POLITICAL  DIVISIONS] See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of this is to be found, not only in the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of their constructions, but in the circumstance that a tribe closely akin to the Mayas (the Huastecos) still occupies a retired See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain valley of See also:

• VERA, AUGUSTO (1813-1885)

Vera Cruz, entirely separated from their kinsmen of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, and that a See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect of the See also:

• MAYA

Maya See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language is still spoken in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Vera Cruz . There is evidence to show that the See also:

• AZTECS (from the Nahuatl word aztlan, " place of the Heron," or " Heron " people)

Aztecs adopted the See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization of the See also:

• TOLTECS (Mexican Tolteca)

Toltecs, including their See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion (Quetzalcoatl being a See also:

• GOD

god of the Toltecs and Mayas), See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar and See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture . Perhaps the most remarkable of the Mexican races are the Mayas, or Maya-See also:

• QUICHE

Quiche See also:

• GROUP

group, which inhabit the See also:

• YUCATAN

Yucatan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, See also:

• CAMPECHE (CAMPEACHY)
• CAMPECHE, or CAMPECHE DE BARANDA

Campeche and parts of See also:

• TABASCO

Tabasco, See also:

• CHIAPAS

Chiapas, and the neighbouring states of Central See also:

• AMERICA

America (q.v.) . The remarkable ruins of See also:

• PALENQUE

Palenque, Uxmal, Chichenitza, Lorillard, Ixinche, Tikal, See also:

• COPAN

Copan and .Quirigua, with their carved stonework and astonishing architectural conceptions, show that they had attained a high degree of civilization . They were agriculturists, lived in large, well-built towns, cultivated the mountain sides by means of terraces, and had See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed what must have been an efficient See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . The Mistecas, or Mixtecas, and Zapotecas, who occupy the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern slopes of the central See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, especially See also:

• PUEBLA
• PUEBLA (full title La Puebla de los Angeles, and more recently, Puebla de Zaragoza)

Puebla, See also:

• MORELOS

Morelos, See also:

• OAXACA, OAJACA (from Aztec Huaxyacac), or OAXACA DE JUAREZ (official title)
• OAXACA, or OAJACA (officially OAXACA DE JUAREZ)

Oaxaca and See also:

• GUERRERO

Guerrero, form another distinct See also:

• RACE

race, whose traditional See also:

• HISTORY

history goes back to the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period when the structures now known as Mitla, See also:

• MONTE

Monte See also:

• ALBAN, SAINT

Alban, Xochicalco and Zaachila were built . Their prehistoric civilization appears to have been not inferior to that of the Mayas . They were an energetic See also:

• PEOPLE

people, were never subdued by the Aztecs, and are now recovering from their See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long subjection to See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish enslavement more rapidly than any other indigenous race . The Otomis comprise a large number of tribes occupying the plateau See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the See also:

• ANAHUAC

Anahuac sierras . They are a See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy people, and are the least civilized of the four See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal native races . The Totonacs inhabit northern Vera Cruz and speak a language related to that of the Mayas; the Tarascos form a small group living in See also:

• MICHOACAN, or MICHOACAN DE OCAMPO

Michoacan; the Matlanzingos, or Matlaltzincas, live near the Tarascos, the See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage Apaches, a nomadic group of tribes ranging from See also:

• DURANGO

Durango northward into the See also:

• UNITED

United States; the See also:

• OPATA (" enemies," so called by their neighbours the Pimas)

Opata-See also:

• PIMA

Pima group, inhabiting the western plateau region from Sonora and See also:

• CHIHUAHUA

Chihuahua south to See also:

• GUADALAJARA

Guadalajara, is sometimes classed as a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Nahuatlaca; the Seris, a very small See also:

• FAMILY

family of savages, occupy Tiburon See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island and the adjacent mainland of Sonora; and the Guaicuros, or Yumas, are to be found in the northern See also:

• PART

part of the peninsula of See also:

• LOWER

Lower See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California . In southern See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico, the Chontales, Tapijulapas, Mixes and Zoques inhabit small districts among and near the Zapotecas, the first being considered by Belmar a branch of that family .

