod. suif, lard, from Lat. sebum, or sebum, tallow, grease, probably allied to sago, soap)

Suet . Aug . 22 . 2 Tac . See also:

• ANN

Ann. i . 2, " cunctos dulcedine otii pellexit." 3 Suet . Aug. i . His grandfather was a See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen of Velitrae; " municipalibus magisteriis contentus." See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii . 745 ff.; Mon . Ancyranum (ed . Mommsen, See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1883), vi . 13–23, pp .

144–53; See also:

• HERZOG, HANS (1819–1894)
• HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882)

Herzog, Gesch. u . System d. rom . Verfassung, ii. p . 126 sqq . ' Tac . Ann. iii . 28, " sexto demum consulatu ... quae Illviratu jusserat abolevit, deditque See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

jura quis See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace et principe uteremur " Ibid. i . 9, " non regno neque dictatura sed principis nomine constitutam rempublicam." 6 Mon . Anc. vi . 13 . 7 See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

Veil. ii . 89, " prisca et antiqua reipublicae forma revocata." 6 See also:

• OVID [PUBLIUS OvID1us NASO] (43 B.C.–A.D. 17)

Ovid, See also:

• FASTI

Fasti, i .

589 . On a See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor Augustus is styled " libertatis P . R. vindex." The 13th of See also:

• JANUARY

January, 27 B.C., was marked in the See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar as the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day on which the republic was restored (C.I.L. i. p . 384) . 9 Dio See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius describes Augustus as seriously contemplating abdication (lii . 1 ; H . 1–1 1) ; cf . Suet . Aug . 28 . 10 Suet . Aug .

52; Mon . Anc. i . 31 . " Mon . Anc. vi . 16, 21–23.recognized primacy and See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence over his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-citizens." The ideal sketched by See also:

• CICERO

Cicero in his De Republica, of a constitutional See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of a See also:

• FREE

free republic, was apparently realized; but it was only in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . For in fact the See also:

• SPECIAL

special prerogatives conferred upon Octavian gave him back in substance the autocratic authority he had resigned, and as between the restored republic and its new princeps the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was overwhelmingly on the side of the latter . Octavian had held the imperium since 43; in 33, it 711, 721 . is true, the powers of the triumvirate had legally The See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle- expired, but he had continued to wield his authority, See also:

• MEAT

meat of as he himself puts it,13 " by universal consent." In 27 27=727 . he received a formal See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant of the imperium from the 727 . senate and people for the See also:

• TERM

term of ten years, and his provincia was defined as including all the provinces in which military authority was required and legions were stationed." He was declared See also:

• COMMANDER

commander-in-See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of the Roman See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, and granted the exclusive right of levying troops, of making war and peace, and of concluding See also:

• TREATIES

treaties." As See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul, moreover, he not only continued to be the chief See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, but took precedence, in virtue of his majus imperium, over the See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of the " unarmed provinces," which were still nominally under the control of the senate . Thus the so-called " restoration of the republic " was in essence the recognition by See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal supremacy of Octavian, or Augustus, as he must henceforth be called .

In 23 an important, See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was made in the formal basis of Augustus's authority . In that See also:

• YEAR

year he laid down the consul-See also:

• SHIP

ship which he had held each year since 31, and could The therefore only exert his imperium See also:

• PRO

pro consule, like re-settlethe See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of a See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province . He lost his meat of authority as chief magistrate in Rome and his 23°731. precedence over the governors of senatorial pro- 723. winces . To remedy these defects a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of extraordinary offices were pressed upon his See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance; but he refused them all,'° and caused a number of enactments to be passed which determined the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the principate for the next three centuries.' ? Firstly, he was exempted from the See also:

• DISABILITY

disability attaching to the See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of the imperium by one who was not an actual magistrate, and permitted to retain and exercise it in Rome . Secondly, his imperium was declared to be equal with that of the consuls, and therefore See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to that of all other holders of that power . Thirdly, he was granted equal rights with the consuls of convening the senate and introducing business, of nominating candidates at elections,18 and of issuing edicts." Lastly, he was placed on a level with the consuls in outward See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . Twelve See also:

• LICTORS (lictores)

lictors were assigned to him and an official seat between those of the consuls themselves (Dio liv . Io) . Thus the proconsular authority 20 was for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time admitted within the walls of Rome; but Augustus was too cautious a statesman to proclaim openly the fact that Tribunthe power which he wielded in the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was the same See also:

• IDA (d. 559)

Ida as that exercised in camps and provinces by a Roman potestas . military commander . Hence he sought for a title which should disguise the nature of his authority, and found it in the 12 The explanation of princeps as an abbreviated See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of princeps senatus is quite untenable .

For its real significance, see Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii . 774; See also:

• PELHAM
• PELHAM, HENRY (1696-1754)
• PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907)

Pelham, Journ. of Phil. vol. viii . It•is not an official title . 13 Mon . Anc . 6, 14, " per consensum universorum." 14 Dio liii . 12 ; Suet . Aug . 47 . " Dio, i.e . 16 He was offered the dictatorship, a See also:

• LIFE

life-consulship, a " cura legum et morum." It is stated by Suetonius (Aug . 53) and Dio (liv. to) that he accepted the last named; but this is disproved by his own See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language in the Mon .

Anc . (i . 31); cf . Pelham, Journ. of Philol. xvii . 47 . 17 Dio liii . 32 . Part of the law by which the rights essential to the principate were conferred upon See also:

• VESPASIAN

Vespasian is extant; see Rushforth, Latin See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

Inscriptions, No . 70 (the Lex de imperio Vespasiani) . 16 Tac . Ann. i . 81 .

19 Lex de imperio, 11 . 17–21 . 2° The term proconsulare imperium, which we find used, e.g., by See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, was not employed in republican times, and Augustus himself speaks of his consulate imperium (Mon . Anc . 2, 5, 8) . " tribunician power," which had been conferred upon him for life 718 in 36, and was well suited, from its See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban and demo- cratic traditions, to serve in Rome as " a term to ex-731. See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press his supreme position." From 23 onwards the tribunicia potestas appears after his name in official inscriptions, together with the number indicating the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period during which it 731 had been held (also reckoned from 23); it was in virtue of this power that Augustus introduced the social re-forms which the times demanded; 2 and, though far inferior to the imperium in actual importance, it ranked with or even above it as a distinctive See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor or his chosen colleague.3 The imperium and the tribunicia potestas were the two pillars upon which the authority of Augustus rested, and the 73J . other offices and privileges conferred upon him were 749, 752. of secondary importance . After 23 he never held the consulship See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save in 5 and 2 B.C., when he became the colleague of his grandsons on their introduction to public life . He permitted the triumvir See also:

• LEPIDUS

Lepidus to retain the chief pontificate until his See also:

• DEATH

death, when Augustus naturally became See also:

• PONTIFEX

pontifex 742 See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

maximus (12 B.C.).4 He proceeded with the like caution in reorganizing the chief departments of the public service in Rome and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . The cura annonae, i.e. the supervision of the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of Rome, was entrusted to him in 732 22 B.C.,6 and this important See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration thus came under his personal control; but the other boards (curae), created during his reign to take See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the roads, the See also:

• WATER

water-supply, the regulation of the See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber and the public buildings, were composed of senators of high rank, and regarded in theory as deriving their authority from the senate.6 Such was the ingenious See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise by which See also:

• ROOM

room was found for the master of the legions within the narrow limits of the old Roman constitution . Augustus could say with truth that he had accepted no office which was " contrary to the usage of our ancestors," and that it was only in dignity that he took precedence of his colleagues . Nevertheless, as every thinking See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man must have realized, the compromise was unreal, and its significance was ambiguous .

It was an arrangement avowedly of an exceptional and temporary character, yet no one could suppose that it would in effect be otherwise than permanent . The powers voted to Augustus were (like those conferred upon See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey in 67 B.c.) voted only to him, and (save the 727. tribunicia potestas) voted only for a limited time; in 27 he received the imperium for ten years, and it was afterwards renewed for successive periods of five, five, ten and ten years.' In this way the powers of the principate were made coextensive in time with the life of Augustus, but there was absolutely no See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for hereditary or any other form of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession, and various expedients were devised in order to indicate the destined successor of the princeps and to See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge the See also:

• GAP

gap created by his death . Ultimately Augustus associated his stepson Tiberius with himself as co-See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent . The imperium and the tribunicia potestas were conferred upon him, and he was thus marked out as the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person upon whom the remaining powers of the principate would naturally be bestowed after the death of his stepfather . But succeeding emperors did not always indicate their successors so clearly, and, in See also:

• DIRECT

direct contrast to the See also:

• MAXIM, SIR HIRAM STEVENS (184o- )

maxim that " the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king never See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies," it has been well said that the Roman principate died with the death of the princeps.8 In theory, at least, the Roman world was governed according to the " See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims of Augustus" (Suet . Ner. so), down to the changes time of See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian . Even in the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century there is in the still in name at least, a republic, of which the emperor consmu- is in See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don of the strictness only the chief magistrate, deriving prtnei- his authority from the senate and people, and with pate. prerogatives limited and defined by law . The See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case is quite different when we turn from theory to practice . The 1 The . Ann. iii . 56; " summi fastigii vocabulum." 2 Mon . Ane .

Graec . 3, 19 . Tac . Ann. i . 3 (of Tiberius), "collega imperii, consors tribuniciae potestatis "; cf . Mommsen, Staatsr. ii . 116o . Suet . Aug . 31 . 6 Mon . Anc .

1, 32; Dio liv . 1 . 6 See Hirschfeld, Verwaltungsgesch. i . 173 . Dio liii . 13, 16 . 3 Mommsen, Staatsr. ii . 1143.See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of authority between the republic and its chief magistrate became increasingly unequal . Over the provinces the princeps from the first ruled autocratically; and this See also:

• AUTOCRACY (Gr. abroepareca, absolute power)

autocracy reacted upon his position in Rome, so that it became every year more difficult for a ruler so See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute abroad to maintain even the fiction of republican government at home . The republican institutions, with the partial exception of the senate, lose all semblance of authority outside Rome, and even as the municipal institutions of the chief city of the empire they retain but little actual power . The real government even of Rome passes gradually into the hands of imperial prefects and commissioners, and the old magistracies become merely decorations which the emperor bestows at his See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure . At the same time the rule of the princeps assumes an increasingly personal character, and the whole See also:

• WORK

work of government is silently concentrated in his hands and in those of his own subordinates .

Closely connected with this change is the different aspect presented by the history of the empire in Rome and Italy on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand and in the provinces on the other . Rome and Italy See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the decline of the republic . See also:

• POLITICAL

Political See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and activity See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die out ; their old pre-eminence and exclusive privileges gradually disappear; and at the same time the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the overwhelming power of the princeps, and the abuses of their power by individual principes, press most heavily upon them . On the other hand, in the provinces and on the frontiers, where the imperial system was most needed, and where from the first it had full See also:

• PLAY

play, it is seen at its best as developing or protectingt, an orderly See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization and maintaining the peace of the world . The decay of the republican institutions had commenced before the revolutionary crisis of 49 . It was accelerated by the virtual suspension of See also:

• REGULAR

regular government between Decay 49 and 28; and not even the See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic deference towards See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient forms which Augustus displayed ~hltu- instttu- availed to conceal the unreality of his work of dons. restoration . The See also:

• COMITIA

comitia received back from him 705, 726 . " their ancient rights " (Suet . Aug . 40), and during his lifetime they continued to pass See also:

• LAWS

laws and to elect The magistrates . But after the end of the reign of Tiberius See also:

• COMMA (Gr. Kbµµa, a thing stamped or cut off, from Koirrecv, to strike)

comma. we have only two instances of legislation by the assembly in the ordinary way,9 and the law-making of the empire is performed either by decrees of the senate or by imperial edicts and constitutions . Their prerogative of electing magistrates was, even under Augustus, robbed of most of its importance by the control which the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince ps exercised over their choice by means of his rights of nomination and See also:

• COMMENDATION (from the Lat. commendare, to entrust to the charge of, or to procure a favour for)

commendation, which effectually secured the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of his own nominees." By Tiberius this restricted prerogative was still further curtailed .

The candidates for all magistracies except the consulship were thenceforward nominated and voted for in the senate-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house and by the senators," and only the formal return of the result (renuntiatio) took place in the assembly (Dio lviii . 20) . And, though the election of consuls was never thus transferred to the senate, the See also:

• PROCESS

process of voting seems to have been silently abandoned . In the time of the younger See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny we hear only of the nomination of the candidates and of their formal renuntiatio in the Campus See also:

• MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794—1868)

Martius.12 The princeps. himself as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as the Principate lasted, continued to receive the tribunicia potestas by a See also:

• VOTE

vote of the assembly, and was thus held to derive his authority from the people." - 9 The See also:

• PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscitum, a decree of the plebs)

plebiscite of See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius, Tac . Ann. xi . 13, 14, and the lex agraria of See also:

• NERVA, MARCUS COCCEIUS

Nerva; See also:

• DIGEST

Digest, xlvii . 21, 3; Dio lxviii . 2; Plin . Epp. vii . 31 . 10 On these rights, the latter of which was not exercised in the case of the consulship until the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero's reign, see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii . 916–28; Tac .

Ann. i . 14, 15, 81; Suet . Aug . 56; Dio Iviii . 20 . 11 Tac . Ann. i . 15, " comitia e campo ad patres translata sunt "; compare Ann. xiv . 28 . The magistracy directly referred to is the praetorship, but that the change affected the See also:

• LOWER

lower magistracies also is certain; see, e.g., Pliny's Letters, passim, especially iii . 20, vi . 19 .

12 Plin . Paneg . 92 . 13 See also:

• GAIUS

Gaius i . 5, " cum ipse imperator per legem imperium accipiat " This almost See also:

• COMPLETE

complete effacement of the comitia was largely due to the fact that they had ceased to represent anything but The the populace of Rome, and the comparatively greater niagls- vitality shown by the old magistracies is mainly trades. attributable to the value they continued to possess in the eyes of the Roman upper class . But, though they were eagerly sought (Plin . Epp. ii . 9, vi . 6), and conferred on their holders considerable social distinction, the magistrates ceased, except in name, to be the popularly chosen executive See also:

• OFFICERS

officers of the Roman state . In the administration of the empire at large they had no share, if we except the subordinate duties still assigned to the See also:

• QUAESTOR (from Lat. quaero, investigate)

quaestor in a province . In Rome, to which their See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of work was limited, they were over-shadowed by the dominant authority of the princeps, while their range of duties was increasingly circumscribed by the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual transference of administrative authority, even within the city, to the emperor and his subordinate officials . And their dependence on the princeps was confirmed by the control he exercised over their See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment .

For all candidates the approval, if not the commendation, of the princeps became the indispensable See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of success, and the princeps on his side treated these ancient offices as pieces of preferment with which to See also:

• REWARD

reward his adherents or gratify the ambition of Roman nobles . The dignity of the office, too, was impaired by the practice, begun by Caesar and continued by Augustus and his consul- successors, of granting the insignia to men who had not ship. held the actual magistracy itself.' The consulship was still the highest See also:

• POST

post open to the private citizen, and consular rank a necessary qualification for high office in the provinces; 2 but the actual consuls have scarcely any other duties than those of presiding in the senate and occasionally executing its decrees, while their term of office dwindles from a year to six and finally to two months ? In the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of Tacitus and the younger Pliny, the contrast is striking between the high estimate set on the dignity of the office and the frankness with which its limited See also:

• PRAETOR (Lat. prae-itor, " he who goes before," "a leader")

Praetor- powers and its dependence on the emperor are ship. acknowledged .5 The praetors continued to exercise their old See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction with little formal change down at least to the latter See also:

• HALF

half of the second century, but only as aeatle- subordinate to the higher judicial authority of the ship. emperor.5 The aediles retained only such See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police duties as did not pass to one or another of the imperial Trihu- prefects and commissioners . The tribunate fared nate. still worse, for, by the side of the tribunicia potestas wielded by the princeps, it sank into insignificance.6 The quaestorship suffered less change than any other of the old Qnaes:or- offices . It kept its place as the first step on the See also:

• LADDER, (0. Eng. hlaeder; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch leer, Ger. Leiter; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in " lean," Or. KNiµat)

ladder ship. of promotion, and there was still a quaestor attached to each governor of a senatorial province, to the consuls in Rome, and to the princeps himself' The senate alone among republican institutions retained some importance and See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, and it thus came to be regarded The as sharing the government of the Empire with the senate. princeps himself . It nominally controlled the administration of Italy and of the " public provinces," whose governors On the permission to use the ornamenta consularia, praetoria, &c., see Mommsen, Staatsr. i . 455 sqq.; Suet . Jul . 76; Claud . V . 24; Tac . Ann. xii .

21, xv . 72 ; Dio See also:

• CASS, LEWIS (1782–1866)

Cass . Ix . 8 . Cf. also Friedlander, 1 . 691 . 2 For a consular senatorial province and for the more important of the imperial legateships . Mommsen, Staatsr. ii . 82 sqq . Six months was the usual term down to the death of Nero; we have then four or two months; in the 3rd century two is the rule . The consuls who entered on office on the 1st of January were styled consules ordinarii, and gave their name to the year, whilst the others were distinguished as consules suffecti or minores; Dio Cass. xlviii . 35 .

Plin . Paneg . 92; The . Hist. i . 1, Agric . 44 . 6 Mommsen, Staatsr. ii . 225 . Plin . Epp. i . 23, " inanem umbram et sine honore nomen." There See also:

• AREA

area few instances of the exercise by the tribunes of their power of interference within the senate; Tac . Ann. i .

77, vi . 47, xvi . 26; Plin . Epp. ix . 13 . ' Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii . 567-69 . Pliny was himself " quaestor Caesaris," Epp. vii . 16.it appointed . It is to the senate, in theory, that the supreme power reverts in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a princeps . It is by See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of the senate that the new princeps immediately receives his powers and privileges,8 though he is still supposed to derive them ultimately from the people . After the cessation of all legislation by the comitia, the only law-making authority, other than that of the princeps by his edicts, was that of the senate by its decrees .9 Its judicial authority was co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate with that of the emperor, and at the close of the 1st century we find the senators claiming, as the emperor's " peers," to be exempt from his jurisdiction " But in spite of the outward dignity of its position, and of the deference with which it was frequently treated, the senate became gradually almost as powerless in reality as the comitia and the magistracies .

The senators continued indeed to be taken as a. rule from the ranks of the wealthy, and a high See also:

• PROPERTY

property qualification was established by Augustus as a condition of membership; but this merely enabled the emperors to secure their own ascendancy by subsidizing those whose property See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of the required See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard, and who thus became simply the paid creatures of their imperial patrons." See also:

• ADMISSION

Admission to the senate was possible only by favour of the emperor, both as controlling the elections to the magistracies, which still gave entrance to the See also:

• CURIA

curia, and as invested with the power of directly creating senators by adlectio, a power which from the time of Vespasian onwards was freely used." As the result, the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of the senate rapidly altered . Under Augustus and Tiberius it still contained many representatives of the old republican families, whose See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige and ancestral traditions were some See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee for their independence . But this See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element soon disappeared . The ranks of the old See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility were thinned by natural decay and by the jealous fears of the last three Claudian emperors . Vespasian" flooded the senate with new men from the municipal towns of Italy and the Latinized provinces of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West . See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan and See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian, both provincials themselves, carried on the same policy, and by the close of the 2nd century even the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek provinces of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East had their representatives in the senate . Some, no doubt, of these provincials, who constituted the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the senate in the 3rd century, were men of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and mark, but many more were of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low birth, on some rested the stain of a servile descent, and all owed alike their See also:

• PRESENT

present position and their chances of further promotion to the emperor." The See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure of the senate was as completely at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of the prince ps as its composition . He was himself a senator and the first of senators;" he possessed the magisterial prerogatives of convening the senate, of laying business before it, and of carrying senatus consulta;16 above all, his tribunician power enabled him to interfere at any See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, and to modify or See also:

• REVERSE

reverse its decisions . The share of the senate in the government was in fact determined by the amount of administrative activity which each princeps saw See also:

• FIT

fit to allow it to exercise, and this share became steadily smaller . The jurisdiction assigned it by Augustus and Tiberius was in the 3rd century limited to the See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing of such cases as the emperor thought fit to send for trial, and these became steadily fewer in number . Its-control of the state See also:

• TREASURY

treasury, as distinct from the imperial fiscus, was in fact little more than nominal, and became increasingly unimportant as the great bulk of the See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue passed Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii . 842; Tac .

Ann. xii . 69, Hist. i . 47 . In the 3rd century the honours, titles and powers were conferred en bloc by a single decree; Vit . Sev . Alex . 1 . ' Gaius i . 4; See also:

• ULPIAN (DoMrrIus ULPIANUS)

Ulpian, Dig. i . 3, 9 . ° Under See also:

• DOMITIAN (Thus FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS)

Domitian; Dio Cass. lxvii . 2 .

Even Septimius See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus caused a decree to be passed " ne liceret imperatori inconsulto senatu occidere senatorem " ; Vita Severi, 7 . " Suet . Nero, 10, Vesp . 17 . 12 Mommsen, Staatsrecht, ii . 939 sqq . The power was derived from the censorial authority . Domitian was See also:

• CENSOR (from Lat. censere, assess, estimate; in Gr. rt s ris)

censor for life; Suet . Dom . 8 . After Nerva it was exercised as falling within the general authority vested in the princeps; Dio 'iii . 17 .

" Suet . Vesp . 90; Tac . Ann. iii . 55 . " See on this point Friedlander, Sittengeschichte Roms, i . 237 sqq . is Mon . Ancyr . Gr. iv . 3, 7rpo,rov a 1c /.6aros rbirov . is Lex de See also:

• IMP
• IMP (O. Eng. impa, a graft, shoot; the verb impian is cognate with Ger. impfen, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. enter; the ultimate origin is probably the Gr. 'µ4uety, to implant, cf. Et.A4Uros, engrafted)

imp .

Vesp., C.I.L. vi . 930: " Senatum habere, relationem facere, remittere; Seta. per relationem discessionemoue facere," On the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of Augustus, there could be little doubt as to the nature of the work that was necessary, if peace and prosperity were to be secured for the Roman world . He was called upon to justify his position by rectifying the frontiers and strengthening their defences, by reforming the system of provincial government, and by reorganizing the See also:

• FINANCE

finance; and his success in dealing with these three difficult problems is sufficiently proved by the prosperous condition of the empire for a century and a half after his death . To secure peace it was necessary to establish on all sides of the empire really defensible into the hands of the emperor . Even in Rome and Italy its control of the administration was gradually transferred to the See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect of the city, and after the reign of Hadrian to imperial officers (juridici) charged with the See also:

• CIVIL

civil administration.' The part still played by its decrees in the modification of Roman law has been dealt with elsewhere ',see SENATE), but it is clear that these decrees did little else than See also:

• REGISTER

register the expressed wishes of the emperor and his personal advisers . The process by which all authority became centralized in the hands of the princeps and in practice exercised by an See also:

• ORGAN

organ-Central- ized bureaucracy2 was of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity gradual; but it ization of had its beginnings under Augustus, who formed the author- the equestrian order (admission to which was henceforth imperial granted only by him) into an imperial service, partly service. civil and partly military, whose members, being immediately dependent on the emperor, could be employed on tasks which it would have been impossible to assign to senators (see See also:

• EQUITES (" horsemen " or " knights," from eques," horse ")

EQUITES) . From this order were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn the armies of " procurators "—the term was derived from the practice of the great business houses of Rome—who ad-ministered the imperial revenues and properties in all parts of the empire . Merit was rewarded by See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent governor-See also:

• SHIPS

ships such as those of See also:

• RAETIA (so always in inscriptions; in classical MSS. usually RHAETIA)

Raetia and See also:

• NORICUM (Noricus ager)

Noricum, or the command of the See also:

• NAVAL

naval squadrons at See also:

• MISENUM

Misenum and See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna; and the prizes of the See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight's career were the prefectures of the praetorian guard, the corn-supply and the city police, and the governorship of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . The See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household offices and imperial secretaryships were held by freedmen, almost always of Greek origin, whose influence became all-powerful under such emperors as Claudius.' The See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial secretary (a rationibus) and those who dealt with the emperor's See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence (ab epistulis) and with petitions (a libellis) were the most important of these . This increase of power was accompanied by a corresponding See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of the prince ps himself above the level of all other outward citizens . The comparatively modest household and sp/en- simple life of Augustus were replaced by a more than dour. See also:

• REGAL

regal splendour, and under Nero we find all the out-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward accessories of See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy present, the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace, the palace See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards, the crowds of courtiers, and a See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court ceremonial . In direct opposition to the republican theory of the principate, members of the See also:

• FAMILY

family of the princeps share the dignities of his position .

The See also:

• MALES

males See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the cognomen of Caesar, and are in-vested, as youths, with high office; their names and even those of the See also:

• FEMALES

females are included in the yearly prayers for the safety of the prince ps;4 their birthdays are kept as festivals; the praetorian guards take the See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath to them as well as to the princeps himself . The logical conclusion was reached in the practice of Caesar-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship,' which was in origin the natural expression of a wide-spread sentiment of See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage, which varied in form in different parts of the empire and in different classes of society, but was turned to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account by the statecraft of Augustus to develop something like an imperial patriotism . The official worship of the deified Caesar, starting from that of the " divine See also:

• JULIUS

Julius," gave a certain sanctity and continuity to the regular succession of the emperors, but it was of less importance politically than the worship of " Rome and Augustus," first instituted in Asia Minor in 29 B.C., and gradually diffused throughout the provinces, as a See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of imperial unity . It must be observed that living emperors were not officially worshipped by Roman citizens; yet we find that even in Italy an unauthorized worship of Augustus sprang up during his lifetime in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country towns.' ' Vit . Hadr . 22; " Juridici " were appointed by See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Aurelius, Vit . See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant. i i ; See also:

• MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812–1882)

Marquardt i . 224 . 2 On the growth of the imperial bureaucracy see Hirschfeld, Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten bis au Diocletian (1905) . For the position of the imperial freedmen under Claudius, see Friedlander i . 88 sqq.; Tac . Ann. xii .

6o, xiv . 39, Hist. ii . 57, 95 . Acta Fr . Arval . (ed . Henzen), 33, 98, 99 . For Caesar-worship, see Mommsen, Staatsr. ii . 755 sqq . ; Wissowa, See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion and Kultus der Romer, p . 283 sqq., and Kornemann in Beitrage zur See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien Geschichte, i . See Rushforth, Roman Historical Inscriptions, Nos .

38 sqq. and notes.frontiers; and this became possible now that for the The frontiers . first time the direction of the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign policy of the state and of its military forces was concentrated in the hands of a single magistrate . To the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and west the generals of the re-public, and Caesar himself, had extended the authority of Rome to the natural boundaries formed by the See also:

• AFRICAN

African deserts and the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic Ocean, and in these two directions Augustus's task was in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main confined to the organization of a settled Roman government within these limits . In See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa the client state of Egypt was ruled by Augustus as the successor of the See also:

• PTOLEMIES

Ptolemies, and administered by his deputies (praefecti), and the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• NUMIDIA

Numidia (25 B.C.) was incorporated with the old province of Africa . In See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL