See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere, and xatvbs, See also:

• RECENT

recent)  , in See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

geology, the name given by See also:

• SIR

Sir C . See also:

• LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875)

Lyell to the formations above the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene and below the See also:

• PLEISTOCENE

Pleistocene (Newer See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene) strata . During this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• LAND

land masses of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth were rapidly approaching to the configuration which they exhibit at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . The marine Pliocene deposits are limited to comparatively few areas; in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, in the beginning of the period, the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea washed the shores of See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East Anglia and parts of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England; it extended well into See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium and See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland and just touched here and there on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-western coasts of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France; it sent an See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm some distance up the valley of the y permission OM; See also:

• AMERICAN

American Museum of Natural See also:

• HISTORY

History 8mety Walkcrao- See also:

• GUADALQUIVIR (ancient Baetis, Moorish Wadi al Kebir, "the Great River ")

Guadalquivir and formed small bays on several points of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern coast of France; and up the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin a considerable gulf reached as far as See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early in the period the sea covered much of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily; but the eastward See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Mediterranean in south-east Europe, through the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube basin, the See also:

• ARAL

Aral, north Caucasian and See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian regions, continued to suffer the See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion to lagoons and large lakes which had begun in the Miocene . Pliocene Period - = a —__ Hypothetical See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental ouUfnes ' ahcrW.D.HMthma Generally all over the See also:

• WORLD

world the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of Pliocene formations are non-marine, and the limited and See also:

• LOCAL

local nature of the elevations since the inception of the period has exposed to view only the shallow marginal marine deposits . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal exception to the last statement is to be found in the Pliocene of Italy and Sicily, where a continuous crustal depression permitted the See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of great thicknesses of material, which later on, towards the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the period, were elevated some thousands of feet . With these deformatory movements are associated the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian volcanoes, See also:

• ETNA
• ETNA (Gr. AZ-rvn, from aZOw, burn; Lat. Aetna)

Etna certainly began its career beneath the sea, for its older tuffs are found interstratified with marine beds, and possibly some of the others had a similar origin . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time volcanic outbursts, some apparently comparable to that of See also:

• MARTINIQUE

Martinique in See also:

• RECENT

recent times, were taking See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in central France, while far away in southern See also:

• SUMATRA

Sumatra thousands of feet of submarine tuffs were being thrown out and deposited, and great See also:

• LAVA

lava flows were being erupted in See also:

• AUSTRALASIA

Australasia . Considerable See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion are exhibited among geologists as to the See also:

• LOWER

lower limits of the Pliocene formations; this is partly to be accounted for by the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of widely-spread marine deposits, and partly by the comparatively See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time-differences between one See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit and another, and hence the similarity of the faunas of contiguous strata-See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups in local See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of beds . Following A. de See also:

• LAPPARENT, ALBERT AUGUSTE COCHON DE (1839–19o8)

Lapparent (Traite de geologie, 5th ed., 1906), we shall regard the Pliocene as divisible into three stages: an upper Sicilian See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, a See also:

• MIDDLE

middle Astian stage, and a lower Plaisancian stage . Other writers, however, have selected a different nomenclature, which often involves a different grouping of the formations; thus E .

See also:

• KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL (1845- )

Kayser in his Formationskunde (3rd ed., igo8) distinguishes three stages under the names Arnian (upper), Astian (middle) and Messinian (lower) = Zanclean . The lower stage, however, includes the Pontian, Epplesheim, Pikermi and other formations which are here placed in the Miocene . This stage has been referred to a so-called Mio-Pliocene inter-period . The Pliocene rocks of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain now occupy but a small See also:

• AREA

area in See also:

• NORFOLK
• NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Norfolk, See also:

• SUFFOLK
• SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, 1ST DUKE OF (c. 1484–'545)
• SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1561-1626)
• SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE

Suffolk and See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• ESSEX
• ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL
• ESSEX, EARLS OF
• ESSEX, KINGDOM OF
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND2 EARL OF (1566-1601)
• ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, IST2 EARL OF (1541–1576)

Essex; but from the presence of small outlying patches in See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall (St Erth and St See also:

• AGNES, SAINT

Agnes), See also:

• DORSETSHIRE (DORSET)

Dorsetshire (Dewlish) and See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent (Lenham), it is evident that the Pliocene Sea covered a considerable part of southern England . Moreover, these patches show by their present See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude above the sea that the See also:

• DOWNS

Downs of Kent must have been elevated more than 85o ft., and the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west coast of Cornwall 400 ft. since Pliocene times . The Pliocene rocks See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest with strong unconformity upon the older strata in Britain . In the eastern counties the shelly, sandy beds are called " See also:

• CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. creag, Manx creg, and Welsh and modern Scots craig)

Crag"; this name has come into very See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use for all the members of the series, and it is frequently employed as a synonym for Pliocene . The See also:

• ENGLISH

English Pliocene strata are classified by the See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

Geological Survey of England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales as follows: Yoldia (See also:

• LEDA

Leda) myalis See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed (provisionally placed here) . See also:

• FOREST

Forest-bed See also:

• GROUP

group and Dewlish gravels with Elephas meridionalis . Newer Weybourne crag (and Chillesford See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay?) . Pliocene Chillesford crag . See also:

• NORWICH
• NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, EARL OF (1583?-1663)

Norwich crag and Scrobicularia crag .

Red crag of See also:

• BATLEY

Batley . Red crag of See also:

• WALTON, BRIAN (1600-1661)
• WALTON, IZAAK (1593-1683)

Walton, Newbourn and Oakley . St Erth and St Agnes beds . Coralline crag . Lenham beds (Diestian) . See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

Box-stones and phosphatic beds with derived early Pliocene and other fossils . The box-stones are rounded pieces of See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown earthy See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone containing casts of fossils; the phosphatic beds contain the phosphatized bones of See also:

• WHALE

whale, See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, See also:

• MASTODON (Gr. µavTos, breast, &bobs, tooth)

mastodon, See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig, See also:

• TAPIR

tapir, See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros, &c., and have been worked as a source of manure . These basal See also:

• CON

con-glomerate deposits underlie the red crag and sometimes the coralline crag . The last-named formation, known also as the " See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white " or " Suffolk crag," or as the " Bryozoan crag " (it was the presence of Bryozoa which led to the name coralline), is essentially a See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell See also:

• BANK

bank, which was accumulated at a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of from 20 to 40 fathoms . It is best exposed near See also:

• ALDEBURGH [ALDjIOROUGH]

Aldeburgh and Gedgrave in Suffolk . The Red Crags are sandy, marine, shallow-See also:

• WATER

water deposits, with an abundant tauna; they vary rapidly from point to point, and in general the more southern localities are richer in southern (older) forms than those farther north . The Norwich crag (fluvio-marine or mammaliferouscrag) is not always very clearly marked off from the Red Crags .

Marine fresh-water and land shells are found in these beds, together with many mammalian remains, including Elephas antiquus, Mastodon arvernensis, Equus stenonis, Cervus carnulorum, and dolphins, See also:

• COD

cod and other See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish . The Forest-Bed group or See also:

• CROMER
• CROMER, EVELYN BARING, 1ST EARL (1841– )

Cromer forest-bed is exposed beneath the See also:

• BOULDER
• BOULDER (short for " boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed. bullersten, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a stream, from bullra, to make a loud noise)

boulder clay cliffs of the Norfolk coast; it contains transported stumps of trees and many See also:

• PLANTS

plants still See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in Britain, many living fresh-water and estuarine molluscs and a large number of mammals, many of which are See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct (Ma-haerodus, Canis See also:

• LUPUS (Lat. lupus, wolf)
• LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS

lupus, Ursus spelaeus, Hyaena crocuta, See also:

• HIPPOPOTAMUS (" river-horse," Gr. lames, horse and aoraµbs, river)

Hippopotamus amphibius, Rhinoceros etruscus, Elephas antiquus and E. meridionalis, Bison bonasus, Ovibos moschatus, numerous See also:

• SPECIES

species of deer, Equus caballus and E. stenonis, See also:

• CASTOR

Castor fiber, Talpa europaea and many others) . The only See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of Pliocene remains in the northern part of England consists of a few See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of Elephas meridionalis found in a fissure in the See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone at See also:

• DOVE
• DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube)

Dove Holes, See also:

• DERBYSHIRE

Derbyshire . The Pliocene deposits of Belgium and Holland and the northern extremity of France are closely related with those of Britain, though as a whole they are very much thicker, The older marine beds may be traced from Lenham across the Channel at See also:

• CALAIS

Calais and through See also:

• CASSEL
• CASSEL, or KASSEL

Cassel to Diest . The newer marine Pliocene runs in a parallel See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt to the north of the older beds through See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp . Belgian geologists have divided the local Pliocene into the following groups (from above downwards) : Poederlian, Scaldisian, Casterlian, Diestian . F . W . Harmer (Quart . Journ . Geol . See also:

• SOC

Soc., 1898 and 1900) proposed the following See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme for the Pliocene of Britain and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low Countries: Cromerian = Forest-bed of Cromer .

(Iceno-Cromerian = Chillesford beds and Weybourne crag . Icenian = marine crag of Norwich . Amstelian = Red Crag, comprising the Newbournian and Butleyan sub-stages . Waltonian = Walton crag and Poederlian and Scaldisian . Gedgravian = Coralline crag and Casterlian . Lenhamian = Diestian . In addition to the deposits just mentioned in See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders, the early Pliocene sea has See also:

• LEFT

left numerous small patches of marls and sands in See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany and See also:

• NORMANDY

Normandy . In southern France marine sands, gravels and marls of Plaisancian and Astian ages occur in the depression of See also:

• ROUSSILLON

Roussillon, followed by Sicilian marls and gravels . In See also:

• LANGUEDOC

Languedoc (See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier, See also:

• NIMES
• NIMES, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Nemausensia)

Nimes, See also:

• BEZIERS

Beziers) marine marls and sands are followed by calcareous See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate (40 metres) or by marls and See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite; gravels and loalns constitute the uppermost beds . In the Rhone basin the earliest deposits are the Congeria beds of Bollene (See also:

• VAUCLUSE

Vaucluse); this brackish formation differs from the beds of the same name in See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, but resembles those of Italy and See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania . Then followed a marine invasion (groupe de See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint-See also:

• ARIES (" The Ram ")

Aries) ; these beds are now found at considerable elevations increasing northward and westward . The later formations in this area are fluviatile or lacustrine in origin, with remarkable torrential See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel deposits at several horizons .

The marine Pliocene of the maritime See also:

• ALPS

Alps, consisting of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue and yellow See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays and limestone, are now elevated 170 metres above the sea, and even up to 35o M. in the neighbourhood of See also:

• NICE

Nice . In central France no marine beds are found, but many interesting and in some cases highly fossiliferous deposits occur in association with volcanic rocks, such as the lower conglomerate and upper trachytic See also:

• BRECCIA

breccia of Perrier (See also:

• ISSOIRE

Issoire), the See also:

• FINE

fine tuffs (cinerites) with plants of See also:

• CANTAL

Cantal, the lignitiferous sandstones beneath the See also:

• BASALT

basalt of Cezallier, the diatomite of Ceyssac, &c . In Italy, Pliocene rocks See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the low ranges of hills on both sides of the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines, hence the See also:

• TERM

term " sub-Apennine " given to these rocks by A. d'See also:

• ORBIGNY, ALCIDE DESSALINES

Orbigny . They are marine marls and sands; the blue marls which See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop out near See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome at the See also:

• BASE

base of Mt See also:

• MARIO, GIUSEPPE, COUNT OF CANDIA (1810-1883)

Mario and Mt Vatican with the succeeding sands and gravels; the conglomerate followed by deep-sea marls of See also:

• CALABRIA

Calabria, and the marls, sands, limestones and blue clay of Sicily, all belong to the Plaisancian stage . To the next stage belong the yellow sands full of massive fossils, including the conglomerate of Castrovillari in Calabria and the white marls of the Val d'See also:

• ARNO (anc. Arnus)
• ARNO, ARN

Arno . In the final (Sicilian) stage fluvio-lacustrine sands and gravels are found in Italy, except in Calabria and in Sicily where thick marine beds were formed . In See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland some of the deposits of Nagelfuk and Deckenschotter, glacial See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau gravels, belong to the Sicilian stage . In south-eastern Europe a great series of sands and marls with lignites, termed the Paludina beds, rests directly upon the Pontian formation . From their great development in the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant, they have been given the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a " Levantine stage " by F. von See also:

• HOCHSTETTER, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN VON, BARON (1829—1884)

Hochstetter; they are found in See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Rumania, See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria, southern See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, the See also:

• CYCLADES

Cyclades, and the Caspian region . On the north coast of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa marine and brackish sands and marls occur in See also:

• MOROCCO

Morocco, See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt; and the " rifts " of the Red Sea and See also:

• SUEZ

Suez have been assigned to this period . In North See also:

• AMERICA

America marine Pliocene is found fringing the coasts of See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California and the Gulf of See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico . In the latter region marine marls, clays and limestones are best See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in See also:

• FLORIDA

Florida and can be traced into the Carolinas and See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia; they have been classed as-the See also:

• LAFAYETTE

Lafayette group (with lignites), the Florida group, and the Calooshatchis stage .

On the Pacific coast the marine beds have attained great thicknesses, notably in the Merced series of See also:

• SAN

San Francisco . In the San Luis Obispo region the non-marine Paso Robles beds, said to be moo ft. thick, belong to this period . Other local formations of Older Pliocene marine origin in California are those of San Diego and See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

Wild See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

Cat . I See C . See also:

• REID, ROBERT (1862– )
• REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- )
• REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (184o-19o8)
• REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858)
• REID, THOMAS (1710-1796)
• REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883)
• REID, WHITELAW (1837- )

Reid, " The Pliocene Deposits of Britain (Mem . Geol . In the Rocky Mountains are large lacustrine formations of consider- Survey, 189o) ; E . T . See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton, " The Vertebrates of the Pliocene able thickness, and certain conglomerates in See also:

• WYOMING

Wyoming and See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop Deposits of Britain " (Mem . Geol . Survey, 1891) (both contain a See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

Mountain are assigned to this See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . The sands and clays with bibliography) : C .

Reid, Origin of the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• FLORA

Flora (1899) ; and See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum of Entre Rios in South America contain fossils of the '..Geological Literature " (Geol . Soc . See also:

• LONDON

London See also:

• ANNUAL

Annual, since 1893) . See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic type . (J . A . H.) Lignitiferous shale with See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum and great thickness of volcanic tuffs have been found in southern Sumatra . In New South Wales Pliocene See also:

• RIVER

river terraces and alluvial deposits are covered by See also:

• MID

Mid-Pliocene lavas and from these " deep leads " or buried river beds much See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold has been obtained . In See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria great basaltic and doleritic flows have filled up the Pliocene river valleys, and marine beds have been found at elevations of woo ft. above present sea-level . Very similar deposits and volcanic See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock, belonging to the See also:

• WANGANUI

Wanganui See also:

• SYSTEM

system of F . W . See also:

• HUTTON, CHARLES (1737-1823)
• HUTTON, JAMES (1726-1797)
• HUTTON, RICHARD HOLT (1826-1897)

Hutton, are found in New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand .

Stages . England . Belgium Rhone Basin . Languedoc Italy . Eastern Other Countries . and and Europe . Holland . Roussillon . Sicilian . Cromer Forest C I a y s o f Marls of St See also:

• DURFORT

Durfort beds Sands of Val d'Arno . Upper Marine beds of Bed . Campine .

Cosme. with Elephas Limestones of Paler- Paludina Entre Rios . Fluvio-marine Amstelian . G r Chagny. a v e 1 s of meridionalis. motand clays (Vivipara) tuffs of N o r w i c h Conglomerates Volcanic Sumatra . Red crag rag of of Suffolk . Chambaran . Sands of Tre- voux and Mollon . Travertine of Meximieux . Astian . Base of Red — -- crag . Poederlian . Scaldisian sands with Trophon antiquum . Conglomerates Marls of Val d'Arno Middle Petroleum-bearing of Montpellier with Mastodon Paludina beds of Sumatra .

and Fourres. arvernensis. beds . Marine sands of Sands of See also:

• ROUS, FRANCIS (1579-1659)
• ROUS, HENRY JOHN (1795-1877)

Rous- Yellow sands of See also:

• ASTI (anc. Hasta)

Asti, Moghara and sillon with Plaisantin, See also:

• MONTE

Monte Mokatta . M a s t o d o n Maria and See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany . arvernensis . Conglomerates of Castrovillari . 1 Plaisancian . Coralline crag . Sands with Marine marls Yellow sands of Blue marls of Pia- Marine beds of Lenham beds . Isocardia of See also:

• BRESSE

Bresse, Montpellier. cenza, See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car . Hauterives . Blue marls of and Vatican . Diestian Congeria beds Millas .

sandstones. of Bollene . Lower Florida . Paludina Lacustrine beds of beds . Rocky Moun= tains .