The Huavis inhabit four small villages among the lagoons on the southern See also:

• SHORE

shore of See also:

• TEHUANTEPEC
• TEHUANTEPEC (from tecuani-tepec—" jaguar-hill ")

Tehuantepec and have been classed by Belmar as belonging to the Maya stock . The See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1895 gave these See also:

• INDIAN

Indian races an aggregate See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of nearly 4,000,000, of which nearly 3,450,000 belonged to the first four See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . Three of these four had made important progress toward civilization . Some of the others had likewise made notable progress, among which were the Tarascos, Totonacs and Zoques . The builders of Casas Grandes (q.v.), in Chihuahua, evidently belonged to the See also:

• PUEBLO

Pueblo tribes of See also:

• ARIZONA (from the Spanish-Indian Arizonac, of unknown meaning,—possibly " few springs,"-the name of an 18th-century mining camp in the Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the present border of Arizona)

Arizona and New Mexico . As for the builders of Quemada, in See also:

• ZACATECAS

Zacatecas, nothing See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive is known . The ruins apparently are of an earlier period than those of Mitla and Xochicalco, and have no See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions and architectural decorations, but the use of dressed See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone in the walls, rather than See also:

• ADOBE (pronounced a-db-be; also corrupted to dobie; from the Span. adobar, to plaster, traceable through Arabic to an Egyptian hieroglyph meaning " brick ")

adobe, warrants the conclusion that they belonged to the civilization of southern Mexico . From the records made at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the Spanish See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest, and from the antiquities found in the abandoned cities of prehistoric Mexico, it is certain that the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians lived in substantial houses, sometimes using dressed stone, inscriptions and ornamental carvings on the more pretentious edifices; they cultivated the See also:

• SOIL

soil, rudely perhaps, and produced enough to make it possible to live in large towns; they made See also:

• WOVEN

woven fabrics for See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress and hangings, using See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours in their manufacture; they were skilful in making and ornamenting pottery, in making See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and See also:

• SILVER

silver ornaments, and in featherwork; they used the See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres that Nature lavishly provided323 in See also:

• WEAVING

weaving baskets, hangings, mats, screens and various See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household utensils . See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

Copper was known to them, and it is possible that they knew how to make cutting See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments from it, but they generally used stone axes, hammers and picks, and their most dangerous weapon was a See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club into which chips of volcanic See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass were set . Many of these See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive arts are still to be found in the more secluded districts, and perhaps the best See also:

• WORK

work in pottery moulding in Mexico to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day is that of uneducated Indian artists . Of the See also:

• HALF

half-creed See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element which has become so important a part of the Mexican population, no safe estimate can be made . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education, See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial occupation, commercial training and political responsibility are apparently working a transformation in a class that was once known chiefly for indolence and criminal instincts, and many of the leaders of mddern Mexico have sprung from this race .

Settled government, settled habits, remunerative employment and opportunities for the improvement of their See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition are developing in them the virtues of the two See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent races . See also:

• BRIGANDAGE

Brigandage was formerly so See also:

• COMMON

common that travel without an armed escort was extremely dangerous; under See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

President See also:

• DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGILIO (18(38-1876)
• DIAZ, PORFIRIO (183o– )

Diaz, however, not only has such lawlessness been repressed but the brigands themselves have been given See also:

• REGULAR

regular employment as rural See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards under the government . This class is also furnishing the small traders of the towns, overseers on the plantations and public See also:

• WORKS

works, See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty officials, and to some extent the teachers and professional men of the provincial towns . Political Divisions.-The See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic of Mexico is politically divided into 27 states, one federal See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and three territories . The states are generally subdivided into distritos (districts) or partidos, and these into municipios (municipalities) which correspond to the townships of the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of Nuevo See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon, however, is divided into municipios only, while some other states use entirely different titles for the divisions, the larger being described as departamentos, cantons and municipios, and the smaller as partidos, directorias and vecindarios rurales . The Federal District consists of thirteen municipalities . The territory of Lower California is divided into two large districts, northern and southern, and the latter into partidos and municipios-the larger divisions practically forming two distinct territories . The states and territories, with their areas, capitals and populations, are as follows:- Name . J See also:

• AREA

Area, s1900 See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

Capital . 9 0 . See also:

• AGUASCALIENTES

Aguascalientes .

2,950 See also:

• IO2

Io2,416 Aguascalientes . 35,052 Campeche . . 18,087 86,542 Campeche . 17,io9 Chiapas . . . 27,222 360,799 Tuxtla Gutierrez 9395 Chihuahua . . 87,802 327,784 Chihuahua . 30,405 See also:

• COAHUILA

Coahuila . . 63,569 296,938 See also:

• SALTILLO

Saltillo . . . 23,996 See also:

• COLIMA

Colima . . .

2,272 65,115 Colima . 20,698 Durango . . 38,009 370,294 Durango 31,092 See also:

• GUANAJUATO, or GUANAXUATO
• GUANAJUATO, or SANTA FE DE GUANAJUATO

Guanajuato . . 11,37o I,o61,724 Guanajuato . . 41,486 Guerrero . . 24,996 479,205 Chilpancingo . 7,497 See also:

• HIDALGO
• HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from hijo d'algo or hijo de algo, son of something, or somewhat)

Hidalgo . . . 8,917 605,051 See also:

• PACHUCA

Pachuca . 37,487 See also:

• JALISCO, XALISCO

Jalisco . . . 31,846 1,153,891 Guadalajara .

. 101,208 Mexico . . 9,247 934,463 See also:

• TOLUCA, or TOLOCCAN

Toluca . 25,940 Michoacan . . 22,874 935,808 See also:

• MORELIA (formerly Valladolid)

Morelia . 37,278 Morelos . . . 2,773 160,115 Cuernavaca . . 9,584 Nuevo Leon 23,592 327,937 See also:

• MONTERREY (usually spelled Monterey in English)

Monterrey . . 62,266 Oaxaca . . . 35,382 948,633 Oaxaca . 35,049 Puebla .

12,204 1,021,133 Puebla . 93,152 See also:

• QUERETARO

Queretaro 3,556 232,389 Queretaro . 33,152 See also:

• SAN

San Luis See also:

• POTOSI

Potosi . 25,316 575,432 San Luis Potosi . 61,019 See also:

• SINALOA

Sinaloa . . . 33,671 296,701 Culiacan . . . 10,380 Sonora . . . 76,900 221,682 Hermosillo to,6r3 Tabasco . . .

10,072 159,834 San Juan Bau- See also:

• TISTA

tista . 10,543 See also:

• TAMAULIPAS

Tamaulipas . 32,128 218,948 See also:

• CIUDAD

Ciudad See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria. io,o86 See also:

• TLAXCALA

Tlaxcala . . . 1,595 172,315 Tlaxcala . 2,715 Vera Cruz . . 29,201 981,030 See also:

• JALAPA, XALAPA, or HALAPA

Jalapa . 20,388 Yucatan . . 35,203 309,652 See also:

• MERIDA
• MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania)

Merida . 43,630 Zacatecas 24,757 462,190 Zacatecas' 32,866 Distrito Federal 463 541,516 Mexico . • 344,721 Territories 58,328 47,624 La Paz . 5,046 Baja California See also:

• TEPIC

Tepic .

11,275 150,098 Tepic 15,488 See also:

• QUINTANA, MANUEL JOSE (1772-1857)

Quintana Roo . - - - See also:

• SANTA

Santa Cruz de See also:

• BRAVO (Ital. for " brave ")

Bravo . . . 276 Islands . . . 1,420 - The area and population of Yucatan include those of the territory of Quintana Roo, which formed part of that state at the time of the census . Baja, or Lower California; is divided into two districts for administrative convenience . The Distrito del Norte is credited with a population of 7583 and has its capital at See also:

• ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA, MARQUES DE LA (1702-1781)

Ensenada (pop . 1026); the Distrito del Sur has a population of 40,041 and has its capital at La Paz . Tepic was detached from the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west part of Jalisco and organized as a territory in 1889 . Quintana Roo was detached from the state of Yucatan in 1902 and received a territorial government . The principal cities of Mexico, other than the capitals above mentioned, are as follows, the populations being those of 1900 except when otherwise stated: Acapulco (pop .

4932), a famous See also:

• PORT

port on the Pacific See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast in Guerrero, which was wrecked by the See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake of 1909; Carmen, or See also:

• LAGUNA, or LA LAGUNA

Laguna de Terminos (about 6000), a thriving commercial See also:

• TOWN

town and port on the Gulf coast in Campeche; Celaya (25,565), a railway centre and manufacturing town of Guanajuato; Ciudad Guzman, or Zapotlan (about 17,500), an interesting old town of Jalisco; See also:

• CHOLULA

Cholula (about 9000), an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient native town of Puebla, widely known for its See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• PYRAMID

pyramid; Comitan (9316), the commercial centre of Chiapas; See also:

• CORDOBA
• CORDOBA, GONZALO FERNANDEZ DE (1453–15.15)

Cordoba (7974 in 18g5), a picturesque Spanish town in the sierras of Vera Cruz; Cuautla (6269), the centre of a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-producing district of Morelos; See also:

• GUAYMAS, or SAN

Guaymas (8648), a flourishing port of Sonora on the Gulf of California; Leon (62,623), the largest See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city in Guanajuato and distinguished for its commercial activity, manufactures and See also:

• WEALTH

wealth; See also:

• LINARES

Linares (20,690), the second city of Nuevo Leon in See also:

• SIZE

size and importance; See also:

• MATAMOROS

Matamoros (8347), a prominent commercial centre and See also:

• RIVER

river port of Tamaulipas; See also:

• MAZATLAN

Mazatlan (17,852), the foremost Mexican port on the Pacific coast; See also:

• ORIZABA (Aztec, Citlaltepetl, " star mountain ")
• ORIZABA (Indian name Ahuaializ-apan, pleasant waters)

Orizaba (32,894), a city of Vera Cruz famous for its delightful See also:

• CLIMATE

climate and picturesque surroundings; Parral (14,748), a well-known See also:

• MINING

mining centre of south-ern Chihuahua; San Cristobal (about 16,000), once capital of Chiapas and rich in See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical associations; See also:

• TAMPICO

Tampico (16,313), a Gulf port and railway See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of Tamaulipas; Tehuantepec (10,386), the largest town on the Tehuantepec railway in Oaxaca; Vera Cruz (29,164), the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest and best known Gulf port of Mexico . Communications.—See also:

• RAILWAYS

Railways began in Mexico with a See also:

• LINE

line of four kilometres between the capital and Guadalupe, which was finished in 1854 and afterwards became a part of the Ferrocarril Mexicano . The latter See also:

• DATES

dates from 1857, when a concession was granted for the construction of a railway from the city of Mexico to Vera Cruz . The See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French invasion of 1862 found only 10 m. in operation outside of Vera Cruz and military needs led to its immediate See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension to Paso del Macho, at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the sierras, about 35 m . At the same time the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• COMPANY

company holding the concession extended the Guadalupe line to Puebla . Nothing more was accomplished until after the downfall of See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian, and with a liberal See also:

• SUBSIDY (through Fr. from Lat. subsidium, reserve troops, aid, assistance, from subsidere, literally " to sit or remain behind or in reserve,")

subsidy from the Mexican government the Ferrocarril Mexicano was pushed to its completion in 1873 . It is celebrated because of the difficulties overcome on the precipitous eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre, the beauties of the mountain scenery through which it passes, and the rapid transition from the hot, humid coastal See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain to the cool, arid plateau, 7924 ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea at Boca del Monte . The railway extends 263 M. between Vera Cruz and Mexico City, to which 58 m. were added in branches from Apizaco to Puebla, and from Ometusco to Pachuca . The line was capitalized at $46,000,000 and has paid a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good profit on the investment . The period of active railway construction, however, did not begin until 1878, during the first See also:

• TERM

term of President Porfirio Diaz . In 1874 a concession was granted for a line from the port of Progreso to Merida (222 m.), and in 1878 four concessions were added under which 806 m. were constructed . The principal of these four concessions 17as the Ferrocarril Inter oceanico See also:

• RUNNING

running from Vera Cruz to Mexico City and across the republic toward Acapulco .

In 188o concessions were granted to the F.C . Occidental, F.C . Central Mexicano, F.C . Nacional Mexicano and three others of less importance, aggregating nearly 3500 M . The first three of these have become important factors in the development of Mexico . The first runs southward from the capital to Oaxaca through the rich sub-tropical states of Puebla and Oaxaca, and the other two run northward from the same point to the American frontier . These two lines, popularly called the Mexican Central and Mexican See also:

• NATIONAL

National, have their northern termini at Ciudad See also:

• JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872)

Juarez and See also:

• LAREDO

Laredo on the Rio Grande and connect with American See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk lines at El Paso and Laredo . These two great lines were merged in 1908, with an aggregate capital of $460,000,000 Mexican See also:

• MONEY

money, of which the Mexican government holds $230,004,580, or a controlling See also:

• INTEREST

interest . Important branches of these lines extend to Tampico on the Gulf coast, to See also:

• MANZANILLO

Manzanillo on the Pacific coast, and westward and southward into Michoacan and Guerrero, with a coast terminus at or near Acapulco . The next important line is the F.C . Internacional Mexicano, running from Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, on the Rio Grande, south-westward across the plateau to Durango, and is to be extended to Mazatlan, on the Pacific coast . This line was built with American capital and without a subsidy .

Another line built with American capital and in connexion with American railway interests extends southward from Nogales, on the northern frontier, to Hermosillo, Guaymas and Mazatlan; it is to be extended to Guadalajara and possibly to other points in southern Mexico . Monterrey is connected with Tampico by a Belgian line known as the F.C. de Monterrey al Golfo Mexicano, and the capital is to have See also:

• DIRECT

direct connexion with the Pacific, other than the F.C . Interoceanico, by a line through Cuernavaca and Iguala to the coast . Indirectly the capital has a Pacific coast connexion by way of Cordoba and the F.C . Vera Cruz al Pacifico to a junction with the Tehuantepec line . One of the most important railways in Mexico is the F.C . Nacional Interoceanico de Tehuantepec, also called the Tehuantepec National, and the Mexican See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

Isthmus railway, which is 192 M. long and was formally opened in 1907 . This line crosses the Isthmus of Tehuantepec from Coatzacoalcos (officially Puerto Mexico) on the Gulf coast to See also:

• SALINA

Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast, and has been under construction many years . The railway was first completed in 1894, but See also:

• LIGHT

light and defective construction, together with lack of See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping facilities at its terminal points, rendered it useless . To correct these defects the line was completely rebuilt and terminal ports constructed . In 1909 the ports were ready to receive large ocean steamships, and regular See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic was begun, including cargoes of Hawaiian sugar for New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York . The highest point on the line' (Chivela Pass) is 735 ft. above sea-level .

The railway has been built by the Mexican government as a transcontinental route for inter-national See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce . Its final construction together with that of its two ports were executed by S . See also:

• PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894)
• PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686)
• PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897)

Pearson & Sons, Ltd., of See also:

• LONDON

London, who also undertook the working of the line when open . It was estimated in 1907 that the See also:

• TOTAL

total cost of the railway and ports when completed would be about £13,000,000 . The line is connected at the station of Santa Lucrecia (109 M. from Salina Cruz) with the Vera Cruz and Pacific railway which gives an all-See also:

• RAIL

rail connexion with Vera Cruz and Mexico City, the distance between the latter and Salina Cruz being 520 m . According to the President's See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

Message of See also:

• APRIL

April 1909, there were 14,857 M. of railway in operation, of which 11,851 m. belonged to or were controlled by the government . It is the evident policy of the Mexican government to prevent the absorption of its railways by private monopolies, and this is effected by state owner-See also:

• SHIP

ship of a controlling See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in most of the trunk lines . Mexico is well provided with See also:

• TRAMWAY

tramway lines in its larger cities . A See also:

• BRITISH

British consular See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report for 1904 stated that Mexico City and Torreon only were using electric See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

traction, but that Guadalajara, Monterrey, Aguascalientes, See also:

• LAGOS

Lagos, Colima, Vera Cruz and San Luis Potosi would soon be using it . No See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official reports are available . The See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph lines had an aggregate length of 35,980 M. at the end of 1907, of which 33,000 M. belonged to the national government . The President reports an addition of 1626 m. in 1908 .

Wireless telegraphy was represented in 1908 by a connexion between Mazatlan and Lower California, which was in successful operation . See also:

• TELEPHONE (Gr. rjXs, far, and dxwvr7, voice)

Telephone lines were in use in all the large cities and in connexion with the large industrial enterprises and estates, beside which the government had 500 m. of its own in 1908 . Commerce.—In 1905 the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine of Mexico comprised only 32 steamers, of 13,199 tons, and 29 sailing vessels, of 8451 tons . The ocean-carrying See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade was almost wholly in the hands of foreigners, the government wisely refraining from an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to develop an occupation for which its citizens had no natural aptitude . The coastwise trade is principally under the Mexican See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag, but the steamers are owned abroad . An official publication entitled " Mexico: Yesterday and To-day, 1876-1904," states that while the number of steamers engaged in the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign trade increased from 841 to 969 in the 17 years from 1886 to 1903, the number of Mexican steamers decreased from 55 to 4 . For the See also:

• YEAR

year 1906-1907 the entries of vessels from foreign ports numbered 16g7, of 3,282,125 tons, and the clearances were 1669, of 3,257,932 tons . Subventions are paid for regular steamship service at the principal ports, the total See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure in 1907-1908 being £42,876 . These ports are well served by a large number of foreign steamship companies, which give direct communication with the principal ports of the United States, See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and the west coast of South America, and the See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation of a See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese line in 1908 also brings Mexico into direct communication with the far See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . The larger ports for foreign trade are Vera Cruz, Tampico, Progreso, Carmen and Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf coast, and Guaymas, La Paz, Mazatlan, Manzanillo, San Blas, Acapulco and Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast . Some of these—Vera Cruz, Tampico, Coatzacoalcos, Salina Cruz, Manzanillo and Mazatlan—have been greatly improved with costly port works . Among the smaller ports, some of which are open to foreign trade, are Matamoros, Tuxpan, See also:

• ALVARADO, PEDRO DE (1495-1541)

Alvarado, Tlacotalpan, Frontera, Campeche and the island of Mujeres (coast of Yucatan) on the Gulf See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, and Ensenada, Aliata, Santa Rosalia and Soconusco on the Pacific .

The foreign trade has shown a steady increase during the period of industrial development, to which better means of transport have been an invaluable aid . In 1906-1907 the imports were valued at $111,234,968 U.S. gold, and the exports at $123,512,969, of which very nearly one half consisted of See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious metals . According to an official report issued See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in 1909 there had been a heavy decrease in both imports and exports, the former being returned at $36,195,469 and the latter at $54,300,896 for the six months ending the 31st of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1908 . Too rapid development and overtrading were given as reasons for this decline . Import and export duties are levied, the former in many cases for the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of national See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries . The imports largely consist of railway material, industrial machinery, . See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, woollen and See also:

• LINEN

linen textiles and yarns for national factories, hardware, See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, See also:

• BUILDING

building material, mining supplies, drugs and chemicals, wines and See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper and military supplies and e9uipment . The exports include gold, silver, copper, See also:

• COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee)

coffee, henequen or sisal, ixtle and other fibres, See also:

• CABINET

cabinet See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods, chicle, See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber and other See also:

• FOREST

forest products, hides and skins, chickpeas, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco and sugar . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—The agricultural resources of Mexico are large and unusually varied, as they comprise some of the cereals and other See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food products of the temperate See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone, and most of the leading See also:

• PRO

pro-ducts of the tropics . Agriculture, however, received slight See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, owing to the early development of the mining industries . An indirect result of the industrial development of Mexico, which began during the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, has been an increased interest in agriculture, and especially in undertakings requiring large investments of capital, such as coffee, sugar and rubber plantations . A large part of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is too arid for agriculture, and even with See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation the See also:

• WATER

water See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply is sufficient for only a small part of the dry area .

This region has, for the most part, a temperate climate, and produces wheat, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, Indian corn and See also:

• FORAGE

forage crops . Long droughts often destroy the wheat and Indian corn and compel their importation in large quantities to supply the people with food . This uncertainty in the wheat See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop extends to the southern limits of the higher plateau, and is a serious obstacle to the increased See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of this cereal . Indian corn, also, is a comparatively uncertain product on the plateau, and for the same See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . As it is a See also:

• STAPLE

staple food with the poorer classes, the deficiency is made up through importation . These drawbacks tend to restrict agriculture on the plateau to comparatively limited areas, and the country people are, in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, extremely poor and badly nourished . A comparatively new product in this region is that of canaigre, which is grown for the See also:

• TANNIN, or TANNIC ACID

tannin found in its See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root . It is a native of the arid regions and is now cultivated with success . The district about Parras, in southern Coahuila, produces grapes, which are principally used in the manufacture of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine and See also:

• BRANDY

brandy . An important product of the plateau and of the open districts of the tierras calientes, growing in the most arid places, is the " nopal " or prickly See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear See also:

• CACTUS

cactus (See also:

• OPUNTIA

Opuntia ficus indite) . Its See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit, called " tuna " by the natives, is refreshing and wholesome and is a staple food in spite of its spiny covering . In the tierras calientes of Mexico, however, better conditions prevail .

A fertile soil, abundant rainfall and high temperatures have covered these mountain slopes and See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland plains with a wealth of vegetation . The problem for the agriculturist here is not irrigation, but drainage and keeping down spontaneous growths . In these regions, sugar, tobacco, See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo, cacao, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, sweet potatoes, See also:

• ALFALFA

alfalfa, beans and See also:

• CASSAVA

cassava are produced, and Indian corn yields two and three crops a year . Fruits also are plentiful, both See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild and cultivated . Among them are the See also:

• BANANA

banana, See also:

• PLANTAIN (Lat. plantago)

plantain, tuna, chili See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive, coco-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut, See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange, See also:

• LEMON
• LEMON, MARK (1809-1870)

lemon, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, See also:

• MANGO

mango, See also:

• POMEGRANATE

pomegranate, " See also:

• PINA, RUY DE (1440-1521)

pina " or pineapple (wild and cultivated), fig, ahuacatl (Persea gratissima), chirimoya (A none chirimolia), papaya, See also:

• GOURD

gourd, See also:

• MELON (Late Lat. melo, shortened form of Gr. p XoaEawv, a kind of gourd; µijXov, apple, and a- brow, ripe)

melon, See also:

• GUAVA (from the Mexican guayaba)

guava, ciruela (See also:

• PLUM

plum), and the several " zapote " fruits, including " chico zapote " from the Achras sapota, which produces the " chicla " or chicle-See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum of commerce, " zapote blanco " from the Casimiroa edulis, " zapotebarracho " (or " amarillo ") from the Lucuma salicifolia, " zapoteprieto " (or " See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro ") from the Diospyros obtusifolia, and " zapotemamey." The production of rubber is becoming an important See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, large plantations having been set with both Ilevea and Castilloa rubber trees . Lying between these two regions is the subtropical See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt where coffee of an excellent quality is produced, and where cotton is cultivated . Coffee has become an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of export, but cotton does not yield enough for the domestic factories . Better cultivation would probably increase the output and make it an article of export . A See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar and highly profitable branch of Mexican agriculture is the cultivation of the See also:

• AGAVE

Agave for two widely different purposes—one for its fibre, which is exported, and the other for its See also:

• SAP

sap, which is manufactured into intoxicating liquors called See also:

• PULQUE, or PULQUE FUERTE

pulque " and " mescal." In Yucatan immense plantations of the Agave rigida See also:

• VAR

var. elongata are cultivated, froi7i which large quantities of " henequen " or " sisal," as the fibre is called, are exported . It is produced on light shallow soils overlying calcareous See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . It is also cultivated in Campeche and Chiapas . The pulque industry is located on the plateau surrounding the city of Mexico, the most productive district being the high, sandy, arid plain of Apam, in the state of Hidalgo, where the " maguey " (Agave americana) finds favourable conditions for its growth—a dry calcareous See also:

• SURFACE

surface with moisture sufficiently near -to be reached by its roots .

Its cultivation is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief industry of the states of Mexico, Hidalgo, Puebla and Tlaxcala . Of the 208 plantations it the state of Hidalgo in 1897, 129 were devoted to maguey . The plant is propagated from suckers and requires very little attention after transplanting to the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field where it is to remain, but it takes six to eight years to mature and then yields an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of ten gallons of sap during a period of four or five months, after which it See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies . " Pulque " is the fermented drink made from this sap: " mescal " is the distilled spirit made from the leaves and roots of the plant . There are other agaves used both in the production of drinks and fibres, but they are not cultivated . The " ixtle " fibres shipped from Tampico and Chiapas are all obtained from the agaves and yuccas found growing wild . The natural and forest products of Mexico include the agave and See also:

• YUCCA

yucca (ixtle) fibres already mentioned ; the " ceibon " fibre derived from the See also:

• SILK

silk-cotton See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree (Bombax pentandria); rubber and See also:

• VANILLA

vanilla in addition to the cultivated products; See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm oil; See also:

• CASTOR

castor beans; See also:

• GINGER (Fr. gingembre, Ger. Ingwer)

ginger; chicle, the gum extracted from the " chico-zapote " tree (Achras sapota); See also:

• LOGWOOD (so called from the form in which it is imported)

logwood and other dye-woods; See also:

• MAHOGANY

mahogany, See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose-See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony, See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar and other valuable woods; " cascalote " or divi-divi; See also:

• JALAP

jalap root (Ipomaea); See also:

• SARSAPARILLA

sarsaparilla (Smilax); nuts and fruits . Stock-raising dates from the earliest Spanish settlements in Mexico and received no slight encouragement from the See also:

• MOTHER

mother country . For this reason much importance has always been attached to the industry, and stock-raising of some sort is to be found in every state of the republic, though not always to a great extent . The Spaniards found no indigenous domestic animals in the country, and introduced their own horses, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep and See also:

• SWINE

swine . From these are descended the herds and flocks of to-day, with no admixture of new See also:

• BLOOD

blood until toward the end of the 19th century . The horses and cattle are of a degenerate type, small, ungainly and inured to neglect and hard usage .

The See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse is chiefly used for See also:

• SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla; it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair, but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives

saddle purposes and is not reared in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers . The See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule is more generally used in every part of the country, being hardier, more intelligent and better adapted for service as a draft and