See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. See also:

• LAT

Lat. pera; the word for piers out of See also:

• WATER

water. For See also:

• RIVER

river piers, where a See also:

• FIRM

firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. See also:

• PIERRE

Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate See also:

• DEPTH

depth below the river-See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed, the pctr  a, See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, is doubtful; equivalents are Fr. piedroit, pilier, site is often enclosed within a See also:

• COFFER (Fr. coffee, O. Fr. cofre or cofne, Lat. cophinus, cf. " coffin ")

coffer-See also:

• DAM

dam or a See also:

• PLATE

plate See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron See also:

• CAISSON (from the Fr. caisse, the variant form " cassoon " being adapted from the Ital. casone)

caisson lrunneaue; Ital. pila; Ger . Pfeiler), the See also:

• TERM

term given in See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture carried down into the stratum and raised out of See also:

• WATER

water; and then, to a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical support in See also:

• MASONRY

masonry or See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork, usually rect- after the water has been pumped out and the See also:

• SURFACE

surface layers angular on See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan, which carries an See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch or superstructure . The removed, the See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

pier is readily built within the enclosure in the term is also sometimes given to the See also:

• GREAT

great circular columns which open See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . When, however, a See also:

• RIVER

river-See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed consists of silt, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand or in some See also:

• ENGLISH

English cathedrals and churches carry the See also:

• NAVE

nave See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches. other soft materials extending down to a considerable See also:

• DEPTH

depth, In See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian churches, when See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique columns, such as brickwork See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells are gradually sunk tc a See also:

• FIRM

firm stratum by removing abounded in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, were not procurable, square piers took the the material within them with grabs, and on them the piers are See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of columns and sometimes alternated with them . The built out of water; or bottomless caissons are carried down by introduction of vaulting, however, in the 11th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, neces- excavating their interiors under compressed air, and the piers sitated a support of much greater dimensions than those which are built on See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of them within a plate-iron enclosure, a See also:

• SYSTEM

system adopted for the piers of the See also:

• BROOKLYN

Brooklyn, St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis, Forth and other large See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, and essential for forming See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations on sloping See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock, such as was encountered in places under the See also:

• FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857– )
• FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880)

Firth of Forth . The methods indicated above as employed for the foundations of the piers of bridges under favourable conditions belong equally to the foundations of other structures (see FOUNDATIONS); but there are some methods which, by combining See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge piers and their foundations in a single structure, appertain entirely to piers . Thus iron See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw piles, sunk by turning into the soft bed of a river till they reach a firm stratum or one sufficiently consolidated by the superincumbent layers to enable it to support the wide See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades of the screws with the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight imposed on them, were formerly often arranged in converging clusters joined together at the top, so as to serve as the piers of bridges having several comparatively small spans, and intended for carrying lightly constructed See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways across See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and elsewhere . Hollow, See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-iron, cylindrical piles also, with a broad circular disk at the bottom to increase their bearing surface, have been used for piers founded in sandy or silty strata bolted together with a specially strong bottom See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, sometimes made of wrought iron and having a cutting edge, have been often employed for the construction of the river piers of bridges, being gradually carried down to a watertight stratum by excavating inside, and subsequently filled up solid with See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete and See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick-See also:

• WORK

work; the piers of the Charing See also:

• CROSS

Cross and See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

Cannon See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

Street bridges across the See also:

• THAMES

Thames are notable instances of the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of this method, which is well illustrated by the piers of the bridges across the River Chittravati in India (fig . 2) . Sometimes, instead of two or more See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent cylinders being sunk, the whole site of a pier is enclosed within a wrought-iron caisson, usually divided into sections ccago by vertical partitions, which is sunk and filled up solid in the same way as cylinders, a system adopted, for instance, for the piers of the bridge across the Hawkesbury River in New See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . See also:

• PROMENADE

Promenade Piers.—The term pier is often applied to See also:

• WORKS

works sheltering harbours, such as the See also:

• TYNEMOUTH

Tynemouth piers, which are strictly breakwaters . Landing stages also, whether solid or open, have for a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time been called piers, as the See also:

• ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

Admiralty Pier and the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince of Wales's Pier at See also:

• DOVER
• DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE
• DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708)
• DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641)

Dover; but the open promenade piers which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• COMMON

common feature at seaside resorts are the type of pier best known to the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general public .

These piers are supported upon open pilework of See also:

• TIMBER

timber or iron, and consequently expose little surface to waves in storms and do not interfere with the See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift of See also:

• SHINGLE

shingle or sand along the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast (fig . 3).1 Timber piles are best suited for withstanding the shocks of vessels at landing stages, at which places they are generally used; but since they are subject to the attacks of the See also:

• TEREDO

teredo, and expose a considerable surface to the waves, iron piles are generally adopted for the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main portion of these piers . The See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer of these piers was the old See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain pier at See also:

• BRIGHTON

Brighton, which was erected in 1822-1823 . It was founded upon See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak piles, was 1136 ft. long, and had a timber landing-See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage at the end . It consisted of four spans suspended from chains on the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of the Menai Suspension Bridge, then in course of construction, and was destroyed by a See also:

• GALE
• GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678)
• GALE, THOMAS (?1636-17o2)

gale in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1896 . A wider and more See also:

• MODERN

modern type of pier was erected at the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west end of Brighton in 1865–1866, of considerable thickness; they are sunk to the requisite depth by lowering a See also:

• PIPE

pipe down the inside of the See also:

• PILE

pile to the bottom and emitting a powerful See also:

• JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat)

jet of water which, stirring up the soft material and scouring it away from under the disk, causes the pile to descend . This system was first adopted for the piers of a railway viaduct See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the wide, sandy See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent and See also:

• LEVEN
• LEVEN, ALEXANDER LESLIE, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1580-1661)
• LEVEN, LOCH

Leven estuaries opening into See also:

• MORECAMBE

Morecambe See also:

• BAY

Bay (fig . I) . Cast-iron cylinders, consisting of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of rings formed of segments all and subsequently extended; whilst a new pier was completed in 1900 near the site of the old chain pier, I700 ft. tong . The See also:

• SOUTHPORT

Southport pier, erected in 1859–186o and afterwards prolonged, furnishes an example of an iron pier supported on disk piles sunk in sand as described above (fig . I); whilst the much more commonly used iron screw piles, adopted as early as 1847 for an open landing-pier on the Irish coast at Courtown, which was exposed to a great littoral drift of sand, are shown as the mode of support for the pier 1 The Engineer (1888), i . 38o, 381 and 384 .

at St Leonards (fig . 3) . The length given to these promenade piers depends mainly on the slope of the See also:

• FORESHORE

foreshore, which deter-mines the distance from the See also:

• SHORE

shore at which a sufficient depth is reached for steamers of moderate See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught to come alongside the end of the pier . Thus, whereas a length of 90o ft. has sufficed for the St Leonards pier on a somewhat steep, shingly See also:

• BEACH

beach, the pier at See also:

• RYDE

Ryde, constituting the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal landing-place for the Isle of See also:

• WIGHT, ISLE OF

Wight passengers, has had to be carried out about See also:

• HALF

half a mile across a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat alluvial foreshore to reach water deep enough for the See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access of the steamboats crossing the See also:

• SOLENT, THE

Solent . The vast sands, moreover, at the outlet of the Ribble See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary, stretching two or three See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles in front of Southport at See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low water of See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring tides, have necessitated the construction of a pier 4395 ft. long merely to get out to an old See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood-See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide channel, which is now completely severed by the sands at low water from all connexion with the river . (L . F .