See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

PERU (apparently from Biru, a small See also:

• RIVER

river on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• COLOMBIA

Colombia, where See also:

• PIZARRO, FRANCISCO (c. 1471 or 1475-1541)

Pizarro landed)  , a See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic of the Pacific See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America, extending in a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general N.N.W.–S.S.E. direction from See also:

• LAT

lat . 3' 21' S. to about 18° S., with a See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-coast of 1240 M. and a width of 300 to 400 in., exclusive of territories in dispute . Its See also:

• AREA

area in 1906, including See also:

• TACNA

Tacna and See also:

• ARICA (SAN MARCOS DE ARICA)

Arica, and other disputed territories occupied by neighbouring states, was officially estimated at 1,752,422 sq. kilometers, or 676,638 sq. m.; exclusive of these territories, the area of See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru is variously 1874, and on the 7th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1876 died at See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich while attending the sittings of the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . The Monumenta began to appear in 1826, and at the date of his resignation 24 volumes See also:

• FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio)

folio (Scriptores, Leges, Diplomata) had appeared . This See also:

• WORK

work for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time made possible the existence of the See also:

• MODERN

modern school of scientific historians of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . In connexion with the Monumenta See also:

• PERTZ, GEORG HEINRICH (1795-1876)

Pertz also began the publication of a selection of See also:

• SOURCES

sources in See also:

• OCTAVO

octavo See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, the Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum; among his other See also:

• LITERARY

literary labours may be mentioned an edition of the Gesammelte Werke of See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz, and a See also:

• LIFE

life of See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

Stein (Leben See also:

• DES

des Ministers Freiherrn vom Stein (6 vols., 1849—1855) ; also, in an abridged form, Aus Steins Leben (2 vols.,-1856) . estimated at 439,000 to 480,000 sq. in., the See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha measurements being 1,137,000 sq. kilometers, or 439,014 sq. m . With the exception of parts of the See also:

• ECUADOR (officially La Republica del Ecuador)

Ecuador, See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil and See also:

• BOLIVIA

Bolivia frontiers, all the boundary lines have been disputed and referred to See also:

• ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge)
• ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

arbitration—those with See also:

• COLOMBIA

Colombia and Ecuador to the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and that with Bolivia to the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina, on which a decision was rendered on the 9th of See also:

• JULY

July 19og . There have been misunderstandings with Ecuador in regard to some small areas in the Chira valley, but it may be assumed that the See also:

• LINE

line is fixed between See also:

• SANTA

Santa See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

Rosa (3° 21' S.) on the Gulf of See also:

• GUAYAQUIL, or SANTIAGO DE GUAYAQUIL

Guayaquil, and the Chinchipe See also:

• RIVER

river, a tributary of the Maranon . At the junction of the Cauches with that river, that Ecuadorean line descends the Chinchipe to the Maranon, and the Peruvian ascends to a point where it is intersected by a line following the eastern See also:

• CORDILLERA

Cordillera northward to the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Caqueta, or Japuth, which forms the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern boundary down to the Brazilian frontier . This claim covers all eastern Ecuador and. a large See also:

• PART

part of south-eastern Colombia . In 1903 there were encounters between small bodies of Peruvian and Ecuadorean troops on the disputed frontier .

After arbitration by the king of Spain had been agreed upon, the question was considered by two See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish commissions, and modifications favouring Peru were recommended . These became known prematurely, and in May 1910 See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war was threatened between Peru and Ecuador in spite of an offer of See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation by the See also:

• UNITED

United States, Brazil and Argentina under the See also:

• HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis)

Hague See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention . From the Japura southward to the See also:

• AMAZON

Amazon, in 40 13' 21” S., 69° 35' W., and thence up the Javary, or Yavari, to its source in 7° 8' 4" S., 73° 46' 30" W., as determined by a mixed commission, the line has been definitely settled . From near the source of the Javary, or lat . 70 1' 17" S., a line See also:

• RUNNING

running eastward to the See also:

• MADEIRA
• MADEIRA, or THE MADE1RAS

Madeira in lat . 6° 52' 15" S., which is See also:

• HALF

half the distance between the mouth of the See also:

• MAMORE

Mamore and the mouth of the Madeira, divides the Spanish and Portuguese possessions in this part of South America, according to the See also:

• PRO

pro- visions of the treaty of See also:

• SAN

San Ildefonso of 1777 . This line has been twice modified by See also:

• TREATIES

treaties between Bolivia and Brazil, but without the consent of Peru, which claimed all the territory eastward to the Madeira between the above-mentioned line and the Beni-Madidi See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, the line of demarcation following the Pablo-bamba, a small tributary of the Madidi, to its source, and thence in a straight line to the See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Conima, on See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Titicaca . The dispute with Brazil relates to the territory acquired by that republic from Bolivia in 186 7 and 1903, and was to be settled, according to an agreement of 1908, by See also:

• DIRECT

direct negotiation if possible, or, failing this, by arbitration . The decision of the president of Argentina of the 9th of July 1909, in regard to the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of this extensive territory, was a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise, and divided it into two nearly equal parts . The line adopted starts from Lake Suches, the source of a small river of that name flowing into the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of Lake Titicaca, crosses the Cordillera by the Palomani to the Tambopata river, follows that stream to the mouth of the See also:

• LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA (1810–1882)

Lanza, thence crosses to the source of the See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

Heath river, which forms the dividing line down to its junction with the Madre de Dios, descends that river to the mouth of the Torosmonas, thence in a straight line north-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly to the intersection of the Tahuamanu river by the 69th See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian, and thence north on that meridian to the Brazilian frontier . This decision at first gave offence to the Bolivians, but friendly overtures from Peru led to its See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance by both parties with the understanding that modifications would be made in locating the line wherever actual settlements had been made by either party on territory awarded to the other . With See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile the de jure line is that of the Camarones See also:

• RAVINE

ravine which separated the old See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• MOQUEGUA

Moquegua (including the provinces of Tacna and Arica) from that of See also:

• TARAPACA

Tarapaca .

The de facto line is that of the Sama river (usually dry), which opens on the coast a little south of Sama point, near 18° S., Chile retaining See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the two above-mentioned provinces in violation of the treaty of See also:

• ANCON
• ANCON (from the Gr. ayi ww)

Ancon, which she forced upon her defeated antagonist . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography.—Peru is divided longitudinally into three well-defined regions, the coast, the sierra and the See also:

• MONTANA

montana . The coast, extending from the See also:

• BASE

base of the Western or Maritime Cordillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy See also:

• DESERT

desert crossed at intervals by rivers flowing through narrow, fertile valleys . The sierra is the region of the See also:

• ANDES

Andes, and is about 250 M. in width . It contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and table-lands, warm and fertile valleys and ravines . The montana is the region of tropical forests within the valley of the Amazon, and skirts the eastern slopes of the Andes . The coast has been upraised from the ocean at no very distant See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch, and is nearly as destitute of vegetation as the The Coast . See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara . It is watered, however, by fifty streams which See also:

• CROSS

cross the desert at intervals . Half of these have their origin in the summits of the Andes, and run with a permanent See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of See also:

• WATER

water into the ocean . The others, rising in the See also:

• OUTER

outer range, which does not reach the See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-line and receives less moisture, carry a See also:

• VOLUME

volume of water to the sea during the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, but for the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the See also:

• YEAR

year are nearly dry . The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain here is ascribed to the See also:

• ACTION

action of the lofty uplands of the Andes on the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade-See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, and to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt current sweeping northward along the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west coast of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent .

The south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east trade-wind blows obliquely across the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Brazil . By this time it is heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear along across the continent, depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazon and La See also:

• PLATA, RIO DE LA, or RIVER PLATE

Plata . When the wind rises above the snow-capped Andes, the last particle of moisture is wrung from it that a very See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low temperature can See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract . Passing the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of that range, it rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond . See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

Meeting with no evaporating See also:

• SURFACE

surface, and with no temperature colder than that to which it is subjected on the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-tops, this wind reaches the ocean before it becomes charged with fresh moisture . The constantly prevailing wind on the Peruvian coast is from the south, which is a cold wind from the Humboldt current . As it moves north it becomes gradually warmed and takes up moisture instead of depositing it as rain . From See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November to See also:

• APRIL

April there are usually See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant dryness, a clear See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky, and considerable, though by no means oppressive, See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat . From See also:

• JUNE

June to See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September the sky is obscured for See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks tcgether by See also:

• FOG

fog, which is often accompanied by drizzling rain called garua . At the time when it is hottest and driest on the coast it is raining heavily in the Andes, and the rivers are full . When the rivers are at their lowest, the garua prevails on the coast . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of various parts of the coast, however, is modified by See also:

• LOCAL

local circa mstances .

The Western Cordillera, overhanging the Peruvian coast, contains a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long line of volcanic mountains, most of them inactive, but their presence is probably connected with the frequent and severe earthquakes, especially in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the coast . Since 1570 seventy violently destructive earthquakes have been recorded on the west coast of South America, but the See also:

• REGISTER

register is incomplete in its earlier part . The most terrible was that of 1746, which destroyed See also:

• CALLAO

Callao, on the 28th of October, and there were 220 shocks in the following twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . The See also:

• TOWN

town was overwhelmed by a vast See also:

• WAVE

wave, which See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose 8o ft.; and the shocks continued until the following See also:

• FEBRUARY

February . On the 13th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1868 an earthquakenearly destroyed See also:

• AREQUIPA

Arequipa, and See also:

• GREAT

great waves rolled in upon the ports of Arica and See also:

• IQUIQUE

Iquique . On the 9th of May 1877 nearly all the southern ports were overwhelmed . The deserts between the river-valleys vary in extent, the largest being more than 70 m. across . On their western margin steep cliffs generally rise from the sea, above which is the tablazo or See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges of considerable height rising out of it . The surface is generally hard, but in many places there are large accumulations of drifting sea-See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand . The sand usually forms isolated hillocks, called medanos, of a half-See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon shape, having their See also:

• CONVEX

convex sides towards the trade-wind . They are from 10 to 20 ft. high, with an acute See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest, the inner See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope . Sometimes, especially at See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn, there is a musical See also:

• NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source)

noise in the desert, like the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound of distant drums, which is caused by the eddying of grains of sand in the heated See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, on the crests of the medanos .

Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vegetation ; yet three kinds of herbs exist, which See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

bury themselves deep in the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, and survive long periods of drought . One is an amar- Coast See also:

• FLORA

Flora. anthaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the sandhills; the other two are a Martynia and an Aniseia, which maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient moisture penetrates to the roots . In a few hollows which are reached by moisture the trees of the desert find support, the algarrobo (Prosopis horrida), a low See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of very scraggy growth, the vichaya (Capparis crotonoides); and the zapote del perro (Colicodendrum scabridum), See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere shrubs . Near the Cordillera and on its See also:

• LOWER

lower slopes a tall branched See also:

• CACTUS

cactus is met with, and there are Salicornias and Salsolas near the coast . But, when the mists set in, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are called lomas, undergo a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change as if by magic . A blooming vegetation of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers for a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time covers the barren hills . Near See also:

• LIMA

Lima one of the low ranges is brightened by the beautiful yellow See also:

• LILY

lily called amancaes (Ismene Amancaes) . The other flowers of the lomas are the papita de San Juan (See also:

• BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany)

Begonia geranifolia), with red petals contrasting with the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white inner sides, valerians, the beautiful Bomarea ovata, several See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• OXALIS

Oxalis, Solanum and crucifers . But this See also:

• CARPET

carpet of flowers is very partially distributed and lasts but a short time . The valleys form a marvellous contrast to the surrounding desert . A great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale-See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green foliage is usually composed of the algarrobo trees, while the course of the river is marked by lines or See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of palms, by See also:

• FINE

fine old willows (Salix humboldtiana), See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-gardens, and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane and See also:

• ALFALFA

alfalfa (See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

lucerne) . In some valleys there are expanses of sugar-cane, in others cotton, whilst in others vineyards and See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive-yards pre-dominate .

The See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of algarrobo are used for pasture, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and horses enjoying the pendulous yellow pods . For purposes of description the coast-region of Peru may be divided into five sections, beginning from the north: (1) the See also:

• PIURA

Piura region; (2) the See also:

• LAMBAYEQUE

Lambayeque and See also:

• TRUJILLO
• TRUJILLO, or TRUJILLO
• TRUJILLO, or TRUXILLO

Trujillo section; Sections of (3) the Santa valleys; (4) the section fromLimatoNasca; the Coast . (5) the Arequipa and Tacna section . (1) The great desert-region of Piura extends for nearly 200 m. from the Gulf of Guayaquil to the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the Morrope Valley, and is traversed by three rivers—the Tumbes, Chira and Piura, the two former receiving their waters from the inner Cordillera and breaking through the outer range . It is here that the coast of South America extends farthest to the westward until it reaches Capes Blanco and Parina, and then turns southward to the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• PAITA, or PAYTA

Paita . The climate of Piura is modified by the lower See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, and also by the vicinity of the forests of Guayaquil . Fog and garua are much less frequent than in the coast-region farther south, while rain sometimes falls . At intervals of three or four years there are occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April . (2) The second section of the coast-region includes the valleys of the Morrope, the Chiclayo, and Lambayeque, the See also:

• SANA (Send'a)

Sana, the Jequetepeque, the Chicama, Moche, Viru and Chao . With the intervening deserts this section extends over 200 M . All these valleys, except Morrope and Chao, are watered by rivers which have their sources far in the recesses of the mountains, and which furnish an abundant supply in the season when See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation is needed . (3) The third section, also extending for 200 m., contains the valleys of Santa, Nepena, Casma, Huarmey, See also:

• FORTALEZA (usually called CEARA by foreigners)

Fortaleza, Pativilca, Sup6 and Huaura .

The river Santa, which rises in the lake of Conococha, 12,907 ft. above the sea, and has a length of 18o m., is remarkable for its long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes, in a trough known as the " Callejon de Huaylas," too m. in length . It then breaks through in a deep See also:

• GORGE

gorge, and reaches the sea after a course of 35 m. over the coast-See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt, and after fertilizing a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich valley . The Santa and Nepena valleys are separated by a desert 8 leagues in width, on the shores of which there is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good anchorage in the bay of See also:

• FERROL [El Ferrol]

Ferrol, where the See also:

• PORT

port of Chimbote is the See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of a railway . The Nepefla, Casma, Huarmey', Fortaleza and Sup6 rivers rise on the slope of an outer range called the Cordillera Negra, and are consequently dry during the great part of the year . See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus maintained . The Pativilca (or Barranca) river and the Huaura break through the outer range from their distant sources in the snowy Cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water . There are 9 leagues of desert between the Nepena and Casma, i6 between the Casma and Huarmey, and i8 between the Huarmey and Fortaleza . The latter desert, much of which is loose sand, is called the See also:

• PAMPA, LA

Pampa de Mata Cavallos, from the number of exhausted animals which See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die there . Between the Supe and Pativilca is the desert called the Pampa del Medio Mundo . (4) The next coast-section extends for over 300 m., from Chancay to Nasca, and includes the rivers of Chancay or Lacha, of Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, See also:

• MALA

Mala, Canete, Chincha, Pisco or Chunchanga, See also:

• ICA (YCA, or ECCA)

Ica and Rio Grande . Here the maritime range approaches the ocean, leaving a narrower See also:

• STRIP

strip of coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous . Those of Carabayllo and Rimac are connected, and the view from the Bay of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain bounded by the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure .

Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys, but the great vale of Canete is one green See also:

• SHEET

sheet of sugar-cane; and narrow strips of desert See also:

• SEPARATE

separate it from the fertile plain of Chincha, and Chincha from the famous vineyards of Pisco . The valleys of Ica, Palpa, San See also:

• XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE (1506-1552)

Xavier and Nasca are rich and fertile, though they do not extend to the sea; but between Nasca and Acari there is a desert 6o m. in width . (5) The Arequipa and Tacna section extends over 350 M. and comprises the valleys of Acari, Atequipa, Atico, Ocona, Majes or Camana, Quilca, with the interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Ilo or Moquegua, Ite or Locumba, Sama, Tacna, and Azapa or Arica . Here the Western Cordillera recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western slope, is 7000 ft. above the sea and 90 m. from the coast . Most of the rivers here have their sources in the central range, and are well supplied with water . The coast-valleys through which they flow, especially those of Majes and Locumba, are famous for their vineyards, and in the valley of Tambo there are extensive olive plantations . The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands are generally abrupt and lofty . These and the few islands are Islands. frequented by sea-birds, whence come the See also:

• GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung)

guano- deposits, the retention of See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia and other fertilizing properties being due to the absence of rain . The islets off the coast are all barren and rocky . The most northern is Foca, in 50 13' 30" S., near the coast to the south of Paita . The islands of Lobos de Tierra and Lobos de Afuera (2) in 6° 27' 45" S. and 6° 56' 45" S. respectively, are off the desert of Sechura, and contain deposits of guano . The two Afuera islands are 6o and 36 m. respectively from the coast at the port of San Jose .

The islets of Macabi, in 7 ° 49' 20" S., also have guano deposits, now practically exhausted . The two islets of Guafiape, surrounded by many rocks, in 8° 34' S., contain rich deposits . Chao rises 450 ft. above the sea, off the coast, in 8° 46' 3o" S . Corcobado is in 8° 57' S . La Viuda is off the port of Casma, in 9° 23' 30" S.; and Tortuga is 2 M. distant to the north . Santa Islet lies off the bay of Cosca, in 9° I' 40", and the three high rocks of Ferrol in 9° 8' 3o" S . Farther south there is the See also:

• GROUP

group of islets and rocks called Huaura, in 110 27 S., the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of which are El Pelado, Tambillo, Chiquitana, See also:

• BRAVO (Ital. for " brave ")

Bravo, Quitacalzones and Mazorque . The Hormigas are in I° 4' S. and 11° 58', and the See also:

• PESCADORES (i.e. fishers)

Pescadores in 11 ° 47' S . The See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of San Lorenzo, in 12° 4' S., is a lofty mass, 41 M. long by i broad, forming the Bay of Callao; its highest point is 1050 ft . Off its south-east end lies a small but lofty islet called Fronton, and to the south-west are the Palomitas Rocks . Horadada Islet, with a hole through it, is to the south of Callao Point . Off the valley of Lurin are the Pachacamac Islands, the most northern and largest being half a mile long, The next, called San Francisco, is like a sugar-See also:

• LOAF

loaf, perfectly rounded at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top .

The others are mere rocks . See also:

• ASIA

Asia Island is farther south, 17 M. north-west of Cerro Azul, and about a mile in See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit . Pisco Bay contains San Gallan Island, high, with a bold cliff outline, 22 M. long by i broad, the Ballista Islets, and farther north the three famous Chincha Islands, whose vast guano deposits are now exhausted . South of the entrance to Pisco Bay is Zarate Island, and farther south the white level islet of Santa Rosa . The Infiernillo See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock is quite See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, about 50 ft. high, in the form of a sugar-loaf, a mile west of the point of Santa Maria, which is near the mouth of the Ica river . Alacran is a small islet off the lofty " morro " of Arica . All these rocks and islets are barren and uninhabitable . The more See also:

• COMMON

common sea-birds are the Sula variegata or guano-See also:

• BIRD

bird, a large See also:

• GULL (Welsh gwylan, Breton, goelann, whence Fr. goeland)
• GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY

gull called the Larus modestus, the Pelecanus thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful See also:

• TERN (Norsk taerne, tende or tende; Swedish tarna; Dutch Stern1)

tern with curved white feathers on each side of the head . The rarest of all the gulls is also found on the Peruvian coast, namely, the Xema furcatum . Sea-lions (Otaria forsteri) are common on the rocky islands and promontories . The region of the Cordilleras of the Andes is divided into puna, or lofty uninhabited See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness, and sierra, or inhabitable moun- Sierra. See also:

• TAIN

tain slopes and valleys . This great mountain-See also:

• SYSTEM

system, running south-east to north-west, consists of three chains or cordilleras .

The two chains, which run parallel and near each other on the western side, are of identical origin, and have been separated by the 'action of water during many centuries . On these chains are the volcanoes and many thermal springs . The narrow space between them is for the most part, but not always, a cold and lofty region known as the puna containing alpine lakes the sources of the coast-rivers . The great eastern See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, rising fromthe See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the Amazon and forming the inner See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of the system, is of distinct origin . These three chains are called the Western or Maritime Cordillera, the Central Cordillera and the Andes . Paz Soldan and other Peruvian geographers give the name of Andes, See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence, to the Eastern Cordillera . The Maritime Cordillera of Peru has no connexion with the coast ranges of Chile, but is a continuation of the Cordillera Occidental of Chile, which under various local names forms the eastern margin of the coastal desert belt from See also:

• ATACAMA
• ATACAMA, DESERT OF

Atacama northward into Peru . It contains a See also:

• REGULAR

regular chain of volcanic peaks overlooking the coast-region of Tarapaca . Chief among them are the snowy See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of Lirima (19,128 ft.) over the ravine of Tarapaca, the See also:

• VOLCANO

volcano of Isluga overhanging Camina, the Bolivian peak of Sajama, and Tocora (19,741 ft.) near the Bolivian frontier . In See also:

• REAR

rear of Moquegua there is a group of volcanic peaks, clustering See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round those of Ubinas and Huaynaputina . A great eruption of Huaynaputina began on the 15th of February 1600 and continued until the 28th . But generally these volcanoes are quiescent .

Farther north the Misti volcano rises over the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Arequipa in a perfect See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone to a height of over 20,013 ft., and near its base are the hot See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron springs of Yura . The peak of Sarasara, in Parinacochas (See also:

• AYACUCHO

Ayacucho) is 19,500 ft. above the sea, and in the mountains above Lima the passes attain a height of more than 15,000 ft . In latitude io° S. the maritime chain separates into two branches, which run parallel to each other for See also:

• IOO

ioo m., enclosing the remarkable ravine of Callejon de Huaylas—the eastern or See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch being known as the Cordillera See also:

• NEVADA
• NEVADA (a Spanish word meaning " snow-clad " or " snowy land," originally applied to a snow-capped mountain range on the Pacific slope)

Nevada and the western as the Cordillera Negra . On the Nevada the peak of Huascan reaches a height of 22,051 ft . The Huandoy peak, above Carhuaz, rises to 21,088 ft.; the Hualcan peak, overhanging the town of Yungay, is 19,945 ft. high; and most of the peaks in this part of the chain reach a height of 19,000 ft . During the rainy season, from October to May, the. sky is generally clear at dawn, and the magnificent snowy peaks are clearly seen . But as the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day advances the clouds collect . In most parts of the Peruvian Andes the line of perpetual snow is at 16,400 ft.; but on the Cordillera Nevada, above the Callejon de Huaylas, it sinks to 15,400 ft . This greater cold is caused by the intervention of the Cordillera Negra, which intercepts the warmth from the coast . As this lower chain does not reach the snow-line, the streams rising from it are scanty, while the Santa, Pativilca and other coast-rivers which break through it from sources in the snowy chain have a greater volume from the melted snows . At the point where the river Santa breaks through the Cordillera Negra that range begins to subside, while the Maritime Cordillera continues as one chain to and beyond the frontier of Ecuador . The Central Cordillera is the true water-parting of the system .

No river, except the Maranon, breaks through it either to the east or west, while more than twenty coast streams rise on its slopes and force their way through the maritime chain . The Central Cordillera consists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of which are aqueous, in great part See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, strata thrown up almost vertically . In 14° 30' S. the central chain is connected with the Eastern Andes by the transverse mountain-See also:

• KNOT
• KNOT (O.E. cnotta, from a Teutonic stem knutt; cf. " knit," and Ger. knoten)

knot of Vilcafiota, the peak of that name being 17,651 ft. above the sea . The great inland basin of Lake Titicaca is thus formed . The central chain continues to run parallel with the Maritime Cordillera until, at Cerro Pasco, another transverse knot connects it with the Andes in 10° 30' S. lat . It then continues northward, separating the basins of the Maranon and Huallaga; and at the northern frontier of Peru it is at length broken through by the Maranon flowing eastward . The Eastern Andes is a magnificent range in the southern part el Peru, of See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian formation, with talcose and See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay slates, See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man} See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz See also:

• VEINS

veins and eruptions of granitic rocks . Mr See also:

• FORBES
• FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875)
• FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900)
• FORBES, DAVID (1828--1876)
• FORBES, DUNCAN
• FORBES, EDWARD (1815—1854)
• FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809—1868)
• FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787—1861)

Forbes says that the peaks of Illampu (21,709 ft.) and Illimani (21,014 ft.) in Bolivia are Silurian and fossiliferous to their summits . The eastern range is cut through by six rivers in Peru, namely, the Maranon and Huallaga; the Perene, Mantaro, See also:

• APURIMAC

Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo, the last five being tributaries of the Ucayali . The range of the Andes in south Peru has a high plateau to the west and the vast plains of the Amazonian basin to the east . The whole range is highly auriferous, and the thickness of the strata is not less than 10,000 ft . It is nowhere disturbed by volcanic eruptions, except at the very edge of the formation near Lake Titicaca, and in this respect it differs essentially from the Maritime Cordillera .

To the eastward numerous spurs extend for varying distances into the great plain of the See also:

• AMAZONS

Amazons . The Andes lose their majestic height to the northward; and beyond Cerro Pasco the eastern chain sinks into a lower range between the Huallaga and Ucayali . But throughout the length of . Peru the three ranges are clearly defined . For purposes of description the sierra of Peru may be divided into four sections, each embracing portions of . all three ranges . The first, from the north, comprises the upper basins Sections of of the Maranon and the Huallaga, and is 350 in. long by Sierra . Too broad . The second extends from the Knot of Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, about 200 m., including the Lake of Chinchay-cocha and the basin of the river Xauxa . The third or See also:

• CUZCO

Cuzco section extends 250 in. to the Knot of Vilcanota with the basins of the See also:

• PAMPAS (Span. La Pampa, from a Quichua word signifying a level open space or terrace)

Pampas, Apurimac, Vilcamayu and Paucartambo . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth is the basin of Lake Titicaca . Lake See also:

• JUNIN

Junin, or Chinchay-cocha, in the second section, is 36 m. long by 7 m. broad, and 13,232 ft. above the sea . Its marshy See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks See also:

• ATE

ate overgrown with reeds and inhabited by numerous water-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl .

From this lake the river Xauxa flows southwards through a populous valley for 15o m. before entering the forests . Lake Titicaca (see BOLIVIA),in the fourth or most southern section, is divided between Peru and Bolivia . It receives a number of short streams from the ranges shutting in the upper end of the valley; the largest is the Ramiz, formed by the two streams of Pucara and Azangaro, both coming from the Knot of Vilcanota to the north . The Suches, which has its source in Lake Suches, falls into Lake Titicaca on the north-west side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal islands are Titicaca and See also:

• COATI

Coati (at the south end near the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Copacabana), Campanaria (9 in. from the east See also:

• SHORE

shore), See also:

• SOTO, FERDINANDO [FERNANDO, Or HERNANDO] DE (1496?—1542)

Soto and Esteves . There are two other lakes in the Celiac), as the elevated region round Titicaca is called . Lake Arapa, a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles from the northern shore of Titicaca, is 30 M. in circumference . Lake Umayo is on higher ground to the westward . The lake in Peru which is third in See also:

• SIZE

size is that of Parinacochas on the coast See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed, near the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the snowy peak of Sarasara . It is 12 m. long by 6 broad, but has never been visited and described by any modern traveller . The smaller alpine lakes, often forming the sources of rivers, are numerous . The great rivers of the sierra are the Maranon, rising in the lake of Lauricocha and flowing northward in a deep gorge between the Maritime and Central Cordilleras for 350 m., when it forces its way through the mountains at the famous Pongo de Manseriche and enters the Amazonian plain .

The Huallaga rises north of Cerro Pasco, and, passing See also:

• HUANUCO

Huanuco, flows northwards on the other side of the Central Cordillera for 300 m . It breaks through the range at the Pongo de Chasuta and falls into the Maranon . The other great rivers are tributaries of the Ucayali . The Pozuzu, flowing east-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward from the Knot of Cerro Pasco, joins the Pachitea, which is the most important northern affluent of the Ucayali . The Xauxa, becoming afterwards the Mantaro, receives the drainage of Xauxa, See also:

• HUANCAVELICA

Huancavelica and Ayacucho . The southern valleys of this part of the sierra furnish streams which form the main rivers of Pampas, Pachachaca and Apurimac . These, uniting with the Mantaro, form the See also:

• ERIE

Erie, and the Ene and Perene (which drains the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Tambo) form the Tambo . The Vilcamayu rises on the Knot of Vilcanota, flows north through a lovely valley, received the Yanatilde and Paucartambo on its right hank, and, uniting with the Tambo, forms the Ucayali . Most of these main streams flow through pro-found See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges in a tropical climate, while the upper slopes yield products of the temperate See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone, and the plateaus above are_cold and See also:

• BLEAK, or BLICK (Alburnus lucidus)

bleak, affording only pasture and the hardiest cereals . The great variety of See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation within the sierra produces vegetation belonging to every zone . There is a tropical flora in the Slerran deep gorges, higher up a sub-tropical, then a See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper-Fl~aand ate, then a sub-See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

arctic flora . In ascending from the See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna. coast-valleys there is first an arid range, where the great-branched cacti rear themselves up among the rocks .

.••P!-rther inland, where the rains are more plentiful, is the native See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home' of the See also:

• POTATO
• POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

potato . Here also are other See also:

• PLANTS

plants with edible toots—the oca (Oxalis tuberosa), ulluca (Ullucus tuberosus), maslita (Tropteolum tuberosum), and learc6 (Polymnia sonchifolia) . Among the first wild shrubs and trees that are met with are the chilca (Baccharis Feuillei), with a See also:

• PRETTY

pretty yellow See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower, the Mutisia acuminata, with beautiful red and See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange flowers, several species of Senecio, calceolarias, the Schinus molle, with its graceful branches and bunohes of red berries, and at higher elevations the lambras (Alnus acuminata), the See also:

• SAUCE

sauce (Sambucus peruviana), the quenuar (Buddleia incana), and the Polylepis racemosa . The Buddleia, locally called See also:

• OLIVA, FERNAN PEREZ DE (1492?-1530)

oliva See also:

• SILVESTRE, PAUL ARMAND (1837-1901)

silvestre, flourishes at a height of 12,000 ft. round the shores of Lake Titicaca . The most numerously represented See also:

• FAMILY

family is the See also:

• COMPOSITAE

Compositae, the See also:

• GRASSES

grasses being next in number . The temperate valleys of the sierra yield fruits of many kinds . Those Indigenous to the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country are the delicious chirtimoyas, palters or See also:

• ALLIGATOR (Spanish el lagarto, " the lizard ")

alligator See also:

• PEARS

pears, the paccay, a species of Inge, the lucma, and the See also:

• GRANADILLA

granadilla or fruit of the See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion-flower . Vineyards and sugar-cane yield crops in the warmer ravines; the sub-tropical valleys are famous for splendid crops of See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize; See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley thrive on the mountain slopes; and at heights from 7000 to 13,000 ft. there are crops of quinua (See also:

• CHENOPODIUM

Chenopodium quinua) . In the loftiest regions the pasture chiefly consists of a coarse grass (Stipa ychu), of which the llamas eat the upper See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades and the See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep browse on the See also:

• TENDER

tender shoots beneath . There are also two kinds of shrubby plants, a thorny Composita called " ccanlli " and another, called ` tola," which is a resinous Baccharis and is used for See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel . The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Andes are the domestic llamas and alpacas and the wild vicunas . There are See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, called taruco (Cervus antisensis); the See also:

• VISCACHA, or

viscacha, a large rodent; a species of See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox called atoc; and the See also:

• PUMA

puma (Felis concolor) and ucumari or black bear with a white muzzle, when driven by See also:

• HUNGER

hunger, wander into the loftier regions .

The largest bird is the See also:

• CONDOR (Sarcorhamphus gryphus)

condor, and there is another bird of the See also:

• VULTURE

vulture tribe, with a black and white wing See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather formerly used by the Incas in their head-See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, called the coraquenque or akamari . The pito is a See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown speckled creeper which flutters about the rocks . There is a little bird, the size of a See also:

• STARLING (0. Eng. staer steam, and slerlyng; Lat. surnus; Fr. etourneau)

starling, with brown back striped with black, and white See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast, which the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call yncahualpa; it utters a monotonous sound at each See also:

• HOUR

hour of the See also:

• NIGHT

night . A See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge called yutu frequents the long grass . On the lakes there is a very handsome See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose, with white See also:

• BODY

body and dark-green wings shading into See also:

• VIOLET

violet, called huachua, two kinds of See also:

• IBIS

ibis, a large gull (Larus serranus) frequenting the alpine lakes in flocks, flamingoes called parihuana, ducks and water-hens . Many pretty little finches See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly about the maize-fields and fruit-gardens, and a little green parakeet is met with as high as 12,000 ft. above the sea . The third See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of Peru is the region of the tropical forests, at the base of the Andes, and within the basin of the Amazon . It is traversed by great navigable rivers . The Maranon, Monts—having burst through the See also:

• DEFILE

defile of the Pongo de Man- seriche (575 ft. above sea level), and the Huallaga through that of Chasuta, enter the forests and unite after separate courses of about 600 and 400 m., the united See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood then flowing eastward to the Brazilian frontier . After 150 m. it is joined by the Ucayali, a great navigable river with a course of 600 m . The country between the Huallaga and the Ucayali, traversed by the Eastern Cordillera, is called the Pampa del See also:

• SACRAMENTO

Sacramento, and is characterized by extensive grassy plains . The forests drained by the Maranon, Huallaga and Ucayali form the northern portion of the Peruvian montana .

The southern half of the montana is watered by streams flowing from the eastern Andes, which go to form the river Madre de Dios or Amaru•mayu, the principal branch of the river Beni, which falls into the Madeira . The region of the Peruvian montana, which is 80o m. long from the Maranon to the Bolivian frontier, is naturally divided into two sections, the sub-tropical forests in the ravines and on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and the dense tropical forests in the Amazonian plain . The sub-tropical section is important from the value of its products and interesting from the grandeur and beauty of its scenery . Long spurs run off from the Andes, gradually decreasing in elevation, and it is sometimes a distance of 6o or 8o m. before they finally subside into the vast See also:

• FOREST

forest-covered plains of the Amazon basin . Numerous rivers flow through the valleys between these spurs, which are the native home of the See also:

• QUININE

quinine-yielding See also:

• CINCHONA

cinchona trees . The most valuable species, called C . Calisaya, is found in the forests of Caravaya in south Peru and in those of Bolivia . The species between Caravaya and the head-waters of the Huallaga yield very little of the febrifuge See also:

• ALKALOID

alkaloid . But the forests of Huanuco and Huamalios abound in species yielding the See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey bark of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, which is rich in cinchonine, an alkaloid efficacious as a febrifuge, though inferior to quinine . With the cinchona trees grow many kinds of melastomaceae, especially the Lasiandra, with masses of See also:

• PURPLE

purple flowers, tree-ferns and palms . In the warm valleys there are large plantations of See also:

• COCA, or CUCA (Erythroxylon coca)

coca (Erythroxylon Coca), the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual produce of which is stated at 15,000,000 lb . The other products of these warm valleys are excellent See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee, See also:

• COCOA

cocoa, sugar, tropical fruits of all kinds, and See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold in abundance .

In the vast untrodden forests farther east there are See also:

• TIMBER

timber trees of many kinds, See also:

• INCENSE

incense trees, a great See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber trees of the Hevea genus, numerous varieties of beautiful palms, See also:

• SARSAPARILLA

sarsaparilla, See also:

• VANILLA

vanilla, See also:

• IPECACUANHA

ipecacuanha and See also:

• COPAIBA, or COPAIVA (from Brazilian cupauba)

copaiba . The abundant and varied fauna is the same as that of the Brazilian forests . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology. i—The Eastern Cordillera, which, however, is but little known, appears to consist, as in Bolivia, chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks; the western ranges of the Andes are formed of Mesozoic beds, together with See also:

• RECENT

recent volcanic lavas and ashes; and the lower hills near the coast are composed of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, See also:

• SYENITE

syenite and other crystalline rocks, sometimes accompanied by limestones and sandstones, which are probably of Lower Cretaceous See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, and often covered by marine See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary deposits . Thus the orographical features of the country correspond broadly with the geological divisions . The constitution of the Mesozoic See also:

• BAND

band varies . Above 'Lima the western chain of the Andes is composed of porphyritic tuffs and massive limestones, while the See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal valley of the Oroya is hollowed in carbonaceous sandstones . From the See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of the neighbouring countries it is possible that some of the tuffs may be Jurassic, but the other deposits probably belong for the most part to the Cretaceous system . The carbonaceous See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone contains See also:

• GAULT

Gault fossils . Like the similar sandstone in Bolivia, it includes seams of See also:

• COAL

coal and is frequently impregnated with See also:

• CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnober)

cinnabar . It is in this sandstone that the rich See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury mines of Huancavelica are worked . Farther north, in the department of See also:

• ANCACHS

Ancachs, .the Mesozoic belt is composed chiefly of sandstones and shales, and the limestones which form so prominent a feature above Lima seem to have disappeared . The Cordillera Negra in this region is in many places cut by numerous dikes of See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite, and it is near these dikes that See also:

• SILVER

silver ores are chiefly 1 See L .

Crosnier, " See also:

• NOTICE

Notice geologique sur See also:

• LES

les departements de Huancavelica et d'Ayacucho," See also:

• ANN

Ann. des mines, 5th See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, vol. ii. pp . 1-43, Pl . I (1852); A . Raimondi, El Deparlamento de Ancachs y See also:

• SUS

sus riquezas minerales (Lima, 1873) ; G . Steinmann, " Ueber Tithon and Kreide in den peruanischcn Anden," Neues Jahrb . (1882), vol. ii. pp . 130-153, Pls . 6-8; K . See also:

• GERHARDT, CHARLES FREDERIC (1816-1856)
• GERHARDT, PAUL (c. 1606–1676)

Gerhardt, " Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Kreideformation in See also:

• VENEZUELA

Venezuela and Peru," Neues Jahrb., Beil.-Bd . XI . (1897), pp . 65-117, Pls .

1, 2 ; J . Grzybowski, "Die Tertiarablagerungen des nordlichen Peru and ihre Molluskenfauna," Neues Jahrb., See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell.-Bd . XII . (1899), pp . 610-664, Pls . 15-20 . found .. In the Cordillera Nevada the Mesozoic rocks which form the chain are often covered by masses of modern volcanic rock . Similar rocks are also found in the Cordillera Negra, but the volcanic centres appear to have been in the Sierra Nevada . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The first trustworthy enumeration of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of Peru was made in 1793, when there were 617,700 Indians, 241,225 mestizos (Indian and white inter-mixture), 136,311 Spaniards, 40,337 See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro slaves and 41,404 mulattoes, making a See also:

• TOTAL

total of 1,076,977, exclusive of the wild Indians of the montana . See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

Viceroy See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo's enumeration of the Indians in 1575 gave them a total of 8,000,000, the greater part of whom had been sacrificed by Spanish See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty . Others had withdrawn into the mountains and forests, and in the native villages under Spanish See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth See also:

• RATE

rate had dropped to a small part of what it had been because• the great bulk of the male population had been segregated in the mines and on the estates of the conquerors .

This tells a See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of depopulation under Spanish See also:

• RULE

rule, to which the abandoned terraces (andenes) on the mountain sides, once highly cultivated, bear testimony . Several diverse totals have been published as the result of the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census taken in 1876, which is considered imperfect . One estimate places the total at 2,660,881, comprising about 13.8% whites, 57.6% Indians, 1.9 % negroes, 1.9% Asiatics, chiefly See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese, and 24.8 % mixed races . In rgo6 estimates were made under See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official auspices (see A . See also:

• GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202—1252)

Garland, Peru in zgo6, Lima, 1907), which gave the population as 3,547,829, including Tacna (8000) . It is believed, however, that this and other larger estimates are excessive . There is no considerable See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration . The population of Peru is mixed, including whites, Indians, Africans, Asiatics, and their mixtures and sub-mixtures . The dominant See also:

• RACE

race is of Spanish origin, to a considerable extent mixed with Indian See also:

• BLOOD

blood . The Indians are in great part descendants of the various tribes organized under the rule of the Incas at the time of the Spanish See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest . There are two distinct general types—the coast tribes occupying the fertile river valleys, who are employed on the plantations, in domestic service in the cities, or in small See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries of their own, no longer numerous; and the sierra tribes, who are agriculturists, miners, stock-breeders and packers, still comparatively numerous . In addition to these are the tribes of wild Indians of the montana region, or eastern forests, who were never under Inca rule and are still practically See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent .

Their number is estimated at 150,000 to 300,000, divided into 112 tribes, and differing widely in habits, customs and material See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . Some live in settled communities and roughly cultivate the See also:

• SOIL

soil . Others are hunters and fishermen and are nomadic in See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit . Others are intractable forest tribes, having no relations with the whites . The sierra or upland Indians, the most numerous and strongest type, belong largely to the See also:

• QUICHUA

Quichua and See also:

• AYMARA (anc. Cella)

Aymara families, the former inhabiting the regions northward of Cuzo, and the latter occupying the Titicaca basin and the sierras of Bolivia . These Indians are generally described as Cholos, a name sometimes mistakenly applied to the mestizos, while the tribes of the eastern forests are called Ckunchos, barbaros, or simply Indians . The Cholos may be roughly estimated at about 1,800,000 and form by far the larger part of the sierra population . Practically all the industries and occupations of this extensive region depend upon them for labourers and servants . The mestizos are of mixed Spanish and Indian blood . There are two general classes—the costenos or those of the coast, and the serranos or those of the sierras . The mestizos of the coast are usually traders, artisans, overseers, See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and clerks, and small politicians . In the sierras they have the same general occupations, but there are no social bars to their See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement, and they become lawyers, physicians, priests, merchants, officials and capitalists .

The African and See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic elements furnish only about 2 % each of the population . The Africans were introduced as slaves soon after the conquest, because the coast Indians were physically incapable of performing the work required of them on the sugar estates . All the heavy labour in the coast provinces was performed by them down to 1855, when African See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery was abolished . They have since preferred to live in the towns,although many continue on the plantations . The first Chinese coolies were introduced in 1849 to supply labourers on the sugar estates, which had begun to feel the effects of the suppression of the African slave See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic . At first the coolies were treated with cruelty . The scandals that resulted led to investigations and severe restrictions, and their employment now has become a See also:

• MATTER

matter of voluntary See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract, usually for two years, in which See also:

• FAIR

fair dealing and good treatment are the rule . Many Chinese are also settled in the coast cities . Commercial relations have also been opened with See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, and a small See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony has been added to the population . The Spanish and African cross is to be seen in the mulattoes, quadroons and octoroons that inhabit the warm coast cities . Other race mixtures consist of the zambos (the African-Indian cross), an Asiatic See also:

• GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier " grail," through the French from the Late Lat. graphium, a stylus or pencil)

graft upon these various crosses, and an extremely confusing intermixture of the various crosses, for which the Spanish races have descriptive appellations . The See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign population is chiefly concentrated in Lima and Callao, though See also:

• MINING

mining and other industries have See also:

• DRAWN

drawn small contingents to other places .

See also:

• EDUCATION

Education.—See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

Universities and colleges were founded in Peru soon after the conquest, and Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa and See also:

• CHUQUISACA

Chuquisaca (now the Bolivian town of See also:

• SUCRE, or CHUQUISACA

Sucre) became centres of considerable intellectual activity . Something was done for the education of the sons of the Indian " See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility," See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools being created at Lima and Cuzco . The university of San Marcos at Lima is the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest collegiate institution in the New See also:

• WORLD

World, originating in a See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant from See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles V. in 1551 to the See also:

• DOMINICANS

Dominicans for the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college in their monastery at Lima . Its See also:

• PRESENT

present name, however, was not adopted until 1574, two years after its first See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular See also:

• RECTOR (Lat. for " ruler," " guide," &c., from regere, " rule ")

rector had been chosen . The college of San See also:

• CARLOS, DON (1545-1568)
• CARLOS, DON (1788-1855)
• CARLOS, DON (CHARLES MARIA DE LOS DOLORES JUAN ISIDOR.E JOSEPH FRANCIS QUIRIN ANTONY MICHAEL GABRIEL RAPHAEL) (1848—1909)

Carlos was founded in 1770, and the school of See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine in 1792 . At Cuzco the university of San See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio Abad was founded in 1598, and the college of San Geronimo at Arequipa in 1616 . The instruction given in these institutions was of the religious-scholastic See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of that time, and was wholly under the supervision of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence opened the way for a larger measure of intellectual and educational progress, especially for the lower classes . As organized under the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the 5th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1905, See also:

• PRIMARY

primary instruction is See also:

• FREE

free and nominally obligatory, and is under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . The primary schools are divided into two grades: a free elementary course of two years, and a higher course of three years, in a school called the " scholastic centre," in which learning a trade is included . There were 1508 elementary schools and 862 scholastic centres in 1906 . There are, besides these, a large number of private schools, which in 1906 carried about 22,000 pupils on their rolls, or three times the number in the public primary schools .

To provide teachers six normal schools have been established, two of which (one for See also:

• MALES

males and one for See also:

• FEMALES

females) are in Lima . For intermediate or secondary instruction there are 23 national colleges for boys in the various departmental capitals, and three similar colleges for girls, in Ayacucho, Cuzco and Trujillo . In these the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of pupils were under the direction, of Belgian and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German instructors . The private schools of this grade are still more numerous, and there are a number of See also:

• SPECIAL

special schools that belong to the same See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category . For higher instruction there are four universities: the Universidad See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

Mayor de San Marcos at Lima, and three provincial institutions at Arequipa, Cuzco and Trujillo . All these have faculties of letters and law, and San Marcos has in addition faculties of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, medicine, See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics and See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy and administrative and See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• ECONOMY

economy . The professional schools include a school of See also:

• CIVIL

civil and mining See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering at Lima (created 1876), a military school at Chorrillos under the direction of See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French instructors, a See also:

• NAVAL

naval school at Callao, nine episcopal seminaries (one for each See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese), a national agricultural school in the vicinity of Lima (created 1902), and a few commercial schools . There is also a correctional school at Lima devoted to the education and training of youthful delinquents . Science and Literature.—Towards the end of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century scientific studies began to receive See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention in Peru . M . See also:

• GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE (1817–1888)

Godin, a member of the French commission for measuring an arc of the meridian near See also:

• QUITO

Quito, became See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of mathematics at San Marcos in 1750; and the botanical expeditions sent out from Spain gave further zest to scientific See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research . Dr See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel Moreno (d .

1809), a native of Huamantanga in the Maritime Cordillera, studied under Dr See also:

• JUSSIEU, DE

Jussieu, and became an eminent botanist . See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don Hipolito Unanue, See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at Arica in 1755, wrote an important work on the climate of Lima and contributed to the Mercurio peruano . This periodical was started in 1791 at Lima, the contributors forming a society called " amantes del pals," and it was completed in eleven volumes . It contains many valuable articles on See also:

• HISTORY

history, See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography, See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany, mining, commerce and See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics . An See also:

• EPHEMERIS (Greek for a " diary ")

ephemeris and See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide to Peru was begun by the learned geographer Dr Cosme Bueno, and continued by Dr Unanue, who brought out his guides at Lima from 1793 to 1798 . In 1794 a nautical school was founded at Lima, with See also:

• ANDRES, JUAN (1740-1817)

Andres Baleato as instructor and Pedro See also:

• ALVAREZ, DON JOSE (1768-1827)
• ALVAREZ, DON MANUEL (1727-1797)
• ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO (c. 1465-1541?)

Alvarez as teacher of the use of See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments . Baleato also constructed a See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of Peru . A See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of Peruvian authors in viceregal times occupies a long See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter assisted by J . J. von See also:

• TSCHUDI, or SCHUDY

Tschudi, on the antiquities of Peru (Antiguein the life of St Toribio1 by Montalvo; and the See also:

• BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

bibliographical labours of the Peruvian See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon Pinelo are still invaluable to Spanish students . The most prolific author of colonial times was Dr Pedro de Peralta y Barnuevo, who wrote more than sixty See also:

• WORKS

works, including an epic poem entitled Lima fundada . The topographical labours of Cosme Bueno and Unanue were ably continued at Lima by See also:

• ADMIRAL

Admiral Don Eduardo Carrasco, who compiled annual guides of Peru from 1826 . But the most eminent Peruvian geographer is Dr Don Mariano Felipe Paz Soldan (1821–1886), whose Geografia del Peru appeared in 1861 .

His still more important work, the Diccionario geografico estadistico del Peru (1877), is a gazetteer on a most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . In 1868 appeared his first volume of the Historia del Peru independiente, and two others have since been published . His Historia de la guerra del Pacifico is the Peruvian version of that disastrous war . The earlier history of Peru has been written in three volumes by See also:

• SEBASTIAN
• SEBASTIAN, ST

Sebastian Lorente (d . 1884) ; Mariano Rivero has discussed its antiquities; and See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel Fuentes has edited six volumes of See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs written by Spanish viceroys . But the most valuable and important historical work by a modern Peruvian is General Mendiburu's (1805–1885) Diccionario historico-biografico del Peru, a See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument of patient and conscientious research, combined with See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical discernment of a high See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . As laborious historical students, Don Jose Toribio See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo, the author of an ecclesiastical history of Peruvian dioceses, and Don Enrique Torres Saldamando, the historian of the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits in Peru, have great merit . Among good local See also:

• ANNALISTS (from Lat. annas, year; hence annales, sc. libri, annual records)

annalists may be mentioned Juan Gilberto See also:

• VALDIVIA

Valdivia, who has written a history of Arequipa, and Pio Benigno See also:

• MESA (Span. mesa, from Lat. mensa, a table)

Mesa, the author of the See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

Annals of Cuzco . The leading Peruvian authors on constitutional and legal subjects are Dr Jose Santistevan, who has published volumes on civil and criminal law; Luis Felipe Villaran (subsequently rector of the university at Lima), author of a work on constitutional right ; Dr Francisco See also:

• GARCIA
• GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832)

Garcia See also:

• CALDERON, RODRIGO (d. 1621), COUNT OF OLIVA AND MARQUES DE LAS SIETE IGLESIAS

Calderon (once president of Peru), author of a See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary of Peruvian legislation, in two volumes; Dr Francisco Xavier Mariategui, one of the fathers of Peruvian independence; and Dr Francisco de Paula See also:

• VIGIL (Lat. vigilia, "watch ")

Vigil (1792-1875), orator and statesman as well as author, whose work, Defense de los gobiernos, is a See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble and enlightened statement of the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case for civil governments against the pretensions of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . Manuel A . Fuentes, an able statistician and the author of the Estadistica de Lima, has also written a See also:

• MANUAL

manual of See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary practice . Perhaps the most important work on Peru of modern times is that of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian savant Antonio Raimondi (1825-189o), who spent the greater part of his life in studying the topography and natural resources of the country .

Only four volumes had been published at the time of his See also:

• DEATH

death, but he See also:

• LEFT

left a mass of papers and See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts which the government has put in the hands of the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Society of Lima for publication . His great work is entitled El Peru: estudios mineralogicos, &c . (3 vols., Lima, 1890-1902), and one separate volume on the department of Ancachs . Peruvian literature since the independence has also attained high merit in the walks of See also:

• POETRY

poetry and See also:

• ROMANCE

romance . The Guayaquil author, Olmedo, who wrote the famous See also:

• ODE (Gr. uiSri, from aei&ew, to sing)

ode on the victory of Junin, and the Limenians Felipe Pardo and Manuel See also:

• SEGURA (anc. Tader)

Segura are names well known wherever the Spanish See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language is spoken . Both died between 186o and 187o . The comedies of Segura on the customs of Lima society, entitled Un Paseo a Amancaes and La Saya y Manto, have no equal in the dramatic literature of Spanish America and few in that of modern Spain . From 1848 date the first poetical efforts of Arnaldo Marquez, who is distinguished for his correct diction and rich See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination, as is See also:

• NICOLAS
• NICOLAS, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS (1799–1848)

Nicolas Corpancho for his dramas and a volume of poems entitled Brisas, Adolfo Garcia for a beautiful See also:

• SONNET (Ital. Sonetto, dim. of Suono, Fr. Sonnet)

sonnet to See also:

• BOLIVAR
• BOLIVAR, SIMON (1783-1830)

Bolivar, which was published at See also:

• HAVRE
• HAVRE, LE

Havre in 187o, in his one volume of poems, and Clemente Althaus for his productivity and See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style . Pedro Paz Soldan was a classical See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar who published three volumes of poems . Carlos Augusto Salaverry is known as one of Peru's best lyrical poets, and Luis See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin Cisneros for his two novels, Julia and Edgardo . See also:

• TRINIDAD

Trinidad See also:

• FERNANDEZ, ALVARO
• FERNANDEZ, DIEGO
• FERNANDEZ, JOHN (Joao, Joam)
• FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570)
• FERNANDEZ, LUCAS

Fernandez and Constantino carrasco were two poets of merit who died See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young, the principal work of the latter being his metrical version of the Quichua See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama, 011antay . Jose Antonio Lavalle and Narciso Arestegui are chiefly known as novelists .

In his youth See also:

• RICARDO, DAVID (1772-1823)

Ricardo See also:

• PALMA, JACOPO (c. 1480-1528)
• PALMA, or PALMA DE MALLORCA
• PALMA, or SAN MIGUEL DE LA PALMA

Palma published three books of poems, entitled Armonias, Verbos y Gerundios and Pasionarias, and then, since 187o, devoted his great literary talents to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing the historical traditions of Peru, of which six volumes were published . At the outbreak of the war with Chile he was See also:

• VICE

vice-director of the national library at Lima, which was wantonly pillaged by the Chilean forces . After the evacuation of Lima by the Chileans Palma devoted his life to the recovery of his scattered books and the acquisition of new collections, and he had the See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction before his death of re-opening the library, which had obtained about 30,000 volumes, or three-fourths of the number on its shelves before the Chilean invasion . Of the aboriginal inhabitants of Peru much has been written . The important work of Mariano Eduardo Rivero, of Arequipa, 1 The city of Lima produced two See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, the See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop St Toribio, who flourished from 1578 to 16o6, and Santa Rosa, the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of the city of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings (1586–1616), whose festival is celebrated on the 26th of August . Jades peruanas, See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1841; Eng. trans., New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, 1853) has been followed by other investigators into the language, literature, customs and See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of the Incas . The best known of these are Jose Sebastian Barranca, the naturalist and See also:

• ANTIQUARY

antiquary, Jose Fernandez Nodal, and Gavino See also:

• PACHECO, FRANCISCO (1571-1654)

Pacheco Zegarra of Cuzco, who published See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations of the Inca drama of 011antay, and Leonardo Villar, of Cuzco . Among Peruvian naturalists since the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the republic, the most distinguished have been Mariano Eduardo Rivero, the geologist, mineralogist and archaeologist, and his friend and colleague Nicolas de Pierola, authors of Memorial de ciencias naturales . The Lima Geographical Society (founded in 1888) is perhaps the best and most active scientific organization in the republic . Its special work covers national geographical exploration and study, See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology, statistics and climatology, and its quarterly bulletins contain invaluable See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . The society receives a government See also:

• SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

subsidy, and its rooms in the national library in Lima are the principal centre of scientific study in Peru . It had an active membership of 163 in 1906, besides 172 honorary and corresponding members .

The historical See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute of Peru, also at Lima, is charged by the government, from which it receives a liberal subsidy, with the work of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting, preparing and See also:

• PUBLISHING

publishing documents See also:

• RELATING

relating to Peruvian history, and of preserving See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of archaeological and historic character . Its museum, which is of great historical and See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic value and includes a collection of portraits of the Peruvian viceroys and presidents, is in the upper floors of the Exposition See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

Palace . Another subsidized national society is the athenleum, which was founded in 1877 as the " literary See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club," and reorganized in 1887 under its present See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title . Its purpose is to See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

foster learning and literary effort, and it is a popular and prominent feature in the intellectual life of the country . Religion.—According to the constitution of 186o "the nation professes the apostolic See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic religion; the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state protects it, and does not permit the public exercise of any other." There is a certain degree of tolerance, however, and the See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican and some of the evangelical churches are permitted to establish See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions in the country, but not always without hostile demonstrations from the Catholic priesthood . There are Anglican churches in Lima and Cuzco, belonging to the diocese of the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop of the See also:

• FALKLAND
• FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY

Falkland Islands; but their existence is illegal and is ignored rather than permitted . In its ecclesiastical organization Peru is divided into nine dioceses: Lima, which is an archbishopric, Arequipa, Puno, Cuzco, Ayacucho, Huanuco, See also:

• HUARAZ

Huaraz, Trujillo and Chachapoyas . These dioceses are subdivided into 613 curacies, presided over by curas, or See also:

• CURATE (from the Lat. curare, to take care of)

curate-vicars . Each diocese has its See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

seminary for the education of the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood, that of Arequipa being distinguished for its influence in church affairs . Arequipa, like See also:

• CORDOBA
• CORDOBA, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE (1453–15.15)

Cordoba and Chuquisaca, is a stronghold of clericalism and exercises a decisive influence in politics as well as in church matters . There are a number of fine churches in Lima and in the See also:

• SEES

sees of the various dioceses . Monasteries and nunneries are numerous, dating back to the 16th and 17th centuries, but their influence is now less potent than in those days and the monastic population is not so large .

In modern times many of the convents have been devoted to educational work especially for girls, which is an obstacle to the successful development of a public school system in the country . Political Divisions.—The See also:

• EMPIRE

empire of the Incas was divided into four main divisions, Chinchay-suyu to the north of Cuzco, See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Anti-suyu to the east, Colla-suyu to the south and Cunti-suyu to the west, the whole empire being called Ttahuantin-suyu, or the four governments . Each was ruled by a viceroy, under whom were the " huaranca-camayocs," or officers ruling over thousands, and inferior officers, in regular order, over 500, ioo, 5o and so men . All disorders and irregularities were checked by the periodical visits of the tucuyricocs or inspectors . The Spanish conquest destroyed this complicated system . In 156cg the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, Lope Garcia de See also:

• CASTRO, INEZ DE (d. 1355)
• CASTRO, JOAO DE (1500-1548)

Castro, divided Peru into corregimientos under officers named corregidors, of whom there were 77, each in direct communication with the government at Lima . An important administrative reform was made in 1784, when Peru was divided into 7 intendencias, each under an officer called an intendente . These intendencias included about 6 of the old corregimientos, which were called partidos, under officers naliled subdelegados . Thus the number of officers See also:

• REPORTING

reporting direct to Lima was reduced from 77 to 7, a great improvement . The republic adopted the same system, calling the intendencias departments, under a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect, and the partidos provinces, under a sub-prefect . Peru is divided into z8 departments, 2 littoral provinces, and what is called the constituticnal province of Callao . This is exclusive of Tacna and its 3 provinces .

The departments, which contain 98 provinces, with their areas, capitals and estimated populations of 1906, are as follow the list being arranged to show the coast, sierra and montana divisions: Departments . Area Estimated See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

Capital . Estimated sq. m. pop., 1906 . pop., 1906 . Coast:- 14,849 154,080 Piura . 9,100 Piura . Lambayeque . 4,615 93,070 Chiclayo . io,000 See also:

• LIBERTAD, or LA LIBERTAD

Libertad . . 10,209 188,200 Trujillo . 6,500 Ancachs . 16,567 317,050 Huaraz . 13,000 Lima .

13,314 250,000 Lima (1903) . 140,000 Ica (or Yca) 8,721 68,220 Ica . 6,000 Arequipa . . 21,953 171,750 Arequipa 28,000 Sierra:- 12,542 333,310 See also:

• CAJAMARCA, or CAXAMARCA

Cajamarca 9,000 Cajamarca Huanuco . 14,028 108,980 Huanuco . 6,000 Junin . 23,354 305,700 Cerro de Pasco 10,000 Huancavelica 9,254 167,840 Huancavelica 6,000 Ayacucho 18,190 226,85o Ayacucho . 15,000 Apurimac 8,189 133,000 Abancay . 2,400 Cuzco . . 156,317 328,980 Cuzco . . 23,000 Puno . 41,211 403,000 Puno .

. . 4,500 Montana:- 13,947 53,000 Chachapoyas . 4,500 See also:

• AMAZONAS

Amazonas , See also:

• LORETO

Loreto 238,493 I20,000 See also:

• IQUITOS

Iquitos 6,000 San See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin . 30,745 33,000 Moyobamba 7,500 Littoral 1,981 8,000 Tumbez 2,300 Provinces:- Tumbez . Callao 14i 33,879 Callao (1905) . 31,128 Moquegua 5,5502 31,92o Moquegua . 5,000 Apart from the departmental capitals there are few towns of size and importance . The so-called coast towns are commonly at some distance from the seashore, and their See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping ports are little more than a straggling collection of wretched habitations in the vicinity of the landing-See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage and its offices and See also:

• WARE

ware-houses . Callao (q.v.) is a noteworthy exception, and Paita and Pisco are something more than the See also:

• AVERAGE

average coast village . Near Lima, on the south, there are three bathing resorts, Chorrillos, Miraflores and Barranco, which have handsome residences and large populations in the bathing season . North of Lima is the port and bathing resort of Ancon, in an extremely arid locality but having a fine See also:

• BEACH

beach, a healthy climate and a considerable population in the season . The towns of the coast region are usually built on the same general See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan, the streets See also:

• CROSSING

crossing each other at right angles and enclosing squares, or quadras .

In the sierra there is the same regular plan wherever the site is level enough . High-pitched red tiled See also:

• ROOFS

roofs take the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat roofs of the coast . The upper See also:

• STOREY (equivalents are Fr. etage, Ital. piano, Ger. Stock)

storey often recedes, leaving wide corridors under the overhanging See also:

• EAVES (not a plural form as is sometimes supposed, but singular; O. Eng. efes, in Mid. High Ger. obse, Gothic ubizwa, a porch; connected with " over ")

eaves, and in the " plazas " there are frequently covered arcades . In addition to the capitals of the departments, Tarma (about 4000) and Xauxa, or Jauja (about 3000), are important towns of this region . In the montana there are no towns of importance other than the capitals of the departments and the small river ports . Communications.-The problem of easy and cheap transportation between the coast and the interior has been a vital one for Peru, for upon it depends the economic development of some of the richest parts of the republic . The arid character of the coastal zone, with an average width of about 8o m., permits cultivation of the soil only where water for irrigation is available . Only in the sierra and montana regions is it possible to maintain a large population and develop the industries upon which their success as. a nation depends . During colonial times and down to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th century See also:

• PACK (apparently from the root pak-, paq-, seen in Lat. pangere, to fasten; cf. " compact ")
• PACK, OTTO VON (c. 1480-1537)

pack animals were the only means of transportation across the desert and over the rough mountain trails . Railway construction in Peru began in 1848 with a short line from Callao to Lima, but the See also:

• BUILDING

building of railway lines across the desert to the inland towns of the fertile river valleys and the Andean foot-hills did not begin until twenty years later . These roads added much to the productive resources of the country, but their See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension to the sierra districts was still a vital See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity . Under the administration (1868-1872) of President Jose See also:

• BALTA

Balta the construction of two transandean and several coastal zone See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways was begun, but their completion became impossible for want of funds .

Balta's plans covered 1281 in. of state railways and 749 M. of private lines, the estimated cost to be about £37,500,000-a sum far beyond the resources of the republic . The two transandean lines were the famous Oroya railway, running from Callao to Oroya (1893), which crosses the Western Cordillera at an elevation of 15,645 ft.,and later on to Cerro de Pasco (1904), the Goillarisquisga coal mines (1904) and Hauri (1906); and the southern line from Mollendo to Lake Titicaca, which reached Arequipa in 1869, Puno in 1871 and Checcacupe (Cuzco branch) in 1906 . Surveys were completed in 1909 for an extension of the Oroya line from a point on its Cerro de Pasco branch eastward to the Ucayali, and another transandean line frequently discussed is projected from Paita across the Andes to Puerto See also:

• LIMON, or PORT LIMON

Limon, on the Maranon-a distance of 410 M . The most important means of communication in the republic is that of its river system, comprising, as it does, the navigable channels of the Maranon, or upper Amazon, and its tributaries . It is officially estimated that this system comprises no less than 20,000 m. of connected riverways navigable at high water for all descriptions of boats, or Io,000 m. for steamers of 20 to 2 ft. See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught, which is reduced to 5800 m. at low water . The rivers forming this system are the Maranon from Puerto Limon to Tabatinga on the Brazilian frontier (484 m.), the Japura, Putumayo, Javary, Napo, See also:

• TIGRE

Tigre, Huallaga, Ucayali, Pachitea, Jurua, Purus, See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

Acre, Curaray and Aguarico all navigable over parts of their courses for steamers of 4 to 8 ft. draught in periods of high water . As for the Maranon, it is claimed that steamers of 20 ft. draught can ascend to Puerto Limon at all seasons of the year . The inclusion of the upper waters of the Brazilian rivers Jurua, Purus and Acre is pro forma only, as they are wholly under Brazilian See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction . Practically the whole of the region through which these rivers run-the montana of Peru-is undeveloped, and is inhabited by Indians, with a few settlements of whites on the river courses . Its chief port is Iquitos, on the Maranon, 335 in. above the Brazilian frontier and 2653 M. from the mouth of the Amazon . It is visited by ocean-going steamers, and is the centre of the Peruvian river transportation system . The second port in importance is Yurimaguas, on the Huallaga, 143 in. from the mouth of that river and 528 m. from Iquitos, with which it is in regular communication .

There are small ports, or trading posts, on all the large rivers, and occasional steamers are sent to them with supplies and to bring away rubber and other forest products . Of the rivers farther south, which See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge into the Amazon through the Madeira, the Madre de Dios alone offers an extended navigable channel, together with some of its larger tributaries, such as the Heath and Chandless . Of a widely different character is the See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of Lake Titicaca, where steamers ply regularly between Puno and Guaqui, the latter on the south-east shore in railway connexion with La Paz, the capital of Bolivia . This is one of the most remarkable steamer routes in the world, being 12,370 ft. above sea-level . The lake is 165 m. long and from 70 to 8o m. wide and has a number of small Indian villages on its shores . There are two submarine See also:

• CABLE (from Late Lat. capulum, a halter, from capere, to take hold of)
• CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844– )

cable lines on the Peruvian coast-the (See also:

• AMERICAN

American) Central and South American Co. extending from See also:

• PANAMA

Panama to See also:

• VALPARAISO

Valparaiso, and the (See also:

• BRITISH

British) West Coast Cable Co., subsidiary to the Eastern See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

Telegraph Co., with a cable between Callao and Valparaiso . The inland telegraph service See also:

• DATES

dates from 1864, when a short line from Callao to Lima was constructed, and state ownership from 1875, when the government assumed control of all lines within the republic, some of which were subsequently handed over to private administration . They connect all the important cities, towns and ports, but See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover only a small part of the republic . The cost of erecting and maintaining telegraph lines in the sierra and montana regions is too great to permit their extensive use, and the government is seeking. to substitute wireless telegraphy . From Puerto See also:

• BERMUDEZ

Bermudez, on the Pachitea or Pichis river, the terminus of a government road and telegraph line, a wireless system connects with Massisea on the Ucayali, and thence with Iquitos, on the Maranon-a distance of 930 in. by steamer, which is much shortened by direct communication between the three radiographic stations . This service was opened to Iquitos on the 8th of July 1908, the first section between Puerto Bermudez and Massisea having been pronounced a success . The Peruvian telegraph system connects with those of Ecuador and Bolivia .

The use of the See also:

• TELEPHONE (Gr. rjXs, far, and dxwvr7, voice)

telephone is general, 5236 M. being in operation in 1906 . The postal service is unavoidably limited and defective, owing to the rugged character of the country, its sparse population, and the large percentage of illiterates . On the coast, however, in and near the large cities and towns, it compares well with other South American countries . Peru belongs to the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international postal See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union, and had in 1906 a See also:

• MONEY

money order and parcels See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange with seven foreign states . A noteworthy peculiarity in the foreign See also:

• MAIL

mail service is that an extra See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of 2 cents for each See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter and 1 cent for each See also:

• POST

post-card is collected when they are sent across the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus of Panama . No charge is made for the transmission of See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers within the republic . The letter rate is 5 cents silver for 15 grams, or to cents to foreign countries in the postal union . Commerce.-Owing to political disorder, difficulty in See also:

• LAND

land communications, and the See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance of vicious fiscal methods from Spanish colonial administration, the commercial development of Peru has been slow and erratic . There are many ports on the coast, but only eight of them are rated as first class, viz . Paita, Eten, Pacasmayo, Salaverry, Callao, Pisco, Mollendo and See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito, five of which are ports of call for foreign See also:

• COASTING

coasting steamers . The inland port of Iquitos, on the Maranon, is also rated as first class, and enjoys special privileges because of its distance from the nationaS capital . The second-class ports are Tumbez, Talara, Pimentel, alfalfa; Indian corn, oca (Oxalis tuberosa) and potatoes are the Chimbote, Samanco, Casma, Huacho, Cerro-Azul, Tambo de See also:

• MORA, JOSE (1638-1725)
• MORA, or MORRA (Ital. delay)

Mora, Lomas and Chala, on the coast, Puno on Lake Titicaca, and Leticia on the Amazon near the western mouth of the Javary .

Callao (q.v.) is the chief port of the republic and monopolizes the greater part of its foreign trade . Its See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour, one of the best on the west coast of South America, has been greatly improved by the port works begun under the administration of President Balta . Paita and Chimbote have good natural harbours, but the others, for the most part, are open roadsteads or unsheltered bays . Mollendo is a shipping port for Bolivian exports sent over the railway from Puno . There were 12 foreign steamship lines trading at Peruvian ports in 1908, some of them making regular trips up and down the coast at frequent intervals and carrying much of its coastwise traffic . Foreign sailing vessels since 1886 have not been permitted to engage in this traffic, but permission is given to See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-See also:

• SHIPS

ships on application and under certain conditions . The imports were valued in 1907 at 55,147,870 soles (to soles =t stg.) and the exports at 57,477,320 soles—the former showing a considerable increase and the latter a small decrease in comparison with 1906 . The exports consist of cotton, sugar, See also:

• COCAINE, C17H21NO4

cocaine, hides and skins, rubber and other forest products, See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, guano and See also:

• MINERAL

mineral products . The most important export is sugar, the products of the mines ranking second . The largest See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in'Peru's foreign trade is taken by Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, Chile ranking second and the United States third . Products.—Although her mining industries have been the longest and most widely known, the principal source of Peru's wealth is See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture . This seems incompatible with the arid character of the country and the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar conditions of its See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, [but irrigation has been successfully employed in the fertile valleys of the coast .

A griculture.—Sugar-cane is cultivated in most of the coast valleys, and with exceptional success in those of the Canete, Rimac, Chancay, Huaura, Supe, Santa, Chicama, Pacasmayo and Chiclayo . Some of the large estates are owned and worked by British subjects . The See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry was nearly ruined by the Chileans in 188o, but its recovery soon followed the termination of the war and the output has been steadily increasing . At the outbreak of the war the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production was about 8o,000 tons; in 1905 the production of sugar and See also:

• MOLASSES

molasses amounted to 161,851 metric tons, of which 134,344 were exported . In 1906 the total production reached 169,418 metric tons . Next in importance is cotton, which is grown along the greater part of the Peruvian coast, but chiefly in the departments of Piura, Lima and Ica . Four kinds are produced: rough cotton or " See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable wool," sea island, brown or Mitafifi, and smooth or American . Production is steadily increasing, the export having been 8000 metric tons in 1900, 17,386 in 1905 and 20,000 in 1906 . Local See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption required about 2500 tons in 1905 . See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice is an important See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop in the inundated lands of Lambayeque and Libertad . It is a universal See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food in Peru, and the output is consumed in the country . Maize is another important food product which is generally cultivated along the coast and in the lower valleys of the sierra .

In some places two or three crops a year are obtained . It is the See also:

• STAPLE

staple food everywhere, and little is exported . It is largely used in the manufacture of chicha, a fermented drink popular among the lower classes . See also:

• TOBACCO

Tobacco is grown in the department of Piura, and in the montana departments of Loreto, Amazonas and Cajamarca . The local consumption is large and the export small . Another montana product is coffee, whose successful development is prevented`by difficult transport . A See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior quality of See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean is produced in the eastern valleys of the Andes, especially in the Chanchamayo valley . Cacao is another montana product, although like coffee it is cultivated in the warm valleys of the sierra, but the export is small . With cheap transport to the coast the production of coffee and cacao must largely increase . Coca (Erythroxylon coca) is a product peculiar to the eastern Andean slopes of Bolivia and Peru, where it has long been cultivated for its leaves . These are See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-dried, packed in See also:

• BALES [BALESIUS], PETER (1547–1610?)

bales, and distributed throughout the sierra region, where coca is used by the natives as a stimulant . The Cholos are never without it, and with it are able to perform incredible tasks with little food .

The common manner of using it is to masticate the dried leaves with a little See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime . Cocaine is also derived from coca leaves, and a considerably quantity of the See also:

• DRUG
• DRUG (from Fr. drogue, a word common in Romance languages, cf. Span. and Ital. droga; the origin of the word is obscure, but may possibly be connected with Dutch droog, dry)

drug is exported . The coca See also:

• SHRUB

shrub is most successfully cultivated at an elevation of 000 to 6000 ft . Fruits in great variety are grown everywhere in Peru, but beyond local See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market demands their commercial production is limited to grapes and See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives . Grapes are produced in many of the irrigated valleys of the coast, such as Chincha, Lunahuana, Ica, See also:

• VITOR

Vitor, Majes, Andaray, Moquegua and Locumba, and the fruit is manufactured into wines and brandies . Excellent clarets and white wines are produced, and the industry is steadily increasing . Olives were introduced early in colonial times and are cultivated in several coast valleys, especially in the provinces of Camana (Arequipa) and Moquegua . The fruit is commonly used for the manufacture of oil, which is consumed in the country, and only a small part is exported . Were large markets available, other fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes and bananas would undoubtedly be extensively cultivated . In the sierra region, wheat, barley, oats, quinua (Chenopodium quinoa), principal products . Wheat is widely grown but the output is not large . Barley and oats are grown for See also:

• FORAGE

forage, but for this purpose alfalfa has become the staple, and without it the mountain pack--trains could not be maintained .

Quinua is an indigenous plant. growing at elevations of 13,500 ft. and more; its See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain is an important food among the upland natives . Potatoes are grown everywhere in the sierras, and with quinua are the only crops that can be raised for human food above 13,000 ft . Yuca (Manihot utilissima), known as See also:

• CASSAVA

cassava in the West Indies and mandioca in Brazil, is also widely cultivated for food and for the manufacture of See also:

• STARCH

starch . There are good pastures in the sierras, and cattle have been successfully reared in some of the departments since the early years of Spanish occupation, chiefly in Ancachs, Cajamarca, Junin, Ayacucho, Puno, and some parts of Cuzco . The development of alfalfa cultivation is extending the area of cattle-breeding somewhat and is improving the quality of the See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef produced . The cattle are commonly small and See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy, Livestock. and, like the Mexican cattle, are able to bear unfavourable conditions . Sheep are reared over a somewhat wider range, exclusively for their wool . The " natives," or descendants of the early importations, are small, long-legged animals whose wool is scanty and poor . Since the end of the 19th century efforts have been made to improve the stock through the importation of merinos, with good results . Sheep ranges under the care of Scottish shepherds have also been established in the department of Junin, the stock being imported from southern See also:

• PATAGONIA

Patagonia, See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia . Goats are raised in Piura and Lambayeque for their skins and See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat, and See also:

• SWINE

swine-breeding for the production of See also:

• LARD (Fr. lard, from Lat. laridum, bacon fat, related to Gr. Naptvos fat, Napos dainty or sweet)

lard has become important in some of the coast valleys immediately north of Lima . Horses are reared only to a limited extent, although there is a demand for them for military purposes .

The government is seeking to promote the industry through the importation of breeding mares from Argentina . Mules are bred in Piura and Apurimac, and are highly esteemed for mountain travel . The chief breeding industry is that of the See also:

• LLAMA

llama, See also:

• ALPACA

alpaca and See also:

• VICUNA

vicuna—animals of the Auchenia family domesticated by the Indians and bred, the first as a pack See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal, and the other two for their wool, hides and See also:

• MEAT

meat . The llama was the only beast of See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden known to the South American natives before the arrival of the Spaniards and is highly serviceable on the difficult trails of the Andes . The alpaca and vicuna are smaller and weaker and have never been used for this service, but their fine, glossy fleeces were used by the Indians in the manufacture of clothing and are still an important commercial asset of the elevated table-lands of Peru and Bolivia . The export of wool in 1905 exceeded 3,300,000 lb . The rearing of these animals requires much See also:

• PATIENCE

patience and skill, in which no one has been able to match the Indian breeders of the Andean plateaus . The natural products of Peru include rubber, See also:

• CABINET

cabinet woods in great variety, cinchona or Peruvian bark and other medicinal products, various See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres, and guano . There are two Forest kinds of rubber supplied by the Peruvian montana products. forests: jebe (also written See also:

• HEBE

hebe) or seringa, and cauchothe former being collected from the Hevea guayanensis, or H. brasiliensis, and the latter from the Castilloa elastica and some other varieties . The Hevea product is obtained annually by tapping the trees and coagulating the See also:

• SAP

sap over a smoky See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, but the caucho is procured by See also:

• FELLING

felling the tree and collecting the sap in a hollow in the ground where it is coagulated by stirring in a mixture of See also:

• SOAP

soap and the juice of a plant called vetilla . As the species from which See also:

• CEARA

Ceara rubber is obtained (Hancorina speciosa) is found in Bolivia, it is probable that this is also a source of the Peruvian caucho . The Hevea is found along the water-courses of the lowlands, which includes the large tributaries of the Maranon, while the caucho species flourish bn higher ground, above 900 ft. elevation .

Owing to the export tax on rubber (8 cents per kilogram on jebe and 5 cents on caucho) it is probable that the official statistics do not cover the total production, which was returned as 2539 metric tons in 1905, valued at £913,989 . The export of cinchona, or Peruvian bark, is not important in itself, being only 64 tons, valued at £1406 in 1905 . The best bark comes from the Carabaya See also:

• DISTRICT

district in south-eastern Peru, but it is found in many localities on the eastern slopes of the Andes . The Peruvian supply is practically exhausted through the destructive methods employed in collecting the bark, and the world now depends chiefly on Bolivia and Ecuador . The forests of eastern Peru are rich in fine cabinet woods, but their inaccessibility renders them of no great value . Among the best known of them are See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar, See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, See also:

• IRONWOOD

ironwood and caoba, a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• MAHOGANY

mahogany . Many of the forest trees of the upper Amazon valley of Brazil are likewise found in Peru . The See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm family is numerous and includes the species producing vegetable See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory (Phytelephas), See also:

• STRAW

straw for plaiting Panama hats (Carludovica palmata), and the See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach palm (Guilielma speciosa) . From guano an immense See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue was derived during the third See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th century and it is still one of the largest exports . The guano beds a:e found on the barren islands of the Guano . Pacific coast . They were See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed commercially during the administration (1845–1851) of President Ramon Castilla, at the same time that the nitrate deposits of Tarapaca became a commercial asset of the republic .

The large revenues derived from these sources undoubtedly became a cause of weakness and demoralization and eventually resulted in See also:

• BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banquet table or counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken)

bankruptcy and the loss of Tarapaca . The deposits have been partially exhausted by the large shipments of over a half-century, but the export in 1905 was 73,369 tons, valued at £285,729 . Mining.—Mining was the chief industry of Peru under Spanish rule . The Inca tribes were an agricultural and See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral people, but the abundance of gold and silver in their possession at the time of the conquest shows that mining must have received considerable attention . They used these See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious metals in decorations and as ornaments, but apparently attached no great value to them . The use of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze also shows that they must have worked, perhaps superficially, some of the great See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper deposits . Immediately following the Spanish invasion the Andean region was thoroughly explored, and with the assistance of Indian slaves thousands of mines were opened, many of them failures, some of them becoming famous . There was a decline in mining enterprise after the revolt of the colonists against Spanish rule, owing to the unsettled state of the country, and this decline continued in some measure to the end of the century . The mining See also:

• LAWS

laws of the colonial regime and political disorder together raised a barrier to the employment of the large amount of capital needed, while the frequent outbreaks of civil war made it impossible to work any large enterprise because of its interference with labour and the free use of ports and roads . The Peruvians were impoverished, and under such conditions foreign capital could not be secured . In 1876 new mining laws were enacted which gave better titles to mining properties and better regulations for their operation, but the outbreak of the war with Chile at the end of the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade and the succeeding years of disorganization and See also:

• PARTISAN, or PARTIZAN

partisan strife defeated their purpose . Another new mining See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code was adopted in 1901, and this, with an improvement in political and economic conditions, has led to a renewal of mining enterprise .

Practically the whole Andean region of Peru is mineral-bearing--a region 1500 m. long by 200 to 300 M. wide . Within these limits are to be found most of the minerals known—gold, silver, See also:

• QUICK

quick-silver, copper, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, See also:

• ZINC

zinc, iron, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, wolfram, See also:

• BISMUTH

bismuth, See also:

• THORIUM (symbol Th, atomic weight ,232.42 [0=16])

thorium, See also:

• VANADIUM

vanadium, See also:

• MICA

mica, coal, &c . On or near the coast are coal, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, sulphur, See also:

• BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate)

borax, nitrates and See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum . Gold is found in lodes and alluvial See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit; the former on the Pacific slope at Salpo, Otuzco, Huaylas, Yungay, Ocros, Chorrillos, Canete, Ica, Nasca, Andaray and Arequipa, and on the table-lands and Amazon slope at Pataz, Huanuco, Chuquitambo, Huancavelica, Cuzco, Cotabambas, Aymares, Paucartambo, Santo Domingo and Sandia; the latter wholly on the Amazon slope, in the country about the Pongo de Manseriche and at Chuquibamba, both on the upper Maranon, in the districts of Pataz, Huanuco, Aymares and Antabamba (Apurimac), Paucartambo and Quippicauchi (Cuzco), and Sandia and Carabaya (Puno) . The last two are most important and, it is believed, were the sources from which the Incas derived the greater part of their See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store . The alluvial deposits are found both in the beds of the small streams and 'in the soil of the small plains or pampas . The Aporoma deposit, in the district of Sandia, is the best known . Long ditches with See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone-paved sluices for washing this mineral-bearing material have long been used by the Indians, who also construct stone bars across the beds of the streams to make riffles and hold the deposited grains of gold . Modern methods of See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic mining have been introduced to work the auriferous banks of Poto; elsewhere antiquated methods only are employed . The upper valley of the Maranon has undeveloped gold-bearing lodes . The number of mines worked is small and there is not much foreign capital invested in them . The gold ores of Peru are usually found in ferruginous quartz .

The production in 1906 was valued at £170,355• Peru has been known chiefly for its silver mines, some of which have been marvellously productive . The Cerro de Pasco district, with its 342 mines, is credited with a production, in value, of £40,000,000 between 1784 and 1889, and is still productive, the output for 1906 being valued at £972,958 . The principal silver-producing districts, the greater part on the high table-lands and slopes of the Andes, are those of Salpo, Hualgayoc, Huari, Huallanca, Huaylas, Huaraz, Recuay, See also:

• CAJATAMBO, or CAXATAMBO

Cajatambo, Yauli, Cerro de Pasco, Morococha, Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castrovirreyna, Lucanas, Lampa, Caylloma and Puno, but there are hundreds of others outside their limits . Silver is generally found as red oxides (locally called rosicler), sulphides and argentiferous See also:

• GALENA

galena . Modern machinery is little used and many mines are practically unworkable for want of pumps . In the vicinity of some of the deposits of argentiferous galena are large coal beds, but timber is scarce on the table-lands . The dried dung of the llama (taquia) is generally used as fuel, as in pre-Spanish times, for roasting ores, as also a species of grass called ichu (Stipa incana), and a singular woody fungus, called yareta (Azorella umbellifera), found growing on the rocks at elevations exceeding I2,000 ft . The methods formerly employed in reducing ores were lixiviation and amalgamation with quicksilver, but modern methods are gradually coming into use . Quicksilver is found at Huancavelica, Chonta (Ancachs), and in the department of Puno . The mine first named has been worked since 1566 and its total production is estimated at 60,000tons, the annual product being about 67o tons for a long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal generally occurs as sulphide of mercury (cinnabar), but the ores vary greatly in richness—from 2i to 20 % . The annual production has fallen to a small fraction of the former output, its value in 1905 being only £340, and in 1906 £495 .

The copper deposits of Peru long remained undeveloped through want of cheap transport and failure to appreciate their true value . The principal copper-bearing districts are Chimbote, Cajamarca, Huancayo, Huaraz, Huallanca, Junin, Huancavelica, Ica, Arequipa, Andahuaylas and Cuzco—chiefly situated in the high, bleak regions of the Andes . The Junin district is the best known and includes the Cerro de Pasco, Yauli, Morococha and Huallay groups of mines, all finding an outlet to the coast over the Oroya railway . These mines are of recent development, the Cerro de Pasco mines having been See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased by American capitalists . A smelting plant was erected in the vicinity of Cerro de Pasco designed to treat moo tons of ore daily, a railway was built to Oroya to connect with the state line terminating at that point, and a branch line 62 m. long was built to the coal-mines of Goillarisquisga . The Cerro de Pasco mines are supposed by some authorities to be the largest copper deposit in the world . In addition to the smelting works at Cerro de Pasco there are other large works at Casapalca, between Oroya and Lima, which belong to a British See also:

• COMPANY

company, and smaller plants at Huallanca and Huinae . The production of copper is steadily increasing, the returns for 1903 being 9497 tons and for 1906 13,474 tons, valued respectively at £476,824 and £996,055 . Of other metals, lead is widely distributed, its chief source being a high grade galena accompanied by silver . Iron ores are found in Piura, the Huaylas valley, Aya, and some other places, but the deposits have not been worked through lack of fuel . Sulphur deposits exist in the Sechura desert region, on the coast, and extensive borax deposits have been developed in the department of Arequipa . Coal has been found in extensive beds near Piura, Salaverry, Chimbote, Huarmey and Pisco on the coast, and at Goillarisquisga; Huarochiri and other places in the interior .

Both See also:

• ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpaE, coal)

anthracite and bituminous deposits have been found . Most of the deposits are isolated and have not been developed for want of transport . Petroleum has been found at several points on the coast in the department of Piura, and near Lake Titicaca in the department of Puno . The most productive of the Piura wells are at Talara and Zorritos, where refineries have been established . The crude oil is used on some of the Peruvian railways . The number of mining claims (pertenencias) registered in 1907 was 12,858, according to official returns, each subject to a tax of 30 soles, or £3, per annum, the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of which secures complete ownership of the See also:

• PROPERTY

property . The claims measure 100 X200 metres (about 5 acres) in the case of mineral veins or lodes, and 200 X200 metres (about to acres) for coal, alluvial gold and other deposits . The labourers are commonly obtained from the Cholos, or Indian inhabitants of the sierras, who are accustomed to high altitudes, and are generally efficient and trustworthy . Manufactures.—The manufacturing industries of Peru are confined chiefly to the treatment of agricultural and mineral products—the manufacture of sugar and See also:

• RUM
• RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or bram; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word, in Gipsy rem)

rum from sugar cane, textiles from cotton and wool, See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine and See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits from grapes, cigars and cigarettes from tobacco, See also:

• CHOCOLATE

chocolate from cacao, kerosene and benzine from crude petroleum, cocaine from coca, and refined metals from their ores . Many of the manufacturing industries are carried on with difficulty and maintained only by protective duties on competing goods . The Incas had made much progress in See also:

• WEAVING

weaving, and specimens of their fabrics, both plain and coloured, are to be found in many museums . The Spanish introduced their own methods, and their See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive looms are still to be found among the Indians of the interior who weave the coarse material from which their own garments are made .

Modern looms for the manufacture of woollens were introduced in 1861 and of cotton goods in 1874 . There are large woollen factories at Cuzco and Lima, the Santa Catalina factory at the latter place turning out See also:

• CLOTH

cloth and cashmere for the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, blankets, counterpanes and underclothing . There are cotton factories about Lima, at Ica and at Arequipa . Besides the wine industry, an irregular though important industry is the manufacture of artificial or counterfeit spirits and See also:

• LIQUEURS

liqueurs in Callao and Lima . There are breweries in Arequipa, Callao, Cuzco and Lima, and the consumption of See also:

• BEER

beer is increasing . There are large cigarette factories in Lima, and others in Arequipa, Callao, Piura and Trujillo . The plaiting of Panama hats from the specially prepared fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a domestic industry among the Indians at Catacoas (Piura) and Eten (Lambayeque) . Coarser straw hats are made at other places, as well as hammocks, baskets, &c . Government.—Peru is a centralized republic, whose supreme law is the constitution of 1860 . Like the other states of South America its constitution provides for popular control of legislation and the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the laws through free elections and comparatively short terms of See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, but in practice these safeguards are often set aside and dictatorial methods supersede all others . Nominally the people are free and exercise See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign rights in the choice of their representatives, but the See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the masses, their apathy, poverty and dependence upon the great land proprietors and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial corporations practically defeat these fundamental constitutional provisions . Citizenship is accorded to all Peruvians over the age of 21 and to all married men under that age, and the right of See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage to all citizens who can read and write, or possess real See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate or workshops, or pay taxes .

In all cases the exercise of citizenship is regulated by law . The government is divided into three independent branches, legislative, executive and judicial, of which through force of circumstances the executive has become the dominating See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The executive branch consists of a president and two vice-presidents elected for terms of four years, a cabinet of six ministers of state appointed by the president, and various subordinate officials who are under the direct orders of the president . The president is chosen by a direct popular See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election and cannot be re-elected to succeed himself . He must be not less than 35 years of age, a Peruvian by birth, in the enjoyment of all his civil rights, and domiciled in the republic ten years preceding the election . The immediate supervision and despatch of public administrative affairs is in the hands of the cabinet ministers—interior, foreign affairs, war and marine, See also:

• FINANCE

finance and commerce, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and public instruction, and public works and promotion (fomento) . The execution of the laws in the departments and provinces, as well as the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of public order, is entrusted to prefects and sub-prefects, who are appointees of the president . A vacancy in the office of president is filled by one of the two vice-presidents elected at the same time and under the same conditions . Inability of the first vice-president to assume the office opens the way for the second vice-president, who becomes acting president until a successor is chosen . The vice-presidents cannot be candidates for the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency during their occupancy of the supreme executive office, nor can the ministers of state, nor the generalin-chief of the army, while in the exercise of their official duties . The legislative power is exercised by a national See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress—See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate and chamber of deputies—meeting annually on the 28th of July in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary session for a period of 90 days . Sena-tors and deputies are inviolable in the exercise of their duties, and cannot be arrested or imprisoned during a session of Congress, including the See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month preceding and following the session, except in flagrance delicto .

Members of Congress are forbidden to accept any employment or benefit from the executive . Senators and deputies are elected by direct See also:

• VOTE

vote—the former by departments, and the latter in proportion to the population . With both are elected an equal number of substitutes, who assume office in case of vacancy . Departments with eight and more provinces are entitled to four senators, those of four to seven provinces three senators, those of two to three provinces two senators, and those of one province one senator . The deputies are chosen to represent 15,000 to 30,000 population each, but every province must have at least one See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy . Both senators and deputies are elected for terms of six years, and both must be native-born Peruvian citizens in the full enjoyment of their civil rights . A senator must be 35 years of age, and have a yearly income of $See also:

• I000

i000 . The age limit of a deputy is 25 years, and his income must be not less than $500 . In both See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers the exercise of some scientific profession is accepted in lieu of the pecuniary income . No member of the executive branch of the government (president, cabinet See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister, prefect, sub-prefect, or governor) can be elected to either chamber, nor can any See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge or " fiscal " of the supreme court, nor any member of the ecclesiastical See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy from his diocese, province or See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish, nor any judge or " fiscal " of superior and first-instance courts from their judicial districts, nor any military officer from the district where he holds a military See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment at the time of election . No country is provided with more and better safeguards against electoral and official abuses than is Peru, and yet few countries suffered more from political disorder during the 19th century . The president has no See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto power, but has the right to return a law to Congress with comments within a period of ten days .

Should the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act be again passed without amendments it becomes law; if, however, the suggested amendments are accepted the act must go over to the next session . Congress may also sit as a court of See also:

• IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. empeahement, empeschement, from em pecher or empescher, to hinder, Late Lat. impedicare, to entangle, pedica, fetter, pes, foot)

impeachment—the senate See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing and deciding the case, and the chamber acting as prosecutor . The president, ministers of state and See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges of the supreme court may be brought before this court.273 Justice.—The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, superior courts and courts of first instance, and justices of the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . The supreme court is established at the national capital and consists of 11 judges and 2 " fiscals " or prosecutors . 1 he judges are selected by Congress from lists of nominees submitted by the executive . The judges of the superior courts are chosen by the president from the list of nominees submitted by the supreme court . Questions of jurisdiction between the superior and supreme courts, as well as questions of like character between the supreme court and the executive, are decided by the senate sitting as a court . The courts of first instance are established in the capitals of provinces and their judges are chosen by the superior courts of the districts in which they are located . The independence of the Peruvian courts has not been scrupulously maintained, and there has been much See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of their character and decisions . The national executive appoints and removes the prefects of the departments and the sub-prefects of the provinces, and the prefects appoint the gobiernadores of the districts . The See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police officials throughout the republic are also appointees of the president and are under his orders . Army.—After the Chilean War the disorders fomented by the See also:

• RIVAL

rival military officers led to a See also:

• DESIRE

desire to place the administration of public affairs under civilian control .

This led to a material reduction in the army, which, as reorganized, consists of 4000 officers and men, divided into seven battalions of See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry of 300 men each, seven squadrons of See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry of 125 men each, and one See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

regiment of mountain See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery of 590 men, with six batteries of mountain guns . The reorganization of the army was carried out by lo officers and 4 non-corns. of the French army, known as the French military See also:

• MISSION

mission, who are also charged with the direction of the military school at Chorrillos and all branches of military instruction . There are a military high school, preparatory school, and " school of application " in connexion with the training of young officers for the army . The head of the mission is chief of See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff . Formerly the Indians were forcibly pressed into the service and the whites filled the positions of officers, in great part untrained . Now military service is obligatory for all Peruvians between the ages of 19 and 50, who are divided into four classes, first and second reserves (19 to 30, and 30 to 35 years), supernumeraries (those who have purchased exemption from service in the regular army), and the national guard (35 to 50 years) . The regular force is maintained by annual drawings from the lists of young men 19 years of age in the first reserves, who are required to serve four years . The direction of military affairs is entrusted to a general staff, which was reorganized in 1904 on the lines adopted by the great military See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The republic is divided into four military districts with headquarters at Piura, Lima, Arequipa and Iquitos, and these into eleven circumscriptions . The mounted police force of the republic is also organized on a military basis . See also:

• NAVY

Navy.—The Peruvian navy was practically annihilated in the war with Chile, and the poverty of the country prevented for many years the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of any measure for its rebuilding . In 1908 it consisted of only five vessels .

The naval school at Callao is under the direction of an officer of the French navy . In addition to the foregoing the government has a few small river boats on the Maranon and its tributaries, which are commanded by naval officers and used to maintain the authority of the republic and carry on geographical and hydrographical work . Finance.—The See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of Peru, notwithstanding her enormous natural resources, has been one of disaster and discredit . See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal strife at first prevented the development of her resources, and then when the export of guano and nitrates supplied her See also:

• TREASURY

treasury with an abundance of funds the money was squandered on extravagant enterprises and in corrupt practices . This was followed by the loss of these resources, bankruptcy, and eventually the surrender of her principal See also:

• ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. assetz, mod. Fr. asset, " enough")

assets to her foreign creditors . The government then had to readjust expenditures to largely diminished resources; but the See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation has been met intelligently and courageously, and since 1895 there has been an improvement in the financial state of the country . The public revenues are derived from customs, taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies, the government wharves, posts and telegraphs, &c . The customs taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues, warehouse charges, &c . ; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes on See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c.; and the state monopolies cover See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

opium and salt . In 1905 a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of £600,000 was floated in Germany for additions to the navy . The growth of receipts and expenditures is shown in the following table: 1904 . 1906 .

1908 . Revenue £1,990,568 £2,527,766 £2,997,433 See also:

• EXPENDITURE

Expenditure £1,884,949 £2,178,252 £3,043,032 The revenues of 1896 were only £1,128,714 . The foreign See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt began with a small loan of £1,200,000 in See also:

• LONDON

London in 1822, and another of £1,5oo,00o in 1825 of which only £716,516 was placed . At the end of the war, these loans, and sums owing to Chile and Colombia, raised the foreign debt to £4,000,000. le 183o the debt and accumulated See also:

• INTEREST

interest owing in London amounted to £2,310,767, in addition to which there was a home debt of 17,183,397 dollars . In 1848 the two London loans and accumulated interest were covered by a new loan of £3,736,400, and the home debt was partially liquidated, the See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of guano giving the treasury ample resources . Lavish expenditure followed and the government was soon anticipating its revenues by obtaining advances from guano consignees, usually on unfavourable terms, and then floating loans . There was another See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion loan in 1862 in the sum of £5,500,000 and in 1864 still another loan of this character was issued, nominally for £Io,000,000, of which £7,000,000 only were issued . Then followed the ambitious schemes of President Balta, which with the loans of 1870 and 1872 raised the total foreign debt to £49,000,000, on which the annual interest charge was about 2,500,000, a sum wholly beyond the resources of the treasury . In 1876 interest payments on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of this debt were suspended and in 1879–1882 the war with Chile deprived Peru of her principal sources of income—the guano deposits and the Tarapaca nitrates . In 1889 the total foreign debt, including arrears of interest, was £54,000,000, and in the following year a contract was signed with the Peruvian See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

Corporation, a company in which the bondholders became shareholders, for the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer to it for 66 years of the state railways, the free use of certain ports, the right of navigation on Lake Titicaca, the exploitation of the remaining guano deposits up to 3,000,000 tons, and See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-three annual subsidies of £80,000 each, in See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the cancellation of the debt . Some modifications were later made in the contract, owing to the government's failure to meet the annual subsidies and the corporation's failure to extend the railways agreed upon . This contract relieved Peru of its crushing burden of foreign indebtedness, and turned an apparently heavy loss to the bondholders into a possible profit .

In 1910 the foreign debt stood at £3,140,000, composed of (I) Peruvian Corporation £2,160,000; (2) wharves and docks, £80,000; (3) loan of 1905, £500,000; (4) loan of 1906, £400,000 . Currency.—The single gold See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard has been in force in Peru since 1897 and 1898, silver and copper being used for subsidiary coinage . The monetary unit is the Peruvian See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound (See also:

• LIBRA (" THE BALANCE ")

libra) which is See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform in See also:

• WEIGHT

weight and fineness with the British pound See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling . Half and fifth pounds are also coined . The silver coinage consists of the sol (Too cents), half sol (50 cents), and pieces of 20 (See also:

• PESETA

peseta), lo and 5 cents; and the copper coinage of 1 and 2 cents . The single standard has worked well, and has contributed much toward the recovery of Peruvian commerce and finance . The change from the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double standard was effected without any noticeable disturbance in commercial affairs, but this was in part due to the precaution of making the British pound sterling legal tender in the republic and establishing the legal See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent between gold and silver at lo soles to the pound . The coinage in 1906–1907 was about £150,000 gold and £65,000 silver, and the total circulation in that year was estimated at £1,400,000 in gold See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin and £600,000 in silver coin . Previous to the adoption of the single gold standard in 1897 the monetary history of Peru had been unfortunate . The first national coinage was begun in 1822, and the decimal system was adopted in 1863 . Although the double standard was in force, gold was practically demonetized by the monetary reform of 1872 because of the failure to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix a legal ratio between the two metals . Experience with paper currency has been even more disastrous .

During the administration (1872–1876) of President Pardo the government borrowed heavily from the banks to avoid the suspension of work on the railways and port improvements . These banks enjoyed the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of issuing currency notes to the amount of three times the See also:

• CASH

cash in See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand without regard to their commercial liabilities . A large increase in imports, caused by fictitious prosperity and inability to obtain drafts against guano shipments, led to the exportation of coin to meet commercial obligations, and this soon reduced the currency circulation to a paper basis . The government being unable to repay its loans from the banks compelled the latter to suspend the conversion of their notes, which began to depreciate in value . In 1875 the banks were granted a See also:

• MORATORIUM (from Lat. mora?i, to delay)

moratorium, to enable them to obtain coin, but without result . The government in 1877 contracted a new loan with the banks and assumed responsibility for their outstanding emissions, which are said to have aggregated about too,000,000 soles, and were See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth barely lo % of their nominal value . At last their depreciation reached a point where their acceptance was generally refused and silver was imported for commercial needs, when the government suspended their legal tender quality and allowed them to disappear . Weights and See also:

• MEASURES

Measures.—The French metric system is the official standard of weights and measures and is in use in the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom-houses of the republic and in foreign trade, but the old See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units are still commonly used among the people . These are the See also:

• OUNCE

ounce, I•Io4 oz. See also:

• AVOIRDUPOIS

avoirdupois; the libra, 1.014 lb avoirdupois; the quintal, Io1.44 lb avoirdupois; the arroba, 25.36 lb avoirdupois; See also:

• DITTO (from the Lat. dictum, something said, Ital. detto, aforesaid)

ditto of wine, 6.7o imperial gallons; the See also:

• GALLON

gallon, •74 of an imperial gallon; the vara, .927 yard; and the square vara, •859 square yard . (A . J . L.) History.—Cyclopean ruins of vast edifices, apparently never completed, exist at Tiahuanaco near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca .

Remains of a similar character are found at Huarazin the north of Peru, and at Cuzco, 011antay-tambo and Huifiaque between Huaraz and Tiahuanaco . These works appear to have been erected by powerful sovereigns with unlimited command of labour, possibly with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of giving employment to subjugated people, while feeding the vanity or pleasing the See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste of the conqueror . Of their origin nothing is historically known . It is probable, however, that the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the Cuzco valley and district by the Incas or " people of the sun " took place some 300 years before See also:

• PIZARRO, FRANCISCO (c. 1471 or 1475-1541)

Pizarro landed in Peru . The conquering tribe or tribes had made their way to the sierra from the plains, and found themselves a new land sheltered from attack amidst the lofty mountains that hem in the valley of Cuzco and the vast lake basin of Titicaca, situated 12,000 ft. above the sea level . The first historical records show us these people already possessed of a considerable civilization, and speaking two allied See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, Aymara and Quichua . The expansion of the Inca rule and the formation of the Peruvian Empire was of modern growth at the time of the Spanish conquest, and dated from the victories of Pachacutic Inca who lived about a century before Huayna Capac, the Great Inca, whose death took place in 1526, the year before Pizarro first appeared on the coast . His consolidated empire extended from the river Ancasmayu north of Quito to the river See also:

• MAULE

Maule in the south of Chile . The Incas had an elaborate system of state-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, with a See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual, and frequently recurring festivals . History and tradition were pre-served by the bards, and dramas were enacted before the sovereign and his court . Roads with post-houses at intervals were made over the wildest mountain-ranges and the bleakest deserts for hundreds of miles . A well-considered system of land-See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure and of colonization provided for the wants of all classes of the people .

The administrative details of government were minutely and carefully organized, and accurate statistics were kept by means of the " See also:

• QUIPUS (Khipus, Qippos); the ancient Peruvian name for a method of recording which was in use at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. It consisted of a cord two feet in length to which were attached a series of knotted-strings (Peruv. quipu, a knot)

quipus " or system of knots . The edifices displayed marvellous building skill, and their workman-See also:

• SHIP

ship is unsurpassed . The world has nothing to show, in the way of stone-cutting and fitting, to equal the skill and accuracy displayed in the Inca structures of Cuzco . As workers in metals and as potters they displayed See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite variety of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design, while as cultivators and See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers they excelled their See also:

• EUROPEAN

European conquerors . (For illustrations see AMERICA, See also:

• PLATE

Plate V.) The story of the conquest has been told by See also:

• PRESCOTT, WILLIAM HICKLING (1796-1859)

Prescott and See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

Helps, who give ample references to See also:

• ORIGINAL

original authorities; it will be sufficient here to enumerate the dates of the leading events . On the loth of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1526 the Piz Coearro . quest by contract for the conquest of Peru was signed by Francisco Pizarro, Diego de See also:

• ALMAGRO, DIEGO DE (1475-1538)

Almagro and Hernando de Luque, Gaspar de Espinosa supplying the, funds . In 1527 Pizarro, after enduring fearful hardships, first reached the coast of Peru at Tumbez . In the following year he went to Spain, and on the 26th of July 1529 the See also:

• CAPITULATION (Lat. capitulum, a little head or division; capitulare, to treat upon terms)

capitulation with the See also:

• CROWN

Crown for the conquest of Peru was executed . Pizarro sailed from San Lucar with his See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers in See also:

• JANUARY

January 1530, and landed at Tumbes in 1531 . The civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa, the sons of Huayna Capac, had been fought out in the meanwhile, and the victorious Atahualpa was at Cajamarca on his way from Quito to Cuzco . On the 15th of November 1532 Pizarro with his little army, made his way to Cajamarca, where he received a friendly welcome from the Inca, whom he treacherously seized and made prisoner .

He had with him only 183 men . In February 1533 his colleague Almagro arrived with reinforcements . The See also:

• MURDER

murder of the Inca Atahualpa was perpetrated on the 29th of August 1533, and on the 15th of November Pizarro entered Cuzco . He allowed the rightful See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir to the empire, Manco, the legitimate son of Huayna Capac, to be solemnly crowned on the 24th of March 1534 . Almagro then undertook an expedition to Chile, and Pizarro founded the city of Lima on the 18th of January 1535 . In the following year the Incas made a brave See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to expel the invaders, and closely besieged the Spaniards in Cuzco during February and March . But Almagro, returning from Chile, raised the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege on the 18th of April 1537 . Immediately afterwards a dispute arose between the brothers, Francisco, Juan and Gonzalo Pizarro and Almagro as to the limits of their respective jurisdictions . An interview took place at Mala, on the sea-coast, on the 13th of November 1537; which led to no result, and Almagro was finally defeated in the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• LAS

Las Salinas near Cuzco on the 26th of April 1538 . His execution followed . His adherents recognized his young half-See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste son, a gallant and noble youth generally known as Almagro the Lad, as his successor . Bitterly discontented, they conspired at Lima and assassinated Francisco Pizarro on the 26th of June 1541 .

Meanwhile Vaca de Castro had been sent out as governor of Peru by Charles V., and on hearing of the murder of Pizarro he assumed the government of the country . On the 16th of September 1542 he defeated the army of Almagro the Lad in the battle of Chupas near Guamanga, and the boy was beheaded at Cuzco . Charles V. enacted the code known as the " New Laws " in 1542 . " Encomiendas," or grants of estates on which the Civil See also:

• WARS

wars. inhabitants were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to pay See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute and give See also:

• PERSONAL

personal service to the grantee, were to pass to the Crown on the death of the actual holder; a fixed sum was to be assessed as tribute; and forced personal service was forbidden . Blasco See also:

• NUNEZ, PEDRO (PETRUS NoNlUS) (1492—1577)

Nunez de Vela was sent out, as first viceroy of Peru, to enforce the " New Laws." Their promulgation aroused a See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm among the conquerors . Gonzalo Pizarro rose in See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion, and entered Lima on the 28th of October 1544 . The viceroy fled to Quito, but was followed, defeated and killed at the battle of Anaquito on the 18th of January 1546 . The " New Laws " were weakly revoked, and Pedro de la Gasca, as first president of the Audiencia (court of justice) of Peru, was sent out to restore order . He arrived in 1J47, and on the 8th of April 1548 he routed the followers of Gonzalo Pizarro on the plain of Sacsahuaman near Cuzco . Gonzalo was executed on the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field . La Gasca made a redistribution of " encomiendas " to the loyal conquerors, which caused great discontent, and left Peru before his See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme was made public in January 1550 . On the 23rd of September 1551 Don Antonio de See also:

• MENDOZA
• MENDOZA, ANTONIO HURTADO DE (1593?-1644)
• MENDOZA, DIEGO HURTADO DE (1503-1575)
• MENDOZA, PEDRO GONZALEZ DE (1428-1495)

Mendoza arrived as second viceroy, but he died at Lima in the following July .

The country was then ruled by the judges of the Audiencia, and a formidable insurrection See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out, headed by Francisco Hernandez Giron, with the object of maintaining the right of the conquerors to exact forced service from the Indians . In May 1554 Giron defeated the army of the judges at Chuquinga, but he was hopelessly routed at Pucara on the 11th of October 1554, captured, and on the 7th of December executed at Lima . Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, See also:

• MARQUIS

marquis of Caiiete, entered Lima as third viceroy of Peru on the 6th of July 1555, and ruled with an iron hand for six years . All the leaders in former disturbances were sent to Spain . Corregidors, or See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of districts, were ordered to try summarily and execute every turbulent See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person within their jurisdictions . All unemployed persons were sent on distant expeditions, and moderate " encomiendes " were granted to a few deserving officers . At the same time the viceroy wisely came to an agreement with Sayri Tupac, the son and successor of the Inca Manco, and granted him a See also:

• PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh, to pay)

pension . He took great care to supply the natives with priests of good conduct, and promoted measures for the establishment of schools and the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of towns in the different provinces . The cultivation of wheat, vines and olives, and European domestic animals were introduced . The next viceroy was the See also:

• CONDE
• CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE
• CONDE, LOUIS II
• CONDE, PRINCES OF

Conde de Nieva (1561-1564) . His successor, the licentiate Lope Garcia de Castro, who only had the title of governor, ruled from 1564 to 1569 . From this time there was a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of viceroys until 1824 .

The viceroys were chief magistrates, but in legal matters they had to consult the Audiencia of judges, in finance the Tribunal de Cuentas, in other branches of administration the Juntas de Gobierno and de Guerra . Don Francisco de Toledo, the second son of the See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count of Oropesa, entered Lima as viceroy on the 26th of November 1569 . Toledo's Fearing that the little court of the Inca Tupac Amaru adminlstra-(who had succeeded his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Sayri Tupac) might tlon. become a See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus of rebellion, he seized the young See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince, and unjustly beheaded the last of the Incas in the squareof Cuzco in the year 1571 . After a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute personal inspection of every province in Peru, he, with the experienced aid of the learned Polo de Ondegardo and the judge of Matienza, established the system under which the native population of Peru was ruled for the two succeeding centuries . His Libro de Tasos fixed the tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting all men under eighteen and over fifty . He found it necessary, in order to secure efficient government, to revert in some measure to the system of the Incas . The people were to be directly governed by their native chiefs, whose See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty was to collect the tribute and exercise magisterial functions . The chiefs or " curacas " had subordinate native officials under them called " pichca-pachacas " over 500 men, and " pachacas " over See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo men . The office of curaca or cacique was made hereditary, and its possessor enjoyed several privileges . Many curacas were descended from the imperial family of the Incas, or from great nobles of the Incarial court . In addition to the tribute, which was in accordance with native usage, there was the " mita," or forced labour in mines, farms and manufactories . Toledo enacted that one-seventh of the male population of a village should be subject to See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription for this service, but they were to be paid, and were not to be taken beyond a specified distance from their homes .

The Spanish kings and viceroys desired to protect the people from tyranny, but they were unable to prevent the rapacity and lawlessness of distant officials and the country vice . was depopulated by the illegal methods of enforcing See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty. the mita . Toledo was succeeded in 1581 by Don Martin Henriquez, who died at Lima two years afterwards . The Spanish colonies suffered from the strict system of See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly and See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, which was only slightly relaxed by the later See also:

• BOURBON
• BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (149o-1527)

Bourbon kings, and from the arbitrary proceedings of the See also:

• INQUISITION, THE (Lat. inquisitio, an inquiry)

Inquisition . Between 1581 and 1776 as many as fifty-nine heretics were burned at Lima, and there were twenty-nine " autos "; but the Inquisition affected Europeans rather than natives, for the Indians, as catechumens, were exempted from its terrors . The curacas sorrowfully watched the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual extinction of their people by the operation of the mita, protesting from time to time against the exactions and cruelty of the Spaniards . At length a descendant of the Incas, who assumed the name of Tupac Amaru, rose in rebellion in 1780 . The insurrection lasted until July 1783, and cruel executions followed its suppression . This was the last effort of the Indians to throw off the Spanish yoke and the rising was by no means general . The army which overthrew Tupac Amaru consisted chiefly of loyal Indians, and the rebellion was purely anti-Spanish, and had no support from the Spanish population . The See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement for independence, which slowly gained force during the opening decade of the 19th century, did not actually become serious until the conquest of Spain by the French in 1807-1808 . The Creoles (Criallos) or American-born Spaniards had for long been aggrieved at being shut out from all important official positions, and at the restrictions placed upon their trade, but the bulk of the See also:

• CREOLE (the Fr. form of criollo, a West Indian, probably a negro corruption of the Span. criadillo, the dim. of criado, one bred or reared, from criar, to breed, a derivative of the Lat. creare, to create)

Creole population was not disloyal .

Peru was the centre of Spanish power, and the viceroy had his military strength concentrated at Lima . Consequently the insurrections in the more distant provinces, such as Chile and Buenos Aires, were the first to declare pend Peres enentde• . themselves independent, in 1816 and 1817 . But the destruction of the viceroy's power was essential to their continued independent existence . The conquest of the Peruvian coast must always depend on the command of the sea . A See also:

• FLEET

fleet of armed ships was fitted out at Valparaiso in Chile, under the command of See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord Cochrane (afterwards See also:

• EARL

earl of See also:

• DUNDONALD, THOMAS COCHRANE, 10TH EARL OF (1775-186o)

Dundonald) and officered by Englishmen . It convoyed an army of See also:

• ARGENTINE

Argentine troops, with some Chileans, under the command of the Argentine general, San Martin, which landed on the coast of Peru in September 1820 . San Martin was enthusiastically received, and the independence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima after the viceroy had withdrawn (July 28, 1821) . On the loth of September 1822 San Martin resigned the See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate, with which he had been invested, and on the same day the first congress of Peru became the sovereign power of the state . After a short period of government by a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of three, the congress elected Don Jose de la See also:

• RIVA

Riva Aguero to be first president of Peru on the 28th of February 1823 . He displayed great See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy in facing the difficulties of a turbulent situation, but was unsuccessful . The aid of the Colombians under See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon Bolivar was sought, and Aguero was deposed . Bolivar arrived at Lima on the 1st of September 1823, and began to organize an army to attack the Spanish viceroy in the interior .

On the 6th of August 1824 the cavalry action of Junin was fought with the Spanish forces under the command of a French adventurer, General Canterac, near the shores of the lake of Chinchay-cocha . It was won by a gallant charge of the Peruvians under See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

• SUAREZ, FRANCISCO (1548-1617)

Suarez at the critical moment . Soon afterwards Bolivar left the army to proceed to the coast, and the final battle of Ayacucho (Dec . 9, 1824) was fought by his second in command, General Sucre . The viceroy and all his officers were taken prisoners, and the Spanish power in Peru came to an end . General Bolivar ruled Peru with dictatorial powers for more than a year, and though there were cabals against him there can be little doubt of his popularity . He was summoned back to Colombia when he had been absent for five years and, in spite of protests left the country on the 3rd of September 1826, followed by all the Colombian troops in March 1827 . General Jose de See also:

• LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893)

Lamar, who commanded the Peruvians at Ayacucho, was elected president of Peru on the 24th of August 1827, but was deposed, after waging a brief but Early disastrous war with Colombia on the 7th of June Presidents . 1829 . General Agustin Gamarra, who had been in the Spanish service, and was chief of the staff in the patriot army at Ayacucho, was elected third president on the 31st of August 1829 . For fifteen years, from 1829 to 1844, Peru was painfully feeling her way to a right use of independence . The officers who fought at Ayacucho, and to whom the country See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt natural gratitude, were all-powerful, and they had not learned to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle political See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in any other way than by the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword .

Three men, during that period of See also:

• PROBATION

probation, won a prominent place in their country's history, Generals Agustin Gamarra, Felipe See also:

• SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE CHILE

Santiago Salaverry, and Andres Santa Cruz . Gamarra, born at Cuzco in 1785, never accommodated himself to constitutional usages; but he attached to himself many loyal and devoted See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, and, with all his faults he loved his country and sought its welfare according to his See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights . Salaverry was a very different character . Born at Lima in 18o6, of pure Basque descent, he joined the patriot army before he was fifteen and displayed his audacious valour in many a hard-fought battle . Feeling strongly the necessity that Peru had for repose, and the See also:

• GUILT

guilt of civil dissension, he wrote patriotic poems which became very popular . Yet he too seized the supreme power, and perished by an iniquitous See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence on the 18th of February 1836.1 Andres Santa Cruz was an Indian statesman . His See also:

• MOTHER

mother was a See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady of high See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, of the family of the Incas, and he was very proud of his descent . Unsuccessful as a general in the field, he nevertheless possessed remarkable administrative ability and for nearly three years (1836-1839) realized his lifelong See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream of a Peru-Bolivian See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

confederation .2 But the strong-handed intervention of Chile on the ground of assistance rendered to rebels, but really through See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of the confederation, ended in the defeat and overthrow of Santa Cruz, and the separation of Bolivia from Peru . But Peruvian history is not confined to the hostilities of these military rulers . Three constitutions were framed—in 1828, 1833 and 1839 . Lawyers and orators are never wanting in Spanish-American states, and revolution succeeded revolution in one continuous struggle for the spoils 1 The romance of his life has been admirably written by Manuel See also:

• BILBAO

Bilbao (1st ed., Lima, 1853; 2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1867) . 2 The succession of presidents and supreme chiefs of Peru from 1829 to 1844 was as follows: 1829-1833, Agustin Gamarra; 1834-1835, Luis Jose Orbegoso; 1835-1836, Felipe Santiago Salaverry ; 1836-'839, Andres Santa Cruz; 1839-1841, Agustin Gamarra; 1841-1844, Manuel Menendez.of office .

An exception must be made of the administration of General Ramon Castilla, who restored peace to Peru, and showed himself to be an honest and very capable ruler . He was elected constitutional president on the loth of April 1845 . Ten years of peace and increasing prosperity followed . In 1849 the regular payment of the interest of the public debt was commenced, steam communication was established along the Pacific coast, and a railroad was made from Lima to Callao . After a regular See also:

• TERM

term of office of six years of peace and moral and material progress Castilla resigned, and General Jose Echenique was elected president . But the proceedings of Echenique's government in connexion with the consolidation of the internal debt were disapproved by the nation, and, after hostilities which lasted for six months, Castilla returned to power in January 1855 . From December 1856 to March 1858 he had to contend with and subdue a local insurrection headed by General See also:

• AGOSTINO
• AGOSTINO, or AGOSTINI [AUGUSTINUS], PAOLO (1593-1629)

Agostino Vivanco, but, with these two exceptions, there was peace in Peru from 1844 to 1879, a period of thirty-five years . Castilla retired at the end of his term of office in 1862, and died in 1868 . On the 2nd of August 1868 See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel Juan Balta was elected president . With the vast sum raised from guano and nitrate deposits President Balta commenced the execution of public works, principally railroads on a gigantic scale . His period of office was signalized by the opening of an international See also:

• EXHIBITION

exhibition at Lima . He was succeeded (Aug .

2, 1872) by Don Manuel Pardo (d . 1878), an honest and enlightened statesman, who did all in his power to retrieve the country from the financial difficulty into which it had been brought by the reckless policy of his predecessor, but the conditions were not capable of See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution . He regulated the Chinese immigration to the coast-valleys, which from 186o to 1872 had amounted to 58,6o6 . He promoted education, and encouraged literature . On the 2nd of August 1876 General Mariano-Ignacio Prado was elected . (C . R . M.; X.) On the 5th of April 1879 the republic of Chile declared war upon Peru, the alleged pretext being that Peru had made an offensive treaty, directed against Chile, with Bolivia, war with a country with which Chile had a dispute; but the chile,1879-publication of the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text of this treaty made known 1882 . the fact that it was strictly defensive and contained no just cause of war . The true object of Chile was the conquest of the rich Peruvian province of Tarapaca, the See also:

• APPROPRIATION (from Lat. appropriare, to set aside)

appropriation of its valuable guano and nitrate deposits, and the spoliation of the rest of the Peruvian coast . The military events of the war, calamitous for Peru, are dealt with in the article CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR . Suffice it here to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that, after the crushing defeat of the Peruvian forces at Arica (June 7, 188o) Senor Nicolas de Pierola assumed dictatorial powers, with General Andres See also:

• CACERES

Caceres as See also:

• COMMANDER

commander-in-chief, but the defeats at Chorrillos (See also:

• JAN

Jan .

13, 1881) and Miraflores (Jan . 15) proved the Chilean superiority, and put Lima at their See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy though desultory fighting was maintained by the remnants of the Peruvian army in the interior, under direction of General Caceres . An attempt was made to constitute a government with Senor Calderon as president of the republic and General Caceres as first vice-president . The negotiations between this nominal administration and the Chilean authorities for a treaty of peace proved futile, the Chilean occupation of Lima and the Peruvian seaboard continuing uninterruptedly until 1883 . In that year Admiral See also:

• LYNCH, PATRICIO (1825–1886)

Lynch, who had replaced General Baquedano in command of the Chilean forces after the taking of Lima, sent an expedition against the Peruvians under General Caceres, and defeated the latter in the month of August . The Chilean authorities now began preparations for the evacuation of Lima, and to enable this measure to be effected a Peruvian administration was organized with the support of the Chileans . General See also:

• IGLESIAS

Iglesias was nominated to the office of president of the republic, and in October 1883 a treaty of peace, known as the treaty of Ancon, between Peru and Chile was signed . The Chilean army of occupation was withdrawn from Lima on the 22nd of October 1883, but a strong force was maintained at Chorrillos until July 1884, when the terms of the treaty were finally approved . The principal onditions imposed by Chile were the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute cession by Peru of the province of Tarapaca, and the occupation for a period of ten years of the territories of Tacna and Arica, the ownership of these districts to be decided by a popular vote of the inhabitants of Tacna and Arica at the expiration of the period named . A further condition was enacted that an See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity of 1o,000,000 soles was to be paid by the country finally remaining in possession—a sum equal to about £r,000,000 to-day . The Peruvians in the interior refused to recognize President Iglesias, and at once began active operations to over-throw his authority on the final departure of the Chilean troops . Affairs continued in this unsettled state until the middle of 1885, Caceres meanwhile steadily gaining many adherents to his side of the See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel .

In the latter part of 1885 President Iglesias abdicated . Under the guidance of General Caceres a See also:

• JUNTA (from juntar, to join)

junta was then formed to carry on the government until an election for the presidency should be held and the senate and cham- csceres In ber of deputies constituted . In the following year Power . (1886) General Caceres was elected president of the republic for the usual term of four years . The task assumed by the new president was no See also:

• SINECURE (Lat. sine cura, without care)

sinecure . The country had been thrown into absolute confusion from a political and administrative point of view, but gradually order was restored, and peaceful conditions were reconstituted throughout the republic . The four years of office for which General Caceres was elected passed in uneventful See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, and in 1890 Senor Morales Bermudez was nominated to the presidency, with Senor See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

Solar and Senor Borgono as first and second vice-presidents . Matters continued without alteration from the normal course until 1894, and in that year Bermudez died suddenly a few months before the expiration of the period for which he had been chosen as president . General Caceres secured the nomination of the vice-president Borgono as chief of the executive for the unexpired portion of the term of the See also:

• LATE

late president Bermudez . This action was unconstitutional, and was bitterly resented by the vice-president Solar, who by right should have succeeded to the office . Armed resistance to the authority of Borgono was immediately organized in the south of Peru, the movement being supported by Senores Nicolas de Pierola, Billinghurst, See also:

• DURAND, ASHER BROWN (1796-1886)
• DURAND, GUILLAUME (d. 1334)
• DURAND, GUILLAUME (GUILLELMUS DURANDUS)

Durand and a number of influential Peruvians . In the month of August 1894 General Caceres was again elected to fill the office of presi- I was not so much the value of Tacna and Arica that put diffident, but the revolutionary movement rapidly gained ground. culties in the way of a settlement as the fact that the national President Caceres adopted energetic measures to suppress the outbreak: his efforts, however, proved unavailing, the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of 1894 finds the country districts in the power of the rebels and the authority of the legal government confined to Lima and other cities held by strong garrisons .

Early in March 1895 the insurgents encamped near the outskirts of Lima, and on the 17th, 18th and 19th of March severe fighting took place, ending in the defeat of the troops under General Caceres . A suspension of hostilities was then brought about by the efforts of H.B.M. See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul . The loss on both sides to the struggle during these two days was 2800 killed and wounded . President Caceres, finding his cause was lost, left the country,' a provisional government under Senor Candamo assuming the direction of public affairs . On the 8th of September 1895 Senor Pierola was declared president of the republic for the following four years . The Pierola Peruvians were now heartily tired of revolutionary President disturbances, and an insurrectionary outbreak in the district of Iquitos met with small sympathy, and was speedily crushed . In 1896 a reform of the electoral law was sanctioned . By the provisions of this act an electoral committee was constituted, composed of nine members, two of these nominated by the senate, two by the chamber of deputies, four by the supreme court, and one by the president with the consent of his ministers . To this committee was entrusted the task of the examination of all election returns, and of the See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation • of the names of successful candidates for seats in congress . Another reform brought about by Pierola was a measure introduced and sanctioned in 1897 for a modification of the See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage laws . Under the new act marriages of non- Catholics solemnized by See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic or consular officers or by ministers of dissenting churches, if property registered, are valid, and those solemnized before the passing of this act were to be valid if registered before the end of 1899 . Revolutionary troubles again disturbed the country in 1899, when the presidency of Senor Pierola was See also:

• DRAWING

drawing to a close .

In consequence of dissensions amongst the members of the election committee constituted, by the act of 1896, the president ordered the suppression of this body . A group of malcontents under the leadership of one Durand, a man who had been prominent in the revolution against General Caceres in 1894-95, conspired against the authorities and raised several armed bands, known. locally as montaneras . Some skirmishes occurred between these insurgents and the government troops, tho latter generally obtaining the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage in these encounters . In September 1899 President Pierola vacated the presidency in favour of Senor See also:

• ROMANA

Romana, who had been elected to the office as a popular condidate and without the exercise of any undue official influence . President Romana Romana President . was educated at Stonyhurst in England, and was a civil engineer by profession . The principal political problem before the government of Peru was the ownership of the territories of Tacna and Arica . The period of ten years originally agreed upon for the Chilean occupation of these provinces expired in 1894 . At that date the peace of Peru was so seriously disturbed by internal troubles that the government was quite unable to take active steps to bring about any solution of the matter . After 1894 negotiations between the two governments were attempted from time to time, but without any satisfactory results . The question hinged to a great extent on the qualification necessary for the inhabitants to vote, in the event of a See also:

• PLEBISCITE (Lat. plebiscitum, a decree of the plebs)

plebiscite being called to decide whether Chilean ownership was to be finally established or the provinces were to revert to Peruvian See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty . Peru proposed that only Peruvian residents should be entitled to take part in a popular vote; Chile rejected this proposition, on the ground that all residents in the territories in question should have a See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice in the final decision .

The agreement between Chile and Bolivia, by which the disputed provinces were to be handed over to the latter country if Chilean possession was recognized, was also a stumbling-See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block, a strong feeling existed among Peruvians against this proceeding . It See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride of the Peruvians See also:

• ILL

ill brooked the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of permanently losing all claim to this section of country . The money, about £1,000,000, could probably have been obtained to indemnify Chile if occasion for it arose . The question of the delimitation of the frontier between Peru and the neighbouring republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and Brazil also cropped up at intervals . A treaty was signed with Brazil 1876, by which certain physical features were accepted by both countries as the basis for the boundary . In the case of Ecuador and Colombia a dispute arose in 1894 concerning the ownership of large tracts of uninhabited country in the vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon and its tributaries . An agreement was proposed between Peru and Ecuador in connexion with the limits of the respective republics, but difficulties were created to prevent this proposal from becoming an accomplished fact by the pretensions put forward by Colombia . The latter state claimed sovereignty over the Napo and Maranon rivers on the grounds of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction exercised over this section of territory during the period of Spanish dominion, the government of Colombia asserting that these ecclesiastical rights to which Colombia became entitled after her separation from the Spanish crown carried also the right of absolute ownership . In a treaty signed by the three interested states in 1895 a compromise was effected by which Colombia withdrew a part of the claim advanced, and it was agreed that any further differences arising out of this frontier question should be submitted to the arbitration of the Spanish crown . The later development of the boundary question is dealt with at the outset of this article . Senor Manuel Candamo succeeded Senor Romana as president in 1903 . In the following year he died, and on the 24th of September 1904 Senor Jose Pardo was installed in the presidential See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair .

In 1908 there were some insurrectionary movements at Lima and an attempt was made to assassinate President Pardo, but they were, however, suppressed without a serious outbreak . Senor Augusto Leguiva became president on the 24th of September 19o8 . (C . E . A.; G . E.) L . E . Albertini, Perou en 1878 (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1878) ; C . B . Cisneros and R . E . Garcia, El Peru en See also:

• EUROPA (or rather, EUROPE)

Europa (Lima, 1900) ; the same authors, Geografia comercial de la America del Sud (3 vols., ibid .

1898) ; E . B . See also:

• CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- )
• CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752—1818)
• CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847— )
• CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822—1898)
• CLARK, SIR ANDREW
• CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788—1870)
• CLARK, THOMAS (1801—1867)
• CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838)
• CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821—1878)

Clark, Twelve Months in Peru (London, 1891); Geo . R . See also:

• FITZROY
• FITZROY, ROBERT (1805-1865)

Fitzroy See also:

• COLE, SIR HENRY (1808–1882)
• COLE, THOMAS (1801–1848)
• COLE, TIMOTHY (1852– )
• COLE, VICAT (1833–1893)

Cole, The Peruvians at Home, (ibid . 1884) ; A . J . Duffield, Peru in the Guano Age (ibid . 1877) ; C . R . Enock, The Andes and the Amazon (ibid . 1907) ; idem, Peru: its Former and Present Civilization, &c .

(ibid . 19o8); P . F . See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans, From Peru to the Plate (ibid . 1889) ; M . A . Fuentes, Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru (ibid . 1866) ; Calderon F . Garcia, Le Perou contemporain (Paris, 1907) ; Garcilasso de la See also:

• VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA
• VEGA, GARCILASO DE LA (1503-1536)

Vega, Royal commentaries of the Incas, 1609 (See also:

• HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553—1616)

Hakluyt Society's Publications) ; A . Garland, La See also:

• INDUSTRIA (mod. Monteu da Po)

Industria azucarera en el Peru, 1550-1895 (Lima, 1895) ; idem, Peru in 1906 (official ; ibid . 1907) ; E . Grandidier, Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud, Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 1863); T .

Haenke, Description del Peru (Lima, 190,); E . See also:

• HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH (1823—1911)

Higginson, Mines and Mining in Peru (ibid . 1903).; S . S . See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, Travels in Peru and See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico (2 vols., London, ,86o); T . J . See also:

• HUTCHINSON
• HUTCHINSON, ANNE (c. 1600-1643)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1615-1664)
• HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1674-1737)
• HUTCHINSON, SIR JONATHAN (1828– )
• HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (1711-1780)

Hutchinson, Two Years in Peru (2 vols.; ibid . 1874); R . See also:

• LAOS

Laos, A Handbook of Peru for Investors and Immigrants (See also:

• BALTIMORE
• BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1ST BARON (C. 1580—1632)

Baltimore, 1903) ; C . R . See also:

• MARKHAM, GERVASE (or JERVIS) (1568?-1637)
• MARKHAM, MRS
• MARKHAM, SIR CLEMENTS ROBERT (183o- )
• MARKHAM, WILLIAM (1719-1807)

Markham, Cuzco and Lima (London, 1858) ; idem, Travels in Peru and See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India (ibid . 1862) ; idem, The War between Peru and Chile (ibid .

1883) ; idem, History of Peru (See also:

• CHICAGO
• CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

Chicago, 1892) ; V . M . Maurtua, The Question of the Pacific (See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia, 1901); M. de Mendiburu, Diccionario historicobiogrdfico del Peru (8 vols., Callao, 1874–1890) ; E . W . Middendorf, Peru: Beobachtungen and Studien fiber das Land and See also:

• SEINE
• SEINE (Lat. Sequana)
• SEINE, or SEAN (O. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr. vaytivrl, a draw-net)

seine Bewohner, &c . (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1893) ; Federico Moreno, Petroleum in Peru (Lima, 1891) ; Dr M . Neveu-Lemaire, Les Lacs des hauts plateaux de l'Amerique du Sud (Paris, 1906) ; M . F . Paz-Soldan, Historia del Peru independiente (3 vols., 1868 et seq.) ; idem, Diccionario geogrdfico-estadistico del Peru (Lima, 1879) ; A . See also:

• PLANE

Plane, A travers l'Amerique equatoriale (Paris, 1903) ; W . H . Prescott, History of the Conquest of Peru (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1868) ; A .

Raimondi, El Peru: Estudios mineralogicos, &c . (4 vols., Lima, 1890–1902) ; M . Ch . Renoz, Le Perou (Bruxelles, 1897): G . Rene-Moreno, Ultimos dins coloniales en el See also:

• ALTO (Ital. for " high ")

Alto Peru 1807–1808 (Santiago de Chile, 1896–1898) ; F . Seebee, Travelling Impressions in and Notes on Peru (2nd ed., London, 1905); E . G . Squier, Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas (ibid . 1877) ; Edmond See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple, Travels in Various Parts of Peru (2 vols., ibid . 183o) ; J . J . Von Tschudi, Reisen durch amerika (5 vols., See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1866–1868) ; idem, Travels in Peru (London, 1847) ; Charles Wiener, Perou et Bolivie (Paris, 188o) ; See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent, Around and about South America (New York, 189o) ; See also:

• MARIE

Marie See also:

• ROBINSON, EDWARD (1794–1863)
• ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1777–1867)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1575–1625)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1650-1723)
• ROBINSON, JOHN THOMAS ROMNEY (1792–1882)
• ROBINSON, MARY [" Perdita "] (1758–1800)
• ROBINSON, SIR JOHN BEVERLEY, BART
• ROBINSON, SIR JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1845– )
• ROBINSON, THEODORE (1852-1896)

Robinson See also:

• WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909)
• WRIGHT, CHAUNCEY (1830-1875)
• WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797)
• WRIGHT, SILAS (1795-1847)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1809–1884)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810—1877)
• WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS (1836– )

Wright, The Old and New Peru (Philadelphia, 19o9) ; the Consular and Diplomatic Reports of Great Britain and the United States; Hand-See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook of Peru and Bulletins of the See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

Bureau of American Republics; and the departmental publications of the Peruvian Government .