See also:

• PHONETICS (Gr. Davit, voice)

PHONETICS (Gr. Davit, See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice)  , the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of speech-sounds and the See also:

• ART

art of See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation . In its widest sense it is the " science of See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice," dealing mot only with articulate, but also with the inarticulate sounds of animals as well as men . The originally synonymous See also:

• TERM

term, " phonology," is now restricted to the See also:

• HISTORY

history and theory of See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound-changes . The most obvious of the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical applications of See also:

• PHONETICS (Gr. Davit, voice)

phonetics is to the acquisition of a correct pronunciation of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages . But its applications to the study of the native See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language are not less important: it is only by the help of phonetics that it is possible to See also:

• DEAL

deal effectively with vulgarisms and provincialisms of pronunciation and secure uniformity of speech; and it is only on a phonetic basis that the See also:

• DEAF

deaf and dumb can be taught articulate speech . From a more theoretical point of view phonetics is, in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, the science of linguistic observation . Without phonetic training the dialectologist, and the missionary who is confronted with a hitherto unwritten language, can neither observe fully nor See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record accurately the phenomena with which they have to deal . These investigations have greatly widened the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of the science of 'language . The See also:

• MODERN

modern philologist no longer despises colloquial and illiterate forms of speech . On the contrary, he considers that in them the See also:

• LIFE

life and growth of language is seen more clearly than in dead See also:

• LITERARY

literary languages, on whose study the science of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology was at first exclusively built up . It was not till philologists began to ask what were the real facts underlying the comparisons of the written words in See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, Latin, and the other Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European languages, embodied in such generalizations as See also:

• GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, I
• GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863)
• GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859)

Grimm's See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law, that " See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter-science " See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into " sound-science " (phonology) . The rise and decay of inflexions, and the development of grammatical forms generally, are, from the formal point of view, mainly phonetic problems; and phonetics enters more or less into every See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and comparative See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar .

Methods of Study and Investigation.—Phonetics is the science of speech-sounds . But sounds may be-considered from two opposite points of view—the organic and the acoustic . From the organic point of view a sound is the result of certain actions and positions of the See also:

• ORGANS

organs of speech, as when we define f as a See also:

• LIP (a word common in various forms, to Teutonic languages, cf Ger. Lippe, Dan. laebe; Lat. labium is cognate)

lip-See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth (dento-labial) consonant . This is the point of view of the See also:

• SPEAKER

speaker of a language . To the hearer, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, f is not a lip-teeth, but a hiss consonant similar to that denoted by th . This is the acoustic point of view . Theoretically, the organic study of phonetics is a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy and See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology: that See also:

• PART

part of these sciences which deals with the organs of speech (see MOUTH) and their functions (see VOICE); while, from the opposite point of view, the study of phonetics is based on that branch of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical science known as See also:

• ACOUSTICS (from the Gr. &eobav to hear)

acoustics (see SOUND), together with the anatomy and physiology of the organs of See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

Hearing (q.v.) . Unfortunately, this basis is still imperfect . The principles of acoustics are well established, and we know much about the anatomy of the See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear . But how the ear transmits to the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain the impression of sound is still a See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery . Again, although the mechanism of the vowel is clear enough, there is still no generally received acoustic theory of its formation . In fact, from the physical science point of view there is as yet no science of phonetics .

The real See also:

• FUNCTION

function of phonetics is philological and literary . The only sound basis of a theoretical knowledge of phonetics is the practical mastery of a limited number of sounds—that is to say, of the sounds which are already See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to the learner in his own language . It is evident that the more familiar a sound is, the easier it is to gain insight into its mechanism and to recognize it when heard . It is indispensable to cultivate both the organic and the acoustic sense . These processes we are continually carrying out in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary conversation . All, therefore, that we have to do in dealing with native sounds is to develop this unconscious organic and acoustic sense into a conscious and See also:

• ANALYTIC (the adjective of " analysis," q.v.)

analytic one . The first step is to learn to isolate each sound: to pronounce it, as far as possible, apart from its context; and to preserve it unchanged through every variation of length and force, and in every See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of sounds . The next step is to analyse its formation . Let the student, for instance, compare the two consonants in such a word as five by isolating and lengthening them till he can both hear and feel the voice-vibration in the second one . In the same way let him learn to feel the changes in the position of the See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue and lips in passing from one vowel to another . When the native sounds have been thoroughly studied in this way, the learner will proceed to foreign sounds, deducing each new sound from those which are already familiar to him . The natural method of learning sounds is mainly a subjective one .

We listen patiently till our ears are steeped, as it were, in the sound; and then, after repeated trials, we See also:

• HIT

hit on the exact position of the organs of speech by which we can reproduce the sound to the speaker's See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction . But the natural method admits also of See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control and See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of the movements of the lips and jaws by See also:

• DIRECT

direct observation . The movements and positions of the tongue and soft See also:

• PALATE (Lat. palatum, possibly from the root of pascere, to feed)

palate, and other modifications of the mouth and See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat passages are also more or less accessible to observation—in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of self-observation with the help of a small See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror held in the hand . If the mirror is small enough to go into the mouth, and is fixed obliquely to a handle, so that it can be held against the back of the mouth at such an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle as to reflect a See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

ray of See also:

• LIGHT

light down the throat, we have the laryngoscope . Laryngoscopy has confirmed earlier results, and has also added to our knowledge of the throat sounds . But, on the other hand, it has been a fruitful source of See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error . There has been See also:

• GREAT

great discrepancy between the results obtained by different observers; and many results which were at first received with implicit confidence for their supposed rigorously scientific and objective See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character have been found to be worthless . It seemed at first as if See also:

• RONTGEN, DAVID
• RONTGEN, WILHELM KONRAD (1845– )

Rontgen's See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the so-called X-rays would meet the want of a means of direct observation of the positions of the tongue, not lengthways, but from the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, as also of the interior of the throat . But although the cheeks are to a certain extent transparent to these rays, the See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of the tongue projected on the See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen is too indistinct to he of any use . But there are other methods besides those of direct observation by which the positions of the tongue may be objectively determined and measured with more or less accuracy . The interior of the mouth may be explored by the fingers . If the little See also:

• FINGER

finger is held against the gums -during the See also:

• ARTICULATION (from Lat. articulare, to divide into joints)

articulation of the vowels in it, See also:

• ATE

ate, at, the difference in the height of the tongue will at once become apparent: in the formation of the first vowel the tongue is pressed strongly against the artificial palate, while in that of the second it only just touches it, and in that of the third it does not See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch at all .

Several forms of apparatus have been devised for a more accurate determination of the positions of the tongue and the other movable organs of speech . The best results hitherto as regards the vowel-positions have been obtained by Grandgent, who uses disks of card-See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board of various sizes fixed to See also:

• SILVER

silver wires . A full description of this and other methods will be found in Scripture's Elements of Experimental Phonetics . There are other methods whose results are obtained only indirectly . The simplest of these are the palatographic, by which are obtained " palatograms " recording the contact of the tongue with the palate . The apparatus most generally used consists of a thin, See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell-like artificial palate, which is covered with See also:

• CHALK

chalk and placed in the mouth; when the sound is made, the articulation of the tongue is i*ferred from the contact-marks on the See also:

• PLATE

plate . This method is evidently limited in its application . It, too, has the See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback of not being applicable to the sounds formed in the back of the mouth . The outlines of palatograms are much vaguer than they appear in the published drawings of them; and it is a question whether the thickness even of the thinnest plate does not modify the record . The methods hitherto considered are all comparatively See also:

• SIMPLE

simple . They require no See also:

• SPECIAL

special knowledge or training, and are accessible to all . But there are more elaborate methods—with which the name " experimental phonetics " is more specially connected—involving special training in practical and theoretical physics and See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, and requiring the help of often complicated and costly, and not easily accessible, apparatus .

The investigation of the speech curves of See also:

• PHONOGRAPH
• PHONOGRAPH (Gr. c&JP , sound, ypacbew, to write)

phonograph and See also:

• GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed' on an inversion of " phonogram "; cbwvil, sound, ypaµµa, letter)

gramophone records is a typical example . See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good examples of these methods are afforded by E . A . See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer's investigations of vowel-quantity in See also:

• ENGLISH

English (Englische Lautdauer, Uppsala, 1903) . Their characteristic feature is their delicacy, and the minuteness of their distinctions, which often go beyond the range of the human ear . Although their results are often of value, they must always be received with caution: the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of error are so numerous The claims of instrumental phonetics have been so prominently brought forward of See also:

• LATE

late years that they can no longer be ignored, even by the most conservative of the older See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of phoneticians . But it is possible to go too .far the other way . Some of the younger generation seem to think that the instrumental methods have superseded the natural ones in the same way as the Arabic superseded the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman numerals . This See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption has had disastrous results . It cannot be too often repeated that instrumental phonetics is, strictly speaking, not phonetics at all . It is only a help: it only supplies materials which are useless till they have been tested and accepted from the linguistic phonetician's point of view . The final arbiter in all phonetic questions is the trained ear of a practical phonetician: See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences which cannot be perceived must —or at least may be—ignored ; what contradicts the trained ear cannot be accepted .

Sound-Notation; Spelling Reform.—Next to the See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the sounds themselves, the most important problem of phonetics is their See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation by means of written and printed symbols . The traditional or " nomic " orthographies of most languages are only imperfectly phonetic . And, unfortunately, of the languages in most See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use, two are exceptionally unphonetic in their orthographies, See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French showing the greatest divergence between sound and See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol, while English shows the maximum of irregularity and arbitrariness . The See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• ORTHOGRAPHY (from Gr. Opeoc, correct, right or straight, and yp&cbecv, to write)

orthography is comparatively phonetic: it has hardly any silent letters, and it generally has one symbol for each sound, each symbol having only one value, the exceptions falling under a few simple rules, which are easily remembered . There are other languages which have still more phonetic orthographies, such as See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish, Welsh and Finnish . But even the best of them are not perfect: even when they are not actually misleading, they are always inadequate . On the other hand, no See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing is wholly unphonetic . Even in French and English there are many words whose spelling not even the most See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical reformer would think of altering . In fact, all writing which has once emerged from the hieroglyphic See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage is at first purely phonetic, as far as its defective means will allow . The divergence between sound and symbol which makes spelling unphonetic is the result of the retention of phonetic spellings after they have become unphonetic through changes in the pronunciation of the words themselves . Thus, such English spelling as See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight and See also:

• WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909)
• WRIGHT, CHAUNCEY (1830-1875)
• WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797)
• WRIGHT, SILAS (1795-1847)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1809–1884)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810—1877)
• WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS (1836– )

wright were still phonetic in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer; for at that time the initial consonants of these words were still pronounced, and the gh still had the sound of ch in German ich . So also see and See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea are written differently, not by way of arbitrary distinction, but because they were pronounced differently till within the last few centuries—as they still are in Irish-English .

Where there is no traditional orthography, as when Old English (Anglo-Saxon) was first written down in Latin letters, spelling was necessarily phonetic; but where there is a large literature and a class of professional See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes, the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the traditional orthography becomes stronger, till at last the invention of See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing and the See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion of one See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect over a large See also:

• AREA

area occupied originally by a variety of other dialects make changes of spelling as inconvenient as they were once easy and natural . The ideal orthography for printers is one which is absolutely See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform over the whole territory of the language, and absolutely unchangeable . In such orthographies as those of the See also:

• PRESENT

present English and French there is no longer any living See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between sound and symbol: they are, in intention at least, wholly unphonetic; they are preserved by graphic, not by oral, tradition . But unphoneticness has it . ~ractical limits . A purely unphonetic degradation of an origin.11y phonetic system of writing —one in which there is absolutely no correspondence between sounds and letters—could not be mastered even by the most retentive memory: it would be even more difficult than the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese writing . Hence a phonetic reaction is inevita'ble . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the spelling was periodically readjusted in accordance with the changes of pronunciation—as far, of course, as the imperfections of the existing orthography would allow . This See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

adjustment went on even after the introduction of printing . In fact, it is only within the last See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years or so that the orthographies of English and French have become fixed . One result of this fixity is that any See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to continue the See also:

• PROCESS

process of adjustment assumes a revolutionary character . When, in 1849, the pioneers of the modern spelling-reform See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement—A .

J . See also:

• ELLIS (originally SHARPE), ALEXANDER JOHN (1814-189o)
• ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815)
• ELLIS, ROBINSON (1834- )
• ELLIS, SIR HENRY (1777-1869)
• ELLIS, WILLIAM (1794 – 1872)

Ellis and I . See also:

• PITMAN

Pitman—brought out the Fonetic Nuz, few of those who joined in the See also:

• CHORUS (Gr. xopbs)Z

chorus of ridicule excited by the new See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet stopped to consider that this uncouthness was purely the result of See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, and that the Authorized Version of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible in the spelling of its first edition would seem to us not less See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange and uncouth than in the new-fangled phonotypy of Messrs Ellis and Pitman . Nor did they stop to consider that phonetics and phonetic spelling, so far from being innovations, are as old as See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization itself . The Alexandrian grammarians were not only phoneticians—they were spelling-reformers; they invented the Greek accents for the purpose of making the pronunciation of Greek easier to foreigners . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, too, were phoneticians: they learnt Greek by phonetic methods, and paid great See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to niceties of pronunciation . The Sanskrit grammarians were still better phoneticians . As a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact, English spelling was still phonetic as late as the time of See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare—in intention, at least . But although See also:

• PEOPLE

people still tried to write as they spoke, the inherited imperfections of their orthography made it more and more difficult for them to do so . Hence already in the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century a number of spelling-reformers made their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, including classical scholars such as See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• CHEKE, SIR JOHN (1514-1557)

Cheke, and A . Gill, who was See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's School in See also:

• LONDON

London . Gill has See also:

• LEFT

left us extracts from See also:

• SPENSER, EDMUND (c. 1552-1599)
• SPENSER, JOHN (1559-1614)

Spenser's Faerie Queene in phonetic spelling; but, strange to say, nothing of Shakespeare's, although he and Shakespeare were exact contemporaries .

But Gill's and the other alphabets proposed were too intricate and cumbrous for popular use . Nevertheless, some important phonetic reforms were success-fully carried through, such as getting rid of most of the superfluous final e's, utilizing the originally superfluous distinctions in See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form between i and j, u and v, by using i, u only as vowels, j, v only as consonants, instead of at See also:

• RANDOM (older forms randon, randrun; from the French, cf. randir, to run quickly, impetuously; generally taken to be of Teutonic origin and connected with Ger. Rand, edge, brim, the idea being possibly of a brimming river)

random—a reform which seems to have begun in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . Another important reform was the introduction of See also:

• EA(nar...), (p.s„,.,.)
• EA(psr...), (p, „...)• (pqr...)

ea and oa, as in sea and See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat, which had hitherto been written with ee and oo, being thus confused with see and See also:

• BOOT

boot . All these were as much phonetic reforms as it would be to utilize See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long s and tailed z ( , 3) to denote the final consonants in See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish and See also:

• ROUGE (" red," from Lat. rubeus)

rouge respectively; a reform first suggested by A . J . Ellis, who was himself the first to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call attention to the See also:

• WORKS

works of these See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early phoneticians and to utilize them in the investigations enshrined in his great See also:

• WORK

work on Early English Pronunciation . With all its defects, the present English spelling is still mainly phonetic; we can still approximately guess the pronunciation of the vast See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of words from their spelling . So when we say that English spelling is unphonetic we merely mean that it is a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad phonetic spelling; and all that spelling-reformers aim at is to make this bad into a good phonetic spelling, that is, an efficient and easy one . But the difficulties are great; and the more we know of phonetics, and the more we experiment with different systems of spelling, the more formidable do they appear . One of the difficulties, however, that is commonly supposed to stand in the way of spelling-reform is quite imaginary: namely, that it would destroy the historical and etymological value of the present system . Thus E . A .

See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

Freeman used to protest against it as " a reckless wiping out of the whole history of the language." Such critics fail to see that historical spelling, if carried out consistently, would destroy the materials on which alone history can be based; that these materials are nothing else but a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of phonetic spellings of different periods of the language, and that if a consistent historical and etymorogical spelling could have been kept up from the beginning, there would have been no Grimm's Law, no See also:

• ETYMOLOGY (Gr. grvµos, true, and X6yos, "account)

etymology; in See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, no comparative or historical philology possible . The advantages of beginning a foreign language in a phonetic notation are many and obvious . In the first place, the learner who has once mastered the notation and learnt to pronounce the sounds the letters stand for, is able to read off at once any See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text that is presented to him without doubt or hesitation, and without having to See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden his memory with rules of pronunciation and spelling . Another See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of phonetic spelling is that when the learner See also:

• SEES

sees the words written in a representation of theiractual spoken form he is able to recognize them at once when he hears them . And if the learner begins with the phonetic notation, and uses it exclusively till he has thoroughly mastered the spoken language, he will then be able to learn the ordinary spelling without fear of confusion, and quicker than he would otherwise have done . Spelling-reform may be carried out with various degrees of thoroughness . After the failure of many schemes of radical reform, an attempt was made to begin with those numerous spellings which are both unphonetic and unhistorical, or are against the See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of other traditional spellings . Accordingly, in 1881 the Philological Society of London " aproovd (sic) of certain partial corections (sic) of English spellings," which were also approved of by the See also:

• AMERICAN

American Spelling-reform Association; and a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of them was issued jointly by the two bodies, and recommended for general See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption . A similar movement has been started in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . But the general feeling appears to be that it is better to keep the ordinary spelling unchanged, and wait till it is possible to supersede it by one on a more or less See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent basis . If the existing Roman alphabet is made the basis of the new phonetic notation of any one language, the most obvious course is to select one of the various traditional representations of each sound, and use that one symbol exclusively, omitting, of course, at the same time all silent letters . A .

J . Ellis's English Glossic is an example of such a phonetic spelling on a See also:

• NATIONAL

national basis . The following is a specimen: Ingglish Glosik iz veri eezi too See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed . Widh proper training a cheild foar yeerz oald kan See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee redili taut too reed Glosik buoks . But a system which, like this, writes short and long vowels with totally different symbols (i, ee) is only See also:

• HALF

half phonetic: it is phonetic on an unphonetic basis . . A fully phonetic system, in which, for instance, long vowels and diphthongs are expressed by consistent modifications or combinations of the symbols of the short vowels, and in which simple sounds are, as far as is reasonable and convenient, ex-pressed by single letters instead of digraphs such as sh, must necessarily discard any national basis . , The best basis on the whole is obtained by giving the letters their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• COMMON

common European sounds, i.e. by returning to the Late Latin pronunciation, with such modifications and additions as may be advisable . As regards the vowels at least, this Latin basis is very well preserved in German and See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian . In French, on the other hand, the Latin tradition was greatly corrupted already in the earliest See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period through the rapid changes which the language underwent . Thus when the Latin u in See also:

• LUNA (mod. Luni)
• LUNA, ALVARO DE (d. 1453)

luna assumed the sound it now has in French lune, the symbol u was still kept; and when the sound u afterwards developed again out of the diphthong ou, this digraph was used to denote the sound . So when the French system of spelling came into use in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England after the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest these unphonetic symbols were introduced into English spelling, so that such a word as Old English and Early Middle English hit's, " See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house," was written "sous in the Late Middle English of Chaucer, although the sound was still that of Scotch hoos, ou (ow) being also used to denote a true diphthong (ou) in such words as knou, know, from Old English cndwan . By returning, then, to the original values of the letters we get the " Romic " or See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international (See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental) basis as opposed to the Glossic or national basis .

Thus the passage quoted above appears as follows in Sweet's " Broad Romic " notation: inglif glosik iz veri iizi tu riid. wi6 prope treinin atfaildfaa jiaz ould kan bii redili tat to riid glosik buks . Another important general distinction is that between " broad " and " narrow " systems of notation . A broad notation is one which makes only the practically necessary distinctions in each language, and makes them in the simplest manner possible, omitting all that is superfluous . From a practical point of view the necessary distinctions are those on which differences of meaning depend . A distinction of sound which is significant in one language may be unsignificant in another . Thus the distinction between See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close a and open e, a is significant in French, as in pecker, pecker; so if in French phonetic writing the former is denoted by (e), it is necessary to find a new symbol (e) for the open sound . But in languages such as English and German, where the short e is always open, there is no practical objection to using the unmodified (e) to denote the open sound, even if we regard (e) as the proper symbol of the close sound . And in those languages in which the short e is always open and the long e always close it' is enough to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the distinction of quantity, and leave the distinction of quality to be inferred from it (e, cc) . In such a case as this it is, of course, possible to apply the principle of ignoring superfluous distinctions in the opposite way: by writing the long and short vowels in such a language (e, e), leaving the quantity to be inferred from the quality . But the former method is the more convenient, as it does not require any new letter . The " broad " principle is especially convenient in writing diphthongs . Thus in English Broad Romic we write the diphthongs in high and how with the same vowel as ash (See also:

• HAI (939-1038)

hai, hau, aask), although all these (a)'s represent different sounds in ordinary See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern English pronunciation .

But the pronunciation of these diphthongs varies so much in different parts of the English-speaking territory, and the distinctions are so See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute that it would be inconvenient to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express them in writing; and as these distinctions are non-significant, it would be useless to do so . (ai) and (au) are symbols, not of special diphthongs, but of two classes of diphthongs: they can stand for any diphthongs which begin with a vowel resembling the Italian a, and end with approximations to i and u respectively . Theoretically it would be just as correct in English and German to write these diphthongs (ae, ao) . But these notations are misleading, because they suggest simple sounds . In comparing the sounds of a variety of languages, or of dialects of a language, and still more in dealing with sounds in general, we require a " narrow," that is a minutely accurate, notation covering the whole See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of possible sounds . It is evident from what has been said above that such a universal scientific alphabet is not suited for practical work in any one language . But the symbols of such a notation as Sweet's " Narrow Romic " are of the greatest use as keys to the exact pronunciation of the vaguer symbols of the Broad Romic notations of each language . To prevent confusion between these two systems of notations Broad Romic symbols are enclosed in ( ), Narrow Romic in [ which at the same time serve to distinguish between phonetic and nomic spellings . This in English i (i) = [i] means that the English vowel in finny is the " wide " sound, not the " narrow " one in French fini, although in the Broad Romic notations of both languages (fini) is written for finny and fini alike . Narrow Romic was originally based on A . J . Ellis's " Palaeotype," in which, as the name implies, no new letters are employed .

The symbols of Palaeotype are made up, as far as possible, of the letters generally accessible in printing-offices, the ordinary Roman See also:

• LOWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869)
• LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1769-1844)

lowe -case letters being supplemented by italics and small capitals (i, 1) and turned letters (a,o), many digraphs (th, sh) being also used . This notation was a reaction from Ellis's earlier phonotopy, in which a large number of new letters were used . Some of these, however, such as f = (sh), (zh), were afterwards adopted into Broad and Narrow Romic . In his Palaeotype Ellis also discarded diacritical letters, which, as he rightly says, are from a typographical point of view See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to new letters . In Narrow Romic a certain number of diacritical letters are used, such as (n, a), most of which are already accessible . Palaeotype is a Roman-value notation, the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main difference as regards the values of the symbols between it and the later systems -being that it is more complex and arbitrary . Ellis afterwards had the unhappy See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of constructing a " Universal Glossic " on an English-values basis, which is even more cumbrous and difficult to remember than Palaeotype . Sweet's Romic systems were made the basis of the " Inter-national " alphabet used in Le Maitre Phonetique, which is the See also:

• ORGAN

organ of the International phonetic Association, directed by P . Passy . Although this system is at the present time more widely known and used than any other, and although it isconstructed on the international Romic principle, it is not really an international system . It is rather an attempt to make a special See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of the Romic basis to the needs of the French language into a general notation for all languages . But the phonetic structure of French is so abnormal, so different from that of other languages, that the attempt to force a Broad Romic French notation on such a language as English is even more hopeless than it would be to See also:

• REVERSE

reverse the process .

Although well suited for French, this alphabet must from a wider point of view be regarded as a failure: it is too minute and rigid for practical, and yet not precise enough for scientific purposes, In short, although it has done excellent service, and has helped to clear the way for a notation which shall command general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance, it cannot be regarded as a final See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the problem . Of the numerous other notations now in use, some still adhere to the diacritic principle of See also:

• LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (1810–1884)

Lepsius's Standard Alphabet (1855), intended for missionary use, but found quite unfit for that purpose because of the enormous number of new types required . Most of them prefer to use new letters formed by more or less consistent modifications of the existing See also:

• ITALIC

italic letters . A, J . Lundell's See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish dialect alphabet and O . Jespersen's Danish dialect alphabet are good specimens of this tendency . In the latter Roman letters are used for special distinctions, just as italic letters are used in the Romic systems . But in spite of all diversity, there is much agreement . As regards the vowels, the following approximate values are now See also:

• PRETTY

pretty generally accepted: a as in See also:

• FATHER

father. i as in it . ai „ time. o ,, beau (Fr.) . au „ house. ce „ See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear (Fr.) . ae „ See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man. o ,, fall .

e ete (Fr.). of „ oil . ei ,, See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

veil. ou „ soul . e „ there. u „ full . a further. y ,, une (Fr.) . Vowel-length is in some systems denoted by doubling (aa), in others by special marks (a: &c.), the diacritic in a being used only in the nomic orthographies of dead and See also:

• ORIENTAL

oriental languages . The only consonant-symbols that require special See also:

• NOTICE

notice are the following: c as in tyuk (Hung.). n as in sing . ich (German). j „ fish . „ then . „ thin . you. w „ we . „ nagy (Hung.). x „ See also:

• LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH, 1ST BARON (1827-1900)

loch . n „ ogni (Ital.) .

3 , rouge . All the systems of phonetic notation hitherto considered are based on the Roman alphabet . But although the Roman alphabet has many advantages from a practical point of view, it is evidently impossible to build up a consistent and systematic notation on such an inadequate See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of arbitrary signs . What is wanted, for scientific purposes especially, is a notation independent of the Roman alphabet, built up systematically—an alphabet in which there is a definite relation between sound and symbol . This relation may be regarded either from the organic or the acoustic point of view . The tendency of the earlier attempts at an a priori universal alphabet was to symbolize the consonants organically, the vowels acoustically, as in E . Brucke's Phonetische Transscription (1863) . It is now generally acknowledged that the vowels as well as the consonants must be represented on a strictly organic basis . This was first done in A . M . See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell's Visible Speech (1867), which appeared again (1882) in a shorter form and with some modifications under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of Sounds and their Relations . Bell's See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil, H .

Sweet, gave a detailed criticism of Visible Speech in a See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper on Sound-notation (Trans. of Philological Society, 188o-r881), in which he described a revised form of it called the Organic Alphabet, which he afterwards employed in his Primer of Phonetics and other works . Sweet's Narrow Romic notation already mentioned is practically a transcription of the Organic Alphabet into Roman letters . Such notations are alphabetic: they go on the general principle of providing See also:

• SEPARATE

separate symbols for each simple sound . But as the number of possible shades of sounds is almost See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite, even the (f) remains unchanged, while the following vowel and See also:

• CON

con-the most minutely accurate of them can do so only within certain limits . The Organic Alphabet especially makes a large use of " modifiers "—characters which are added to the other symbols to indicate nasal, palatal, &c., modifications of the sounds represented by the latter, these modifiers being generally represented by italic letters in the Narrow Romic transcription; thus (1n) = nazalized (1) . In the Roman alphabet such symbols as f, v are arbitrary, showing no connection in form either with one another or with the organic actions by which they are formed; but in the Organic symbol of v, for instance, we can see the graphic representation of its components " lips, teeth, voice-murmur." By omitting superfluous marks and utilizing various typographical devices the notation is so simplified that the symbols, in spite of their minute accuracy, are often simpler than in the corresponding Roman notation . The simplicity of the system is shown by the fact that it requires only about rro types, as compared with the 28o of Lepsius's very imperfect Standard Alphabet . All the systems hitherto considered are also alphabetic in a wider sense: they are intended for continuous writing, the more cumbrous " narrow " notations being, however, generally employed only in writing single words or short See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . An " analphabetic " basis was first definitely advocated by Jespersen, who represents each sound by a See also:

• GROUP

group of symbols resembling a chemical See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula, each symbol representing not a sound, but an See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of a sound: the part of the palate, tongue, &c., where the sound is formed, the degree of separation (openness) of the organs of speech, and so on . The two great advantages of such a system are that it allows perfect freedom in selecting and combining the elements and that it can be built up on the foundation of a small number of generally accessible signs . As regards Jespersen's See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme, it is to be regretted that he has not worked it out in a more practical manner: that in his choice of the See also:

• THIRTY

thirty See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd symbols that he requires he should have gone out of his way to mix up Greek with Roman letters, together with other characters which would be avoided by any one constructing even a scientific alphabetic notation . And his use of these symbols is open to much criticism .

In fact, it cannot he said that the analphabetic principle has yet had a See also:

• FAIR

fair trial . The Organs of Speech.—Most speech-sounds are formed with See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air expelled from the lungs (voice-See also:

• BELLOWS
• BELLOWS, ALBERT F
• BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY (1814-1882)

bellows), which passes through the two contractible bronchi or bronchial tubes into the also contractible See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind-See also:

• PIPE

pipe or trachea, on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of which is fixed the larynx (voice-See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box) . Across the interior of the larynx are stretched two elastic ledges or cushions called " the vocal chords." They are inserted in front of the larynx at one end, and at the other they are fixed to two movable cartilaginous bodies " the aretynoids," so that the passage between them—the glottis—can be narrowed or dosed at See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure . The glottis is, as we see, twofold, consisting of the chord glottis and the See also:

• CARTILAGE (Lat. cartilage, gristle)

cartilage glottis . The two can be narrowed or closed independently . The chords can also be tightened or relaxed, lengthened and shortened in various degrees . When the whole glottis is wide open, no sound is produced by the outgoing breath except that caused by the See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction of the air . Sounds in whose formation the glottis is in this passive See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state are called " breath " sounds . Thus (f) is the breath consonant corresponding to the " voice " or " voiced " consonant (v) . In the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of voice, the chords are brought close enough together to be set in vibration by the air passing between them . In the " thick " See also:

• REGISTER

register of the voice (See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest voice) the chords vibrate in their whole length, in the " thin " register or falsetto only in part of their length . If the glottis is narrowed without vibration, "whisper" is the result .

In the " weak whisper " there is narrowing the whole glottis; in the " strofig whisper," which is the ordinary form, the chord glottis is entirely closed, so that the breath passes only through the cartilage glottis . In what is popularly called " whisper "—that is, speaking without voice—the breath sounds remain unchanged, while voiced sounds substitute whisper (in the phonetic sense) for voice . Thus in whispering such a word as feel sonant are formed with the glottis only half closed . Whispered sounds—both vowels and consonants—occur in ordinary loud speech in many languages . Thus the final consonants in such English words as leaves, oblige are whispered, except when followed without a pause by a voiced sound, as in obliging, where the (3) is fully voiced . Above the glottis—still within the larynx—comes the " upper " or " false " glottis, by which the passage can be narrowed . On the top of the larynx is fixed a See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-like See also:

• BODY

body, the " epiglottis," which in swallowing, and sometimes in speech, is pressed down over the opening of the larynx . The contractible cavity between the larynx and the mouth is called the " pharynx." The roof of the mouth consists of two parts, the " soft " and the " hard palate." The See also:

• LOWER

lower pendulous extremity of the soft palate, the " uvula," in its passive state leaves the passage into the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose open . In the formation of non-nasal sounds, such as (b), the uvula is pressed up so as to close the passage from the pharynx into the nose . If (b) is formed with the passage open, it becomes the corresponding nasal consonant (m) . The other extremity of the (hard) palate is bounded by the teeth, behind which are the gums, extending from the teeth-rim to the See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch-rim —the See also:

• PROJECTION

projection of the teeth-roots or alveolars . There is great diversity among phoneticians as regards the mapping out—the divisions—of the palate and tongue, and their names .

Foreign phoneticians generally adopt very minute distinctions, to which they give Latin names . Bell in his Visible Speech makes a few broad fundamental divisions . In the arrangement adopted here (mainly based on his) sounds formed on the soft palate are called " back," and are subdivided into " inner "= nearer the throat, and " See also:

• OUTER

outer "= nearer the teeth, further subdivisions being made by the terms " innermost," " outermost," the position exactly half way between these two last being defined as " intermediate back." Sounds formed on the hard palate or teeth may be included under the common term " forward," more accurately distinguished as " teeth " (dental), " See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum," " front " (palatal, afterwards called " top " by Bell), which last is really equivalent to " See also:

• MID

mid-palatal," including the whole of the hard palate behind the gums . All of these divisions are further subdivided into " inner," &c., as with the back positions . Of the tongue we distinguish the " back " (See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root), " front " or middle, " point " (tip), and " blade," which includes the point and the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the tongue immediately behind it . The tongue can also articulate against the lips, which, again, can articulate against the teeth . The lip passage can be closed, or narrowed in various degrees . Sounds modified by lip-narrowing are called " lip-modified " (labialized) or " See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round " (rounded), the last being specially used in speaking of vowels . Speech-sounds.—The most general test of a simple as opposed to a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound sound (sound-group) is that it can be lengthened without See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . As regards place of articulation, no sound is really simple: every sound is the result of the shape of the whole configurative passage from the lungs to the lips; and the ultimate sound-elements, such as voice, are never heard isolated: The most indistinct voice-murmur is as much the result of the shape of the superglottal passages as the clearest and most distinct of the other vowels; and its organic formation is as definite as theirs is, the only difference being that while in what we rega,Id as unmodified voice all the organs except the vocal chords are in their passive, neutral positions, the other vowels are formed by actively modifying the shape of the super-glottal passages—by raising the tongue towards the palate, narrowing the lips, &c . The most important elements of speech-sounds are those which are dependent on the shape of the glottis and of the mouth passage respectively . It is on the relation between these two factors that one of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest distinctions between sounds is based: that of vowel and consonant .

In vowels the element of voice is the predominant one: a vowel is voice modified by the different shapes of the superglottal passages . In consonants, on the other hand, the state of the glottis is only secondary . Consonants are generally the result of audible friction, as in (f), muffled and the See also: