See also:

• PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in Lat. pestis, pestilentia)

PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in See also:

• LAT

Lat. pestis, pestilentia)  , in See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, a See also:

• TERM

term given to any epidemic disease causing a See also:

• GREAT

great mortality, and used in this sense by See also:

• GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS
• GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (16o6-1678)

Galen and the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient medical writers, but now confined to a See also:

• SPECIAL

special disease, otherwise called See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental, Levantine, or Bubonic See also:

• PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in Lat. pestis, pestilentia)

Plague, which may be shortly defined asand to Dioscorides and See also:

• POSIDONIUS (c. 130-50 B.C.)

Posidonius, who fully described these buboes in a See also:

• WORK

work on the plague which prevailed in See also:

• LIBYA

Libya in their See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Whatever the precise date of these physicians may have been, this passage shows the antiquity of the plague in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, which for centuries was considered as its See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home . The great plague referred to by See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy (lx . See also:

• EPITOME
• EPITOME (Gr. lircroui, from isrLTEµveW, to cut short)

Epitome) and more fully by See also:

• OROSIUS, PAULUS (fl. 415)

Orosius (Histor. iv . II) was probably the same, though the symptoms are not recorded . It is reported to have destroyed a million of persons in Africa, but is not stated to have passed into See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . It is not till the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of our era, in the reign of Justinian, that we find bubonic plague in Europe, as a See also:

• PART

part of the great See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of pestilence, accompanied by extraordinary natural phenomena, which lasted fifty years, and is described with a singular misunderstanding of medical terms by See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

Gibbon in his See also:

• FORTY

forty-third See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter . The descriptions of the contemporary writers See also:

• PROCOPIUS

Procopius, See also:

• EVAGRIUS (c. 536–600)

Evagrius and See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory of See also:

• TOURS

Tours are quite unmistakable.3 The plague of Justinian began at See also:

• PELUSIUM

Pelusium in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt in A.D . 542; it spread over Egypt, and in the same or the next See also:

• YEAR

year passed to See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, where it carried off 1o,000 persons in one See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, with all the symptoms of bubonic plague . It appeared in See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul in 546, where it is described by Gregory of Tours with the same symptoms as lues inguinaria (from the frequent seat of buboes in the See also:

• GROIN

groin) . In See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy there was a great mortality in 543, but the most notable epidemic was in 565, which so depopulated the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country as to leave it an easy See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to the See also:

• LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI

Lombards . In 571 it is again recorded in See also:

• LIGURIA

Liguria, 1 Amm .

Marcell. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 7; see See also:

• HECKER, FRIEDRICH FRANZ KARL (1811-1881)
• HECKER, ISAAC THOMAS (1819-1888)

Hecker, De peste Antoniana (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1835) . 2 See also:

• LIB

Lib. xliv. cap . 17—fEuvres de Oribase, ed . Bussemaker and Daremberg (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1851), iii . 607 . 3 Evagrius, Hist., See also:

• ECCLES

eccles. iv . 29; PrOCOpius, De See also:

• BELLO, ANDRES (1781–1865)

bello persico, ii . 22, 23 . and in 590 a great epidemic at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome is connected with the pontificate of Gregory the Great . But it spread in fact over the whole See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• WORLD

world, beginning in maritime towns and radiating inland . In another direction it extended from Egypt along the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of Africa .

Whether the numerous pestilences recorded in the 7th century were the plague cannot now be said; but it is possible the pestilences in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England chronicled by See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

Bede in the years 664, 672, 679 and 683 may have been of this disease, especially as in 690 pestis inguinaria is again recorded in Rome . For the epidemics of the succeeding centuries we must refer to more detailed See also:

• WORKS

works .1 It is impossible, however, to pass over the great cycle of epidemics in the 14th century known as the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• DEATH

Death . The Black Whether in all the pestilences known by this name Death. the disease was really the same may admit of doubt, but it is clear that in some at least it was the bubonic plague . Contemporary observers agree that the disease was introduced from the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East; and one eyewitness, See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel de Mussis, an See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian lawyer, traced, or indeed accompanied, the See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march of the plague from the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea (whither it was said to have been introduced from Tartary) to See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa, where with a handful of survivors of a Genoese expedition he landed probably at the end of the year 1347 . He narrates how the few that had them-selves escaped the pest transmitted the contagion to all they met .2 Other accounts, especially old See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles, See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the origin of the disease still farther east, in See also:

• CATHAY

Cathay (or See also:

• CHINA

China), where, as is confirmed to some extent by See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese records, pestilence and destructive inundations are said to have destroyed the enormous number of thirteen millions . It appears to have passed by way of See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia into See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor and thence to Egypt and northern Africa . Nearly the whole of Europe was gradually overrun by the pestilence . It reached See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily in 1346, Constantinople, See also:

• GREECE

Greece and parts of Italy See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in 1347, and towards the end of that year See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles . In 1348 it attacked See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, northern Italy and Rome, eastern See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, many parts of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France including Paris, and England; from England it is said to have been conveyed to the Scandinavian countries . In England the western counties were first invaded early in the year, and See also:

• LONDON

London in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . In 1349 we hear of it in the midlands; and in subsequent years, at least till 1357, it prevailed in parts of the country, or generally, especially in the towns . In 1352 See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford lost two-thirds of her academical See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population .

The outbreaks of 1361 and 1368, known as the second and third plagues of the reign of See also:

• EDWARD

Edward III., were doubtless of the same disease, though by some historians not called the black death . See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, though later affected, did not See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape . The nature of this pestilence has been a See also:

• MATTER

matter of much controversy, and some have doubted its being truly the plague . But when the symptoms are fully described they seem to justify this conclusion, one See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character only being thought to make a distinction between this and Oriental plague, viz, the special implication of the lungs as shown by spitting of See also:

• BLOOD

blood and other symptoms . See also:

• GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy de Chauliac notes this feature in the earlier epidemic at See also:

• AVIGNON

Avignon, not in the later . Moreover, as this cornplication was. a marked feature in certain epidemics of plague in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis has been framed by See also:

• HIRSCH, MAURICE DE, BARON HIRSCH AUF GEREUTH
• HIRSCH, SAMSON RAPHAEL (r8o8-1888)

Hirsch that a special variety of plague, pestis indica, still found in India, is that which overran the world in the 14th century . But the same symptoms (haemoptysis) have been seen, though less notably, in many 1 See See also:

• NOAH (ni, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, Na*, N&i os, Nweos: Vulg. Noe)

Noah See also:

• WEBSTER
• WEBSTER, ALEXANDER (1707-1784)
• WEBSTER, BENJAMIN NOTTINGHAM (1797-1882)
• WEBSTER, DANIEL (1782-1852)
• WEBSTER, JOHN (fl. 1602-1624)
• WEBSTER, NOAH (1758-1843)
• WEBSTER, THOMAS (1773-1844)
• WEBSTER, THOMAS (1800-1886)

Webster's See also:

• HISTORY

History of Epidemic Diseases, 8vo (2 vols., London, 'Soo) (a work which makes no pretension to medical learning, but exhibits the history of epidemics in connexion with See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical disasters—as earthquakes, famines, &c.); Lersch, Kleine Pest-Chronik (Evo, 188o) (a convenient See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short compendium, but not always accurate) ; " Athanasii Kircheri Chronologia Pestium " (to A.D . 1656), in Scrutinium pestis (Rome, 1658; See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1671, co) ; Bascome, History of Epidemic Pestilences (London, 1851, 8vo). he most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete medical history of epidemics is Haser's Geschichte der epidemischen Krankheiten (3rd ed., See also:

• JENA

Jena, 1882), forming the third See also:

• VOLUME

volume of his History of Medicine . 2 See the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account reprinted with other documents in Haser, op. cit . ; also Hecker, Epidemics of the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Ages, trans. by See also:

• BABINGTON, ANTHONY (1561–1586)
• BABINGTON, CHURCHILL (1821-1889)

Babington, See also:

• SYDENHAM
• SYDENHAM, CHARLES EDWARD
• SYDENHAM, THOMAS (1624-1689)

Sydenham See also:

• SOC

Soc . (London, 1844); Volkskrankheiten See also:

• DES

des Mittelalters, ed . Hirsch (Berlin, 1865) ; R .

Hoeniger, Der schwarze See also:

• TOD, JAMES (1782-1835)

Tod in Deutschland (Berlin, 1882).plague epidemics, even in the latest, that in See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia in 1878-1879, and, moreover, according to the latest accounts, are not a special feature of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian plague . According to a Surgeon-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis (Trans . Epidem . Soc. v . 398) " See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage is not an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment " of Indian plague, though when seen it is in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of haemoptysis . It seems, therefore, impossible to make a special variety of Indian plague, or to refer the black death to any such special form . Gabriel de Mussis describes it even in the East, before its arrival in Europe, as a bubonic disease . The mortality of the black death was, as is well known, enormous . It is estimated in various parts of Europe at two-thirds or three-fourths of the population in the first pestilence, in England even higher; but some countries were much less severely affected . Hecker calculates that one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of the population of Europe, or 25 millions of persons, died in the whole of the epidemics . In the 15th century the plague recurred frequently in nearly all parts of Europe . In the first See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter it was very destructive in Italy, in Spain (especially See also:

• BARCELONA

Barcelona and See also:

• SEVILLE
• SEVILLE (Span. Sevilla, Lat. Ispalis or Hispalis, Moorish Ishbiliya)

Seville), in Germany and in England, where London was severely visited in 1400 and 1406, and again in 1428 .

In 1427, 8o,00o persons died in Dantzic and the neighbourhood . In 1438–1439 the plague was in Germany, and its occurrence at See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel was described by See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas Sylvius, after-wards See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• PIUS

Pius II . In 1448–1450 Italy (See also:

• KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS (r6oi-168o)

Kircher), Germany (Lersch, from old chronicles), France and Spain, were ravaged by a plague supposed to have arisen in Asia, scarcely less destructive than the black death . England was probably seldom quite See also:

• FREE

free from plague, but the next great outbreak is recorded in 1472 and following years . In 1466, 40,000 persons died of plague in Paris; in 1477–1485 the cities of northern Italy were devastated, and in 1485 See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels . In the fifteenth year of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VII . (1499–1500) a severe plague in London caused the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king to retire to See also:

• CALAIS

Calais . The 16th century was not more free from plague than the 15th . Simultaneously with a terrible pestilence which is reported to have nearly depopulated China, plague prevailed over Germany, See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, Italy and Spain, in the first See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the century, and revived at various times in the first See also:

• HALF

half . In 1529 there was plague in See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh; in London in 1537–1539, and again 1547–1548; and also in the north of England, though probably not absent before . Some of the epidemics of this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in Italy and Germany are known by the accounts of eminent physicians, as Vochs, Fracastor, Mercurialis, Borgarucci, Ingrassia, Massaria, See also:

• AMICI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1786-1863)

Amici, &c.,' whose writings are important because the question of contagion first began to be raised, and also plague had to be distinguished from typhus See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever, which began in this century to appear in Europe . The epidemic of 1563–1564 in London and England was very severe, a thousand dying weekly in London .

In Paris about this time plague was an everyday occurrence, of' which some were less afraid than of a headache (Borgarucci) . In 1570, 200,000 persons died in See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow and the neighbourhood, in 1572, 50,000 at See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons; in 1568 and 1574 plague was at Edinburgh, and in 1570 at New-See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle . When, however, in 1575 a new See also:

• WAVE

wave of plague passed over Europe, its origin was referred to Constantinople, whence it was said to have spread by See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea to See also:

• MALTA
• MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER

Malta, Sicily and Italy, and by See also:

• LAND

land through the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian territories to Germany . Others contended that the disease originated locally; and, indeed, considering previous history, no importation of plague would seem necessary to explain its presence in Europe . Italy suffered severely (See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, in 1576, lost 70,000); North Europe not less, though later; London in 1580-1582 . In 1585 See also:

• BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau witnessed the most destructive plague known in its history . The great plague of 1592 in London seems to have been a part of the same epidemic, which was hardly extinguished by the end of the century, and is noted in London again in 1599 . On the whole, this century shows a decrease of plague in Europe . In the first half of the 17th century plague was still prevalent in Europe, though considerably less so than in the middle ages . In the second half a still greater decline is observable, and by the third quarter the disease had disappeared or was disappearing from a great part of western Europe . The epidemics in England will be most conveniently considered in one See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . From this time Vochs, Opusculum de pestilentia (1537); Fracastorius, " De Cotrtagione, &c.," See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera (Venice, 1555) ; Hieron .

Mercurialis, De peste, praesertim de Veneta et Patavina (Basel, 1577) ; Prosper Borgarutius, De peste (Venice, 1565), 8vo; Filippo Ingrassia, Informatione del pestifero morbo . . . See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo e . regno di Sicilia (1575-1576, 4to, Palermo, 1576–1577); A . Massaria, De peste (Venice, 1597); See also:

• DIOMEDES

Diomedes Amicus, Tres tractatus (Venice, 1599), 4to; See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor de Bonagentibus, Decem problemata de peste (Venice, 1556), 8vo; Georgius See also:

• AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), JOHANNES (1494-1566)
• AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG (1490-1555)
• AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719)
• AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93)
• AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774)
• AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556)
• AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) (1443-1485)

Agricola, De peste libri See also:

• TEES

tees (Basel, 1554) 8vo . The works of See also:

• ENGLISH

English physicians of this period are of little medical value; but See also:

• LODGE
• LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839)
• LODGE, H
• LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850– )
• LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851– )
• LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558–1625)

Lodge's See also:

• TREATISE

Treatise of the Plague (London, 1603) deserves mention . onwards we have the guidance of the " Bills of Mortality " issued in London, which, though See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up on the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of ignorant persons, are doubtless roughly true . The See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I. in 1603 was marked by a very destructive plague which killed 38,000 in London . In this and subsequent years the disease was widely diffused in England—for instance, Oxford, See also:

• DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire, See also:

• NEWCASTLE
• NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF

Newcastle . It prevailed at the same time in Holland, and had done so some years previously in northern Germany . In the same year (1603) one million persons are said to have died of plague in Egypt . This plague is said to have lasted eight years in London . At all events in 1609 we have the second great plague year, with a mortality of 11,785 .

After this there is a remission till about 262o, when plague again began to spread in northern Europe, especially Germany and Holland, which was at that time ravaged by See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war . In 1625 (the year of the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of See also:

• BREDA

Breda in Holland) is the third great London plague with 35,417 deaths—though the year 1624 was remarkably exempt, and 1626 nearly so . In 163o was the great plague of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, described by Ripamonti.2 In 1632 a severe epidemic, apparently plague, was in Derbyshire . 1636 is the fourth great plague year in London with a mortality of 10,400, and even in the next year 3082 persons died of the same disease . The same year 7000 out of 20,000 inhabitants of Newcastle died of plague; in 1635 it was at See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

Hull . About the same time, 1635–1637, plague was prevalent in Holland, and the epidemic of See also:

• NIJMWEGEN, NIMEGUEN, NYMEGEN

Nijmwegen is celebrated as having been described by Diemerbroeck, whose work (Tractatus de peste, 4to, 1641–1665) is one of the most important on the subject . The English epidemic. was widely spread and lasted till 1647, in which year, the mortality amounting to 3597, we have the fifth epidemic in London . The See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army diseases of the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• WARS

Wars were chiefly typhus and malarial fevers, but plague was not unknown among them, as at See also:

• WALLINGFORD

Wallingford Castle (See also:

• WILLIS, NATHANIEL PARKER (1806-1867)
• WILLIS, THOMAS (1621-1675)

Willis, " Of Feavers," Works, ed . 1681, p . 131) and Dunstar Castle . From this time till 1664 little was heard of plague in England, though it did not cease on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

Continent . In Ireland it is said to have been seen for the last time in 16502 In 1656 one of the most destructive of all recorded epidemics in Europe raged in See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples; it is said to have carried off 300,000 persons in the space of five months .

It passed to Rome, but there was much less fatal, making 14,000 victims only—a result attributed by some to the precautions and sanitary See also:

• MEASURES

measures introduced by See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

Cardinal Gastaldi, whose work, a splendid See also:

• FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio)

folio, written on this occasion (Tractatus de avertenda et profliganda peste politico- legalis, See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, 1684) is historically one of the most important on the subject of See also:

• QUARANTINE (Fr. quarantaine, a period of forty days 1)

quarantine, &c . Genoa lost 60,000 inhabitants from the same disease, but See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany remained untouched . The comparatively limited spread of this frightful epidemic in Italy at this time is a most noteworthy fact . See also:

• MINORCA(Menorca)

Minorca is said to have been depopulated . Nevertheless the epidemic spread in the next few years over Spain and Germany, and a little later to Holland, where See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam in 1663–1664 was again ravaged with a mortality given as 50,000, also See also:

• ROTTERDAM

Rotterdam and See also:

• HAARLEM

Haarlem . See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg suffered in 1664 . The Great Plague of London.—The preceding enumeration will have prepared the reader to view the great plague of 1664-1665 Great in its true relation to others, and not as an isolated Plague of phenomenon . The preceding years had been unusu-Lonaon. ally free from plague, and it was not mentioned in the bills of mortality till in the autumn of 1664 (Nov . 2) a few isolated cases were observed in the parishes of St See also:

• GILES (GIL, GILLES), ST

Giles and St See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin's, See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster, and a few occurred in the following See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, which was very severe . About May 1665 the disease again became noticeable, and spread, but somewhat slowly . Boghurst, a contemporary See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor, notices that it crept down See also:

• HOLBORN

Holborn and took six months to travel from the western suburbs (St Giles) to the eastern (See also:

• STEPNEY
• STEPNEY, GEORGE (1663-1707)

Stepney) through the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . The mortality rapidly See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose from 43 in May to 590 in See also:

• JUNE

June, 6137 in See also:

• JULY

July, 17,036 in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, 31,159 in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, after which it began to decline .

The See also:

• TOTAL

total number of deaths from plague in that year, according to the bills of mortality, was 68,596, in a population estimated at 46o,000,3 out of whom two-thirds are supposed to have fled to escape the contagion . This number is likely to be rather too See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low than too high, since of the 6432 deaths from spotted fever many were probably really from plague, though not declared so to avoid painful restrictions . In See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December there was a sudden fall in the mortality which continued through the winter; but in 1666 nearly 2000 deaths from plague are recorded . ' See also:

• JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus Ripamontius, De peste anni 163o (Milan, 1641), 4to . 2 For this period see See also:

• INDEX

Index to Remembrancia in Archives of City of London 1599–1664 (London, 1878) ; See also:

• RICHARDSON, GEORGE
• RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838-1886)
• RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761)
• RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN (1787-1865)

Richardson, Plague and Pestilence in North of England (Newcastle, 1852) . Graunt, Observations on the Bills of Mortality (3rd ed., London, 1665) . According to some authorities, especially Hodges, the plague was imported into London by See also:

• BALES [BALESIUS], PETER (1547–1610?)

bales of merchandise from Holland, which came originally from the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant; according to others it was introduced by Dutch prisoners of war; but Boghurst regarded it as of See also:

• LOCAL

local origin . It is in favour of the theory that it spread by some means from Holland that plague had been all but See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct in London for some seventeen years, and prevailed in Holland in 1663-1664 . But from its past history and local conditions, London might well be deemed capable of producing such an epidemic . In the bills of mortality since 1603 there are only three years when no deaths from plague are recorded . The uncleanliness of the city was comparable to that of oriental cities at the See also:

• PRESENT

present day, and, according to contemporary testimony (Garencieres, Angliae flagellum, London, 1647, p . 85), little improved since See also:

• ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS (1466–1536)

Erasmus wrote his well-known description .

The spread of the disease only partially supported the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of contagion, as Boghurst says: " The disease spread not altogether, by contagion at first, nor began only at one place and spread further and further as an eating sore See also:

• CLOTH

cloth all over the See also:

• BODY

body, but See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell upon several places of city and suburbs like See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain." In fact dissemination seems to have taken place, as usual, by the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of one See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house after another into a See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus of disease, a See also:

• PROCESS

process favoured by the fatal See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of shutting up infected houses with all their inmates, which was not only almost- See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to a See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence of death on all therein, but caused a dangerous concentration of the See also:

• POISON

poison . The well-known custom of marking such houses with a red See also:

• CROSS

cross and the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend " See also:

• GOD

God have See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy upon us!" was no new thing: it is found in a See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation in the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the present writer dated 1641; and it was probably older still . ' Hodges testifies to the futility and injurious effects of these regulations . The See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor and magistrates not only carried out the appointed administrative measures, but looked to the cleanliness of the city and the See also:

• RELIEF

relief of the poor, so that there was little or no actual want; and the See also:

• BURIAL

burial arrangements appear to have been well attended to . The See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of physicians, by royal command, put forth such See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice and prescriptions as were thought best for the emergency . But it is clear that neither these measures nor medical treatment had any effect in checking the disease . Early in November with colder See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather it began to decline; and in December there was so little fear of contagion that those who had See also:

• LEFT

left the city " crowded back as thick as they fled." As has often been observed in other plague epidemics, See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound See also:

• PEOPLE

people could enter infected houses and even See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep in the beds of those who had died of the plague " before they were even See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold or ,cleansed from the stench of the diseased " (Hodges) . The symptoms of the disease being such as have been generally observed need not be here considered . The disease was, as always, most destructive in squalid, dirty neighbourhoods and among the poor, so as to be called the " poor's plague." Those who lived in the See also:

• TOWN

town in See also:

• BARGES

barges or See also:

• SHIPS

ships did not take the disease; and the houses on London See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge were but little affected . Of those doctors who remained in the city some eight or nine died, not a large proportion . Some had the rare courage to investigate the mysterious disease by dissecting the bodies of the dead., Hodges implies that he did so, though he left no full account of his observations . Dr See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson, a chemist and a See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple of See also:

• VAN

Van See also:

• HELMONT, JEAN BAPTISTE VAN (1577—1644)

Helmont, followed the example, and nearly lost his See also:

• LIFE

life by an attack which immediately foIlowed.4 The plague of 1665 was widely spread over England, and was 4 On the plague of 1665 see Nath .

Hodges, Loimologia sive pestis nuperae aP"d populum londinensem narratio (London, 1672) 8vo—in English by See also:

• QUINCY
• QUINCY, JOSIAH (1744–1775)

Quincy (London, 1720), (the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief authority) ; Aoc ioypa¢ta or an Experimental Relation of the last Plague in the City of London, by See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William Boghurst, See also:

• APOTHECARY (from the Lat. apothecarius, a keeper of an apotheca, Gr. aroth is , a store)

apothecary in St Giles's-in-the-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

Fields (London, 1666),—a MS. in See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum (See also:

• SLOANE, SIR HANS (1660-1753)

Sloane 349), containing important details; George Thomson, AOIMOTOMIA, or the Pest Anatomized, 8vo (London, '666); Sydenham, ' Febris pestilentialis et pestis annorum 1665–1666," Opera, ed . Greenhill, p . 96 (London, 1844) ; Collection of Scarce Pieces on the Plague in 166 (London, 1721), 8vo; See also:

• DEFOE, DANIEL (c. 1.659—1731)

Defoe's fascinating See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of a See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

Citizen, which should be read and admired as a fiction, but accepted with caution as history; T . See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent (See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel), God's Terrible See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

Voice in the City, 8vo (London, 1667) ; See also:

• CALENDAR

Calendar of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State Papers (1665–1666; " Domestic " series), by M . E . See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green . , generally regarded as having been transmitted from London, as it appeared mostly later than in the See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

metropolis, and in many cases the importation by a particular See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person could be traced . Places near London were earliest affected, as See also:

• BRENTFORD

Brentford, See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich, See also:

• DEPTFORD

Deptford; but in July or August 1665 it was already in See also:

• SOUTHAMPTON
• SOUTHAMPTON, EARL OF
• SOUTHAMPTON, HENRY WRIOTHESLEY, 3RD EARL OF (1J73—1624)

Southampton, Sunder-land, Newcastle, &c . A wider See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution occurred in the next year . Oxford entirely escaped, though the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court and in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant communication with London . The exemption was attributed to cleanliness and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good drainage . After 1666 there was no epidemic of plague in London or any part of England, though sporadic cases appear in bills of mortality up to 1679; and a See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column filled up with " o " was left till 1703, when it finally disappeared .

The disappearance of plague in London was attributed to the Great See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

Fire, but no such cause existed in other cities . It has also been ascribed to quarantine, but no effective quarantine was established till 1720, so that the cessation of plague in England must be regarded as spontaneous . But this was no isolated fact . A similar cessation of plague was noted soon after in the greater part of western Europe . In 1666 a severe plague raged in See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne and on the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, which was See also:

• PRO

pro-longed till 167o in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district . In the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands there was plague in 1667–1669, but there are no definite notices of it after 1672 . France saw the last plague epidemic in 1668, till it reappeared in 1720 . In the years 1675–1684 a new plague epidemic appeared in North Africa, See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey, See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland, See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria and Germany, progressing generally northward . Malta lost 11,000 persons in 1675 . The plague of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna in 1679 was very severe, causing 76,000 or probably more deaths . See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague in 1681 lost 83,000 by plague . See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden was affected in 168o, See also:

• MAGDEBURG

Magdeburg and See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle in 1682—in the latter town with a mortality of 4397 out of a population of about 1o,000 .

Many North See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German cities suffered about the same time; but in 1683 the plague disappeared from Germany till the epidemic of 1707 . In Spain it ceased about 1681; in Italy certain cities were attacked till the end of the century, but not later (Hirsch) . Plague in the 18th Century.—At the beginning of this period plague was very prevalent in Constantinople and along the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube . In 1703 it caused great destruction in the See also:

• UKRAINE (" frontier ")

Ukraine . In 1704 it began to spread through Poland, and later to See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia, Lithuania, See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia and a great part of Germany and Scandinavia . In Prussia and Lithuania 283,000 persons perished; Dantzig, Hamburg and other northern cities suffered severely . See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenha