See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

POLAND (See also:

• POLISH

Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, See also:

• RUSSIAN

RUSSIAN, below)  , a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe which till the end of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century was a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom extending (with Lithuania) over the basins of the Warta, See also:

• VISTULA (Ger. Weichsel, Polish Wisla)

Vistula, Dwina, See also:

• DNIEPER

Dnieper and upper See also:

• DNIESTER (Tyras and Danaster or Danastris of classical authors, Nistrul of the Rumanians, and Turla of the Turks)

Dniester, and had under its dominion, besides the Poles proper and the Baltic Slays, the See also:

• LITHUANIANS

Lithuanians, the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Russians and the Little Russians or Ruthenians . We possess no certain See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical data See also:

• RELATING

relating to See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland till the end of the loth century . It would seem, from a somewhat origins of obscure passage in the See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle compiled from older polana. See also:

• SOURCES

sources by See also:

• NESTOR
• NESTOR (c. 1056-c. 1114)

Nestor, a See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk of See also:

• KIEV
• KIEV, KIEFF, or KIYEFF

Kiev (d. c . See also:

• IRIS

Iris), that the progenitors of the Poles, originally established on the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube, were driven from thence by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans to the still wilder See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness of central Europe, settling finally among the virgin forests and impenetrable morasses of the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the upper See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the See also:

• ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

Oder and the Vistula . Here the Lechici, as they called themselves (a name derived from the mythical See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch, See also:

• LECH (Licus)

Lech), seemed to have lived for centuries, in loosely connected communities, the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple lives of huntsmen, herdsmen and tillers of the See also:

• SOIL

soil, till the pressure of rapacious neighbours compelled them to combine for mutual See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence . Of this See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, the so-called kingdom of the Piasts (from POLAND Piast its supposed founder), we know next to nothing . Its origin, its territory, its institutions are so many insoluble See also:

• RIDDLES (A.S. raedan, to interpret)

riddles . The earliest See also:

• POLISH

Polish chroniclers, from See also:

• GALLUS, C
• GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.)
• GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS

Gallus in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early 12th century to Janko of Czarnkow' in the 14th, are of little help to us . The only facts of importance to be gleaned from them are that See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Ziemovit, the See also:

• GREAT

great-grandfather of Mieszko (Mieczyslaw) I . (962-992), wrested from the vast but tottering Moravian See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Chrobacyja (extending from the Carpathians to the See also:

• BUG

Bug), and that See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity was first preached on the Vistula by See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Orthodox missionary monks . Mieszko himself was converted by See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan, the See also:

• CHAPLAIN

chaplain of his Bohemian See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

consort, Dobrawa or See also:

• BONA (BONE)
• BONA, JOHN (1609-1674)

Bona, and when Jordan became the first See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• POSEN
• POSEN (Polish Poznan)

Posen, the See also:

• PEOPLE

people seem to have followed the example of their prince . But the whole See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement was apparently the outcome not of religious conviction, but of See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity .

The See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic peoples, whose territories then extended to the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe, and embraced the whole See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• SHORE

shore of the Baltic, were beginning to recoil before the vigorous impetus of the Germans in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, who regarded their See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan neighbours in much the same way as the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish Conquistadores regarded the See also:

• AZTECS (from the Nahuatl word aztlan, " place of the Heron," or " Heron " people)

Aztecs and the Incas . To accept Christianity, at least formally, was therefore a prudential safeguard on the See also:

• PART

part of the Slavonians . This was thoroughly understood by Mieszko's son Boleslaus I . (992—1025), who went a considerable step farther than his See also:

• FATHER

father . Mieszko had been content to be received on almost any terms into the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian community, Boleslaus aimed at securing the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the Polish See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church as an additional See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

Conversion See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee of the independence of the Polish nation. to Cvristt-It was Boleslaus who made the church at See also:

• GNESEN (Polish, Gniezno)

Gnesen anity• in Great Poland a See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine by translating thither the See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of the martyred missionary, St See also:

• ADALBERT (originally VOYTECH), (c. 950-997)
• ADALBERT, or ADELBERT (c. 1000-1072)

Adalbert of See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague . Subsequently he elevated Gnesen into the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan see of Poland, with See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction over the bishoprics of See also:

• CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau)

Cracow, See also:

• BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau and See also:

• KOLBERG (or COLBERG)

Kolberg, all three of these new See also:

• SEES

sees, it is important to See also:

• NOTICE

notice, being in territory conquered by Boleslaus; for hitherto both Cracow and Breslau had been Bohemian cities, -while Kolberg was founded to curb the lately subjugated Pomeranians . Boleslaus was also the first Polish prince to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the royal See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title, which seems to have been conferred upon him by See also:

• OTTO

Otto III. in See also:

• I000

i000, though as Boleslaus crownedBoleslaus~, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King. himself king a second See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in 1025, it is evident that he regarded the validity of his first See also:

• CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown)

coronation as somewhat doubtful . He was primarily a See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior, whose reign, an almost uninterrupted warfare, resulted in the formation of a vast kingdom extending from the Baltic to the Carpathians, and from the Elbe to the Bug . But this imposing superstructure rested on the flimsiest of See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations . In less than twenty years after the See also:

• DEATH

death of its founder, it collapsed before a combined attack of all Poland's enemies, and simultaneously a terrible pagan reaction swept away the poor remnants of Christianity and See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . For a time Poland proper became a smoking wilderness, and See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild beasts made their lairs in the ruined and desecrated churches . Under Boleslaus II .

(1058—1079) and Boleslaus III . (1102—1139) some of the lost provinces, notably See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia and See also:

• POMERANIA (German, Pommern)

Pomerania, were recovered and Poland was at least able to maintain her independence against the Germans . Boleslaus III., moreover, with the aid of St Otto, bishop of See also:

• BAMBERG

Bamberg, succeeded in converting the See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen Pomeranians (1124—1128), and making See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head against paganism generally . The last See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of Boleslaus III. was to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide his territories among his sons, whereby Poland was partitioned into no fewer than four, and ultimately into as many as eight, Partitional principalities, many of which (Silesia and Great See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

Period, Poland, for instance) in See also:

• PROCESS

process of time split 11384305. up into still smaller fractions all of them more or less bitterly hostile to each other . This partitional period, as Polish historians generally See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it, lasted from 1138 to 1305, during which Poland lost all political significance, and became an easy See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to her neighbours . The See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Little Poland, ' See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

Archdeacon of Gnesen 1367: See also:

• VICE

vice-See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor of Poland; d . C . 1387 . who generally styled himself duke of Poland, or See also:

• DUX (Czech Duchcov)

dux totius Poloniae, claimed a sort of supremacy among these little states, a claim materially strengthened by the See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and growing importance of his See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, Cracow, especially after Little Poland had annexed the central principality of Sieradia (See also:

• SIERADZ

Sieradz) . But Masovia to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, and Great Poland to the north-west, refused to recognize the supremacy of Little Poland, while Silesia soon became completely germanized . It was at the beginning of this period too, between 1216 and 1224, that Pomerania, under an energetic native See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, freed herself from the Polish See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty . Nearly a See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation later (1241) the Tatar hordes, under See also:

• BATU

Batu, appeared for the first time on the confines of Poland .

The Polish princes opposed a valiant but ineffectual resistance; the towns of See also:

• SANDOMIR, or SEDOMIERZ

Sandomir and Cracow were reduced to ashes, and all who were able fled to the mountains of See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary or the forests of See also:

• MORAVIA (Ger., Ma/wen; Czech, Morava)

Moravia . Pursuing his way to Silesia, Batu overthrew the confederated Silesian princes at See also:

• LIEGNITZ

Liegnitz (See also:

• APRIL

April 9), and, after burning all the Silesian towns, invaded Hungary, where he routed King See also:

• BELA
• BELA, LAS BELA

Bela IV. on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Sajo . But this marked the limit of his See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph . Exhausted and diminished by the stout and successful opposition of the Moravians at See also:

• OLMUTZ (Czech; Olomouc or Holomauc)

Olmutz, the See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars vanished as suddenly as they had appeared, leaving a smoking wilderness behind 'them . Batu's invasion had an important See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence upon the social and political development of Poland . The only way of filling See also:

• FOREIGN

Foreign up the gaps in the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the ravaged See also:

• LAND

land immi- was to invite foreign immigrants. of a See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior class, grants. chapmen and handicraftsmen, not only given to See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace- Rise of ful pursuits and accustomed to See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, but Cities. capable of See also:

• BUILDING

building and defending strong cities . Such immigrants could naturally be obtained only from the civilized west, and on their own terms . Thus it came about that the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle class See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element was introduced into Polish society for the first time . Immediately dependent upon the prince, from whom they obtained their privileges, the most important of which were self-See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government and freedom from See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation, these traders soon became an important See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the state, counterpoising, to some extent, the influence of the gentry, enriching the land by developing its resources, and promoting civilization by raising the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of comfort . Most of these See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German citizens in process of time were absorbed by the Polish population, and became devoted, See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart and soul, The Knights to their adopted country; but these were not the of the only Germans with whom the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Polish statedepressed the land, and, at this very time, another enemy appeared in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east—the Lithuanians . This interesting people, whose origin is to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day the most baffling of ethnographical puzzles, originally dwelt amidst the forests and marshes of the Upper Niemen . Thanks to the impenetrability of their fastnesses, they preserved their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original savagery longer than any of their neighbours, and this savagery was coupled with a valour so tenacious and enterprising as to make them formidable to all who dwelt near them .

The Russians fled at the sight of them, " like See also:

• HARES

hares before hunters." The Livs and Letts were as much the prey of the Lithuanians " as See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep are the prey of wolves." The German chroniclers describe them as the most terrible of all the barbarians . The Lithuanians first emerge into the See also:

• LIGHT

light of See also:

• HISTORY

history at the time of the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic Order in the North . Rumours of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of extermination conducted against their kinsmen, the wild Prussians, by the Knights, first woke the Lithuanians to a sense of their own danger, and induced them to abandon their loose communal See also:

• SYSTEM

system in favour of a monarchical See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of government, which concentrated the whole See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the state in a single See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand . Fortunately, too, at this crisis of their history, the Lithuanians were blessed with an altogether exceptional See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of great rulers, who showed themselves fully capable of taking care of themselves . There was, for instance, Mendovg (1240-1263), who submitted to See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism for purely political reasons, checkmated the Teutonic Knights by adroitly seeking the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See, and annexed the principality of See also:

• PLOCK, or PLOTSK

Plock to his ever-widening See also:

• GRAND

grand duchy, which already included See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, and formed a huge See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge extending southwards from See also:

• COURLAND, or KURLAND

Courland, thus separating Poland from Russia . A still greater prince was See also:

• GEDYMIN (d. 1342)

Gedymin (1315-1342) who did his utmost to civilize Lithuania by building towns, introducing foreigners, and tolerating all religions, though he himself remained a pagan for political reasons . Gedymin still further extended the limits of Lithuania by annexing Kiev, See also:

• CHERNIGOV

Chernigov and other old See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian principalities . At the very time when Lithuania was thus becoming a compact, See also:

• UNITED

united, powerful state, Poland seemed literally to be dropping to pieces .