MARCO See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• MARCO POLO (c. 1254-1324)

POLO (c. 1254-1324)  , the Venetian, greatest of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval travellers . Venetian genealogies and traditions of uncertain value trace the See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo See also:

• FAMILY

family to See also:

• SEBENICO (Serbo-Croatian, Sibenik)

Sebenico in See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

Dalmatia, and before the end of the 11th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century one Domenico Polo is found in the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic (1094) . But the ascertained See also:

• LINE

line of the traveller begins only with his grandfather . See also:

• ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348)

Andrea Polo of S . Felice was the See also:

• FATHER

father of three sons, Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo, of whom the second was the father of the subject of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article . They were presumably " See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble," i.e. belonging to the families who had seats in the great council, and were enrolled in the Libro d' Oro; for we know that Marco the traveller is officially so styled (nobilis vir) . The three See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers were engaged in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce; the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder Marco, See also:

• RESIDENT

resident apparently in See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople and in the See also:

• CRIMEA (ancient Tauris or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name Krym or Crim)

Crimea . (especially at Sudak), suggests, by his celebrated will, a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long business See also:

• PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late Lat. partionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing, pars, part)

partnership with Nicolo and Maffeo . About 126o, and even perhaps as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1250, we find Nicolo and Maffeo at Constantinople . See also:

• NICOLE, PIERRE (1625–1695)

Nicole was married and had See also:

• LEFT

left his wife there . The two brothers went on a See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation to the Crimea, whence a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of chances and openings carried them to the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of Barka See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan at Sarai, further See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north up to Bolghar (Kazan), and eventually across the See also:

• STEPPES

steppes to See also:

• BOKHARA (Bokhara-i-Sherif)
• BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pronunciation is Bukhara)

Bokhara . Here they See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell in with certain envoys who had been on a See also:

• MISSION

mission from the great Khan Kublai to his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Hulagu in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, and by them were persuaded to make the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to See also:

• CATHAY

Cathay in their See also:

• COMPANY

company .

Under the heading See also:

• CHINA

CHINA the circumstances are noticed which in the last See also:

• HALF

half of the 13th century and first half of the 14th threw See also:

• ASIA

Asia open to Western travellers to a degree unknown before and since—until the 19th century . Thus began the medieval See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of intercourse between China and See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

catholic See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Kublai, when the Polos reached his court, was either at See also:

• CAMBALUC

Cambaluc (Khanbaligh, the Khan's See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city), i.e . See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking, which he had just rebuilt, or at his summer seat at Shangtu in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country north of the Great See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

Wall . It was the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time that the khan, a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man full of See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and intelligence, had fallen in with See also:

• EUROPEAN

European gentlemen . He was delighted with the Venetian brothers, listened eagerly to all they had to tell of the Latin See also:

• WORLD

world, and decided to send them back as his envoys to the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope, with letters requesting the despatch of a large See also:

• BODY

body of educated men to instruct his See also:

• PEOPLE

people in See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity and the liberal arts . With Kublai, as with his predecessors, See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion was chiefly a See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine . Kublai, the first of his See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house to rise above the essential barbarism of the See also:

• MONGOLS

Mongols, had perhaps discerned that the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church could afford the aid he desired in taming his countrymen . It was only when See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome had failed to meet his advance that he fell back upon See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism as his See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief civilizing See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument . The brothers arrived at See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

Acre in See also:

• APRIL

April 1269 . They learned that See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement IV. had died the See also:

• YEAR

year before, and no new pope had yet been chosen . So they took counsel with an eminent church-man, Tedaldo, See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

archdeacon of See also:

• LIEGE
• LIEGE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Lilltich)

Liege and papal See also:

• LEGATE (Lat. legatus, past part. of legare, to send as deputy)
• LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612)

legate for the whole See also:

• REALM

realm of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, and, being advised by him to wait patiently, went See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home to See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, where they found that Nicolo's wife was dead, but had left a son Marco, now fifteen .

The papal See also:

• INTERREGNUM (Lat. inter, between, and regnum, reign)

interregnum was the longest that had been known, at least since the dark ages . After the Polos had spent two years at home there was still no pope, and the brothers resolved on starting again for the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, taking See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Marco with them . At Acre they again saw Tedaldo, and were furnished by him with letters to authenticate the causes that had hindered their mission . They had not yet left Lajazzo, Layas, or Ayas on the Cilician See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast (then one of the chief points for the arrival and departure of the See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade of Asia), when they heard that Tedaldo had been elected pope . They hastened back to Acre, and at last were able to execute Kublai's mission, and to obtain a papal reply . But, instead of the See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred teachers asked for by the Great Khan, the new pope (styled See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory X.) could See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply but two See also:

• DOMINICANS

Dominicans; and these lost See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart and turned back, when they had barely taken the first step of their journey . The second start from Acre must have taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place about See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1271; and from a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the indications and succession of chapters in Polo's See also:

• BOOK

book, it would seem that the party proceeded from Lajazzo to See also:

• SIVAS
• SIVAS (anc. Megalopolis-Sebasteia)

Sivas and See also:

• TABRIZ

Tabriz, and thence by See also:

• YEZD
• YEZD, or YAZD

Yezd and Kirman down to See also:

• HORMUZ (Hurmuz, Ormuz, Ormus)

Hormuz (Hurmua) at the mouth of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Gulf, with the purpose of going on to China by See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; but that, abandoning their See also:

• NAVAL

naval plans (perhaps from fear of the flimsy vessels employed on this See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation from the Gulf east-wards), they returned northward through Persia . Traversing Kirman and See also:

• KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan they went on to See also:

• BALKH

Balkh and See also:

• BADAKSHAN

Badakshan, in which last country young Marco recovered from illness . In a passage touching on the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of the Badakshan hills, Marco breaks into an See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm whiqh he rarely betrays, but which is easily understood by those who have known what it is, with See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever in the See also:

• BLOOD

blood, to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape to the exhilarating See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air and fragrant See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-groves . They then ascended the upper See also:

• OXUS

Oxus through Wakhan to the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Pamir (a name first heard in Marco's book) . These regions were hardly described again by any European traveller (See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save See also:

• BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS)
• BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885)

Benedict Goes) till the expedition in 1838 of Lieut . See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• NAVY

navy, whose narrative abounds in incidental See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of Marco Polo .

See also:

• CROSSING

Crossing the Pamir the travellers descended upon See also:

• KASHGAR

Kashgar, Yarkand and See also:

• KHOTAN (locally ILcm)

Khotan (Khutan) . These are regions which remained almost absolutely closed to our know-ledge till after 186o, when the temporary overthrow of the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, and the enterprise of See also:

• BRITISH

British, See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian and other explorers, again made them known . From Khotan the Polos passed on to the vicinity of Lop-Nor, reached for the first time since Polo's journey by See also:

• PRJEVALSKY [PRZHEVALSKY], NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1839–1888)

Prjevalsky in 1871 . Thence the great See also:

• DESERT

desert of See also:

• GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, " sand desert," and HAN-HAI, " dry sea ")

Gobi was crossed to Tangut, as the region at the extreme north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of China, both within and without the Wall, was then called . In his See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Gobi, or desert of Lop, as he calls it, Polo gives some description of the terrors and superstitions of the See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste, a description which strikingly reproduces that of the Chinese See also:

• PILGRIM

pilgrim Suan T'sang, in passing the same desert in the contrary direction six hundred years before . The Venetians, in their further journey, were met and welcomed by the Great Khan's people, and at last reached his presence at Shangtu, in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1275 . Kublai received them with great cordiality, and took kindly to young Marco, by this time about twenty-one years old . The " young See also:

• BACHELOR (from Med. Lat. baccalarius, with its late and rare variant baccalaris—cf. Ital. baccalare—through O. Fr. bacheler)

bachelor," as the book calls him, applied himself diligently to the acquisition of the See also:

• DIVERS

divers See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages and written characters chiefly in use among the multifarious nationalities subject to the Khan; and Kublai, seeing .that he was both See also:

• CLEVER

clever and discreet, soon began to employ him in the public service . G . Pauthier found in the Chinese See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record that in the year 1277 a certain Polo was nominated as a second-class See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner or See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent attached to the imperial council, a passage which we may apply to the young Venetian . Among his public See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions was one which carried him through the provinces of Shansi, Shensi, and Szechuen, and the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild country on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet, to the remote See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Yunnan, called by the Mongols Karajang,and into See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• BURMA

Burma (Mien) . Marco, during his stay at court, had observed the Khan's delight in See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing of See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange countries, of their See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners, marvels, and oddities, and had heard his See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

frank expressions of disgust at the stupidity of envoys and commissioners who could tell of nothing but their See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official business .

He took care to See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store his memory or his See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note-book with curious facts likely to See also:

• INTEREST

interest Kublai, which, on his return to court, he related . This See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-western journey led him through a country which till about 186o was almost a terra incognita—though since the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 19th century we have learned much regarding it through the journeys of See also:

• COOPER
• COOPER (or COUPER), THOMAS (c. 1517-1594)
• COOPER, ABRAHAM (1787—1868)
• COOPER, ALEXANDER (d. i66o)
• COOPER, CHARLES HENRY (18o8-1866)
• COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE (1789-1851)
• COOPER, PETER (1791-1883)
• COOPER, SAMUEL (1609-1672)
• COOPER, SIR ASTLEY PASTON (1768-1841)
• COOPER, THOMAS (1759–1840)
• COOPER, THOMAS (1805–1892)
• COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY (1803–1902)

Cooper, See also:

• GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813–1881)
• GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821)
• GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898)
• GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839–1873)
• GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545–c.1600)

Garnier, See also:

• RICHTHOFEN, FERDINAND, BARON VON (1833-1905)

Richthofen, Gill, See also:

• BABER

Baber and others . In this region there existed and still exists in the deep valleys of the great See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, and in the alpine regions which border them, a vast ethnological See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden, as it were, of tribes of various origin, and in every See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of semi-See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization or barbarism; these afforded many strange products and See also:

• ECCENTRIC (from Gr. F,c, out of, and Kivrpov, centre)

eccentric traits to entertain Kublai . Marco See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose rapidly in favour and was often employed on distant missions as well as in domestic See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration; but we gather few details of his employment . He held for three years the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the great city of Yangchow; on another occasion he seems to have visited Kangchow, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of Tangut, just within the Great Wall, and perhaps See also:

• KARAKORUM (Turkish, " black stone debris ")

Karakorum on the north of the Gobi, the former See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the Great Khans: again we find him in Ciampa, or See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin-China; and perhaps, once more, on a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate mission to the southern states of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . We are not informed whether his father and See also:

• UNCLE

uncle shared in such employments, though they are mentioned as having rendered material service to the Khan, in forwarding the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Siang-yang (on the Han See also:

• RIVER

river) during the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war against southern China, by the construction of powerful See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery engines—a See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story, however, perplexed by See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological difficulties . All the Polos were gathering See also:

• WEALTH

wealth which they longed to carry back to their home, and after their See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile they began to dread what might follow Kublai's See also:

• DEATH

death . The Khan, however, was See also:

• DEAF

deaf to suggestions of departure and the opportunity only came by See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance . Arghun, khan of Persia, the See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of Kublai's brother . Hulagu, lost in 1286 his favourite wife, called by Polo Balgana (i.e . Bulughan or " See also:

• SABLE
• SABLE, AMERICAN
• SABLE, CHINESE
• SABLE, MADELEINE DE SOUVRE, MARQUISE DE (1599—1678)
• SABLE, RUSSIAN

Sable ") . Her dying See also:

• INJUNCTION (from Lat. injungere, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a burden or charge on, to enjoin)

injunction was that her place should be filled only by a See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady of her own Mongol tribe .

Ambassadors were despatched to the court of Peking to obtain such a See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride . The See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message was courteously received, and the choice fell on the lady Cocacin (Kukachin), a See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden of seventeen . The overland road from Peking to Tabriz was then imperilled by war, so Arghun's envoys proposed to return by sea . Having made acquaintance with the Venetians, and eager to profit by their experience, especially by that of Marco, who had just. returned from a mission to the Indies, they begged the Khan to send the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks in their company . He consented with reluctance, but fitted out the party nobly for the voyage, charging them with friendly messages to the potentates of Christendom, including the pope, and the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . They sailed from Zaiton or See also:

• AMOY

Amoy See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

Harbour in Fukien (a See also:

• TOWN

town corresponding either to the See also:

• MODERN

modern Changchow or less probably to Tswanchow or See also:

• CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU

Chinchew), then one of the chief Chinese havens for See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign trade, in the beginning of 1292 . The voyage involved long detention on the coast of See also:

• SUMATRA

Sumatra, and in south India, and two years or more passed before they arrived in Persia . Two of the three envoys and a vast proportion of their See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite perished by the way; but the three Venetians survived all perils, and so did the young lady, who had come to look on them with filial regard . Arghun Khan had died even before they quitted China; his brother reigned in his See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead; and his son Ghazan succeeded to the lady's See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand . The Polos went on (apparently by Tabriz, See also:

• TREBIZOND (Gr. Trapezus)

Trebizond, Constantinople and Negropont) to Venice, which they seem to have reached about the end of 1295 . The first biographer of Marco Polo was the famous See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector John Baptist See also:

• RAMUSIO

Ramusio, who wrote more than two centuries after the traveller's death . Facts and See also:

• DATES

dates sometimes contradict his statements, but he often adds detail, evidently See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic, of great interest and value, and we need not hesitate to accept as a genuine tradition the substance of his story of the Polos' arrival at their family See also:

• MANSION (through O. Fr. mansion, mod. maison, from Lat. mansio, dwelling-place, stage on a journey; manere, to remain)

mansion in St John See also:

• CHRYSOSTOM

Chrysostom See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish in worn and outlandish garb, of the scornful denial of their identity, and the stratagem by which they secured See also:

• ACKNOWLEDGMENT (from the old acknow, a compound of on- and know, to know by the senses, which passed through the forms oknow, aknow and acknow; acknowledge is formed on analogy of " knowledge ")

acknowledgment from Venetian society .

We next hear of Marco Polo in a militant capacity . Jealousies had been growing in bitterness between Venice and See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa throughout the 13th century . In 1298 the Genoese prepared to strike at their rivals on their own ground, and a powerful See also:

• FLEET

fleet under Lamba See also:

• DORIA, ANDREA (1466-156o)

Doria made for the Adriatic . Venice, on hearing of the Genoese armament, equipped a fleet still more numerous, and placed it under Andrea See also:

• DANDOLO
• DANDOLO, VINCENZO, COUNT (1758-1819)

Dandolo . The See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew of a Venetian See also:

• GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley at this time amounted, all told, to 250 men, under a comilo or See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, but besides this officer each galley carried a sopracomito or See also:

• GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span. gentil hombre, Ital. gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable transl

gentleman-See also:

• COMMANDER

commander, usually a noble . On one of the galleys of Dandolo's fleet Marco Polo seems to have gone in this last capacity . The hostile fleets met before See also:

• CURZOLA (Serbo-Croatian Korcula or Karkar)

Curzola See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island on the 6th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, and engaged next See also:

• MORNING

morning . The See also:

• BATTLE

battle ended in a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete victory for Genoa, the details of which may still be read on the See also:

• FACADE

facade of St See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew's church in that city . Sixty-six Venetian galleys were burnt in Curzola See also:

• BAY

Bay, and eighteen were carried to Genoa, with 7000 prisoners, one of whom was Marco Polo . The captivity was of less than a year's duration; by the See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace was made, on See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable terms for both republics, by See also:

• JULY

July 1299; and Marco was probably restored to his family during that or the following See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month . But his captivity was memorable as the immediate cause of his Book . Up to this time he had doubtless often related his experiences among his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends; and from these stories, and the frequent employment in them (as it would seem) of See also:

• GRAND

grand numerical expressions, he had acquired the See also:

• NICKNAME

nickname of Marco Millioni .

Yet it would seem that he had committed nothing to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . The narratives not only of Marco Polo but of several other famous medieval travellers (e.g . See also:

• IBN

Ibn Batuta, See also:

• FRIAR (from the Lat. (rater, through the Fr. frere)

Friar See also:

• ODORIC (c. 1286-1331)

Odoric, Nicolo See also:

• CONTI, NICOLO
• CONTI, PRINCES OF

Conti) seem to have been extorted from them by a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of pressure, and committed to See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper by other hands . Examples, perhaps, of that intense dislike to the use of See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen and See also:

• INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. gysavorov, the purple ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from iyKaiew, to burn in)

ink which still prevails among See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary respectable folk on the shores of the Mediterranean . In the See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison of Genoa Marco Polo fell in with a certain See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of writing propensities, Rusticiano or Rustichello of See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa, also a See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

captive of the Genoese . His name is otherwise known as that of a respectable See also:

• LITERARY

literary hack, who abridged and recast several of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French romances of the Arthurian See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle, then in See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . He wrote down Marco's experiences at his dictation . We learn little of Marco Polo's See also:

• PERSONAL

personal or family See also:

• HISTORY

history after this captivity; but we know that at his death he left a wife, Donata (perhaps of the Loredano family, but this is uncertain), and three daughters, Fantina and Bellela (married, the former to Marco Bragadino), and Moreta (then a spinster, but married at a later date to Ranuzzo Dolfino) . One last glimpse of the traveller is gathered from his will, now in St See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark's library . On the 9th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1324 the traveller, in his seventieth year, sent for a neighbouring See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest and See also:

• NOTARY, or NOTARY PUBLIC

notary to make his testament . We do not know the exact time of his death, but it fell almost certainly within the year 1324, for we know from a scanty See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of documents, beginning in See also:

• JUNE

June 1325, that he had at the latter date been some time dead . He was buried, in accordance with his will, in the Church of St Lorenzo, where the family burying-place was marked by a See also:

• SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. vapsorg yos, literally " flesh-eating," from vapt, flesh, ¢ayeiv, to eat)

sarcophagus, erected by his filial care for his father Nicolo, which existed till near the end of the 16th century .

On the renewal of the church in 1592 this seems to have disappeared . The archives of Venice have yielded a few traces of our traveller . Besides his own will just alluded to, there are the See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

wills of his uncle Marco and of his younger brother Maffeo; a few legal documents connected with the house See also:

• PROPERTY

property in St John Chrysostom, and other papers of similar See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character; andtwo or three entries in the record of the Maggior Consiglio . We have mentioned the See also:

• SOBRIQUET

sobriquet of Marco Millioni . Ramusio tells us that he had himself noted the use of this name in the public books of the See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth, and this statement has been verified in an entry in the books of the Great Council (dated April ro, 1305), which records as one of the securities in a certain See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case .the "Nobilis vir Marchus Paulo See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)

MILtoN." It is alleged that long after the traveller's death there was always in the Venetian masques one individual who assumed the character of Marco Millioni, and told See also:

• MUNCHAUSEN, BARON

Munchausen-like stories to divert the vulgar . There is also a record (See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 9, 1311) of the See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment of the court of See also:

• REQUESTS, COURT OF

requests (See also:

• CURIA

Curia Petitionum) upon a suit brought by the " Nobilis vir See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Polo " against Paulo Girardo, who had been an agent of his, to recover the value of a certain quantity of See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk for which Girardo had not accounted . Another document is a See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

catalogue of certain curiosities and valuables which were collected in the house of See also:

• MARINO

Marino See also:

• FALIERO (or FALTER), MARINO (1279-1355)

Faliero, and this catalogue comprises several See also:

• OBJECTS

objects that Marco Polo had given to one of the Faliero family . The most tangible record of Polo's memory in Venice is a portion of the Ca' Polo—the mansion (there is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe) where the three travellers, after their long See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence, were denied entrance . The court in which it stands was known in Ramusio's time as the See also:

• CORTE

Corte del millioni, and now is called Corte Sabbionera . That which remains of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient edifice is a passage with a decorated archway of Italo-See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine character pertaining to the 13th century . No genuine portrait of Marco Polo exists . There is a medallion portrait on the wall of the See also:

• SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Sala dello Scudo in the ducal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace, which has become a kind of type; but it is a See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination no older than 1761 .

The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest professed portrait is one in the See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery of See also:

• MONSIGNOR (It. monsignore, my lord)

Monsignor Badia at Rome, which is inscribed Marcus Polus venetus totius orbis et Indie peregrator See also:

• PRIMUS, MARCUS ANTONIUS

primus . It is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good picture, but evidently of the 16th century at earliest . The Europeans at See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

Canton have absurdly attached the name of Marco Polo to a figure in a Buddhist See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple there containing a gallery of " Arhans " or Buddhist See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, and popularly known as the " temple of the five hundred gods." The Venetian See also:

• MUNICIPALITY

municipality obtained a copy of this on the occasion of the geographical See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress at Venice in 1881 . The book indited by Rusticiano is in two parts . The first, or See also:

• PROLOGUE (from Gr. 7rpo, before, and Myer, a word)

prologue, as it is termed, is unfortunately the only See also:

• PART

part which consists of actual personal narrative . It relates in an interesting though extremely brief fashion the circumstances which led the two elder Polos to the Khan's court, together with those of their second journey (when accompanied by Marco), and of the return to the west by the Indian seas and Persia . The second and See also:

• STAPLE

staple part consists of a series of chapters of unequal length and unsystematic structure, descriptive of the different states and provinces of Asia (certain See also:

• AFRICAN

African islands and regions included), with occasional notices of their See also:

• SIGHTS

sights and products, of curious manners and remarkable events, and especially regarding the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

Emperor Kublai, his court, See also:

• WARS

wars and administration . A series of chapters near the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close treats of sundry wars that took place between various branches of 'the house of Jenghiz in the latter half of the 13th century . This last series is either omitted or greatly curtailed in all the MS. copies and versions except one (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, See also:

• NATIONAL

National Library, Fonds Fr . 1116) . It was long doubtful in what See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language the work was originally written . That this had been some See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect of See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian was a natural presumption, and a contemporary statement could be alleged in its favour .

But there is now no doubt that the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original was French . This was first indicated by See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count Baldelli-See also:

• BONI (Bone)

Boni, who published an elaborate edition of two of the Italian texts at See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence in 1827, and who found in the oldest of these indisputable signs that it was a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation from the French . The See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument has since been followed up by others; and a See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript in See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude and See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar French, belonging to the National Library of Paris (Fonds Fr. u16), which was printed by the Societe de geographie in 1824, is evidently either the original or a close transcript of the original dictation . A variety of its characteristics are strikingly indicative of the unrevised product of dictation, and are such as would necessarily have disappeared either in a translation or in a revised copy . Many illustrations could be adduced of the fact that the use of French was not a circumstance of surprising or unusual nature; for the language had at that time, in some points of view, even a wider See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion than at See also:

• PRESENT

present, and examples of its literary employment by writers who were not Frenchmen (like Rusticiano himself, a compiler of French romances) are very numerous . Eighty-five See also:

• MSS

MSS. of the book are known, and their texts exhibit See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of " See also:

• MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733)
• MANDEVILLE, GEOFFREY DE (d. 1144)

Mandeville," with his lying wonders, indicates a much considerable See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences . These fall under four See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal types . Of these, type i. is found completely only in that old French codex which has been mentioned (Paris, National Library, Fr . 1116) . Type ii. is shown by several valuable MSS. in purer French (Paris, Nat . Libr., Fr . 281o; Fr .

5631; Fr . 5649; See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern, Canton Library, 125), which formed the basis of the edition prepared by the See also:

• LATE

late M . Pauthier in 1865 . It exhibits a See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text condensed and revised from the rude original, but without any exactness, though perhaps under some See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general direction by Marco Polo himself, for an inscription prefixed to certain MSS . (Bern, Canton Libr . 125; Paris, Nat . Libr., Fr . 5649) records the presentation of a copy by the traveller himself to the Seigneur Thiebault de Cepoy, a distinguished Frenchman known to history, at Venice in the year 1306 . Type iii. is that of a Latin version prepared in Marco Polo's lifetime, though without any sign of his cognisance, by See also:

• FRANCESCO
• FRANCESCO, 210

Francesco Pipino, a Dominican of See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna, and translated from an Italian copy . In this, condensation and curtailment are carried a good See also:

• DEAL

deal further than in type ii . Some of the forms under which this type appears curiously illustrate the effects of absence of effective publication, not only before the invention of the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press, but in its early days . Thus the Latin version published by See also:

• GRYNAEUS (or. GRYNER), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617)
• GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541)

Grynaeus at See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel in the Nevus Orbis (1532) is different in its language from Pipino's, and yet is clearly traceable to that as its See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation .

In fact it is a retranslation into Latin from some version of Pipino (See also:

• MARSDEN, WILLIAM (1754-1836)

Marsden thinks the Portuguese printed one of 1502) . It introduces changes of its own, and is worthless as a text; yet Andreas See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, who in the 17th century took so much trouble with Polo, unfortunately See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose as his text this fifth-hand version . The French editions published in the middle of the 16th century were See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations from Grynaeus's Latin . Hence they complete this curious and vicious circle of transmission—French, Italian, Pipino's Latin, Portuguese, Grynaeus's Latin, French . Type iv. deviates largely from those already mentioned; its history and true character are involved in obscurity . It is only represented by the Italian version prepared for the press by John Baptist Ramusio, with interesting preliminary See also:

• DISSERTATIONS

dissertations, and published at Venice two years after his death, in the second See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the Navigationi a viaggi . Its peculiarities are great . Ramusio seems to imply that he made some use of Pipino's Latin, and various passages confirm this . But many new circumstances, and anecdotes occurring in no other copy, are introduced; many names assume a new shape; the whole See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style is more copious and literary than that of any other version . While a few of the changes and interpolations seem to carry us farther from the truth, others contain facts of See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic nature or history, as well as of Polo's alleged experiences, which it is difficult to ascribe to any hand but the traveller's own . We recognize to a certain extent tampering with the text, as in cases where Polo's proper names have been identified, and more modern forms substituted . In some other cases the editorial spirit has gone astray .

Thus the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of young Marco has been altered to correspond with a date which is itself erroneous . Ormuz is described as an island, contrary to the old texts, and to the fact in Polo's time . In speaking of the oil-springs of See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus the phrase " See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel-loads " has been substituted for " See also:

• SHIP

ship-loads," in See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance that the site was See also:

• BAKU

Baku on the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian . But, on the other hand, there are a number of new circumstances certainly genuine. which can hardly be ascribed to any one but Polo himself . Such is the account which Ramusio's version gives of the oppressions exercised by Kublai's See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister Ahmad, telling how the Cathayans rose against him and murdered him, with the addition that Messer Marco was on the spot when all this happened . Not only is the whole story in substantial accordance with the Chinese annals, even to the name of the chief conspirator (Vanchu in Ramusio, Wangcheu in the Chinese records), but the annals also tell of the frankness of " Polo, See also:

• ASSESSOR (Lat. assessare, assidere, to sit by)

assessor of the privy council," in opening Kublai's eyes to the iniquities of his agent . Polo was the first traveller to trace a route across the whole See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

longitude of Asia, naming and describing See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom after kingdom which he had seen; the first to speak of the new and brilliant court which had been established at Peking; the first to reveal China in all its wealth and vastness, and to tell of the nations on its borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than its name, to speak of Burma, of See also:

• LAOS

Laos, of See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam, of Cochin-China, of See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, of See also:

• JAVA

Java, of Sumatra and of other islands of the See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, of See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon and its sacred See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak, of India but as a country seen and partially explored; the first in medieval times to give any distinct account of the secluded Christian See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire of See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia, and of the semi-Christian island of See also:

• SOKOTRA (also spelt Socotra and formerly Socotora)

Sokotra, and to speak, however dimly, of See also:

• ZANZIBAR

Zanzibar, and of the vast and distant See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar; whilst he carries us also to the remotely opposite region of See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia and the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic shores, to speak of See also:

• DOG

dog-sledges, See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white bears and See also:

• REINDEER

reindeer-See also:

• RIDING

riding See also:

• TUNGUSES

Tunguses . The diffusion of the book was hardly so rapid as has been some-times alleged . We know from Gilles See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

Mallet's catalogue of the books collected in the Louvre by See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles V., dating c . 1370-1375, that five copies of Marco Polo's work were then in the collection; but on the other hand, the 202 known MSS. and the numerous early printed greater popularity . See also:

• DANTE

Dante, who lived twenty-three years after the book was dictated, and who touches so many things in the seen and unseen worlds, never alludes to Polo, nor, we believe, to any-thing that can be connected with him; nor can any trace of . Polo be discovered in the book of his contemporary, Marino Sanudo the Elder, though this worthy is well acquainted with the work, later by some years, of See also:

• HAYTON (HAITITON, HETHUM)

Hayton the Armenian, and though many of the subjects on which he writes in his own book (Secreta Fidelium Crucis') See also:

• CHALLENGE (O. Fr. chalonge, calenge, &c., from Lat. calumnia, originally meaning trickery, from calvi, to deceive, hence a false accusation, a " calumny ")

challenge a reference to Polo's experiences .

" Mandeville " himself, who plundered right and left, hardly ever plunders Polo (see one example in See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

Dawn of Modern See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography, in . 323, note) . The only literary See also:

• WORKS

works we know of the 14th century which show acquaintance with Polo's book or achievements are Pipino's See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle, See also:

• VILLANI, GIOVANNI (c. 1245-1348)

Villani's Florentine History, Pietro d'See also:

• ABANO, PIETRO

Abano's Conciliator, the Chronicle of John of See also:

• YPRES (Flemish Yperen)

Ypres, and the poetical See also:

• ROMANCE

romance of Baudouin de Sebourc, which last borrows themes largely from Polo . - Within the traveller's own lifetime we find the earliest examples of the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical and truly scientific coast-charts (Portolani), based upon the experience of pilots, mariners, merchants, &c . In two of the most famous of the 14th century Portolani, we trace Marco Polo's See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence—first, very slightly in the Laurentian or Medicean Portolano of 1351 (at Florence), but afterwards with clearness and in remarkable detail in the Catalan See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas of 1375 (now at Paris) . Both of these represent a very advanced stage of medieval knowledge, a careful See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to represent the known world on the basis of collected fact, and a disregard for theological or pseudo-scientific theory; in the Catalan Atlas, as regards Central and Further Asia, and partially as regards India, Marco Polo's Book is the basis of the See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map . His names are often much perverted, and it is not always easy to understand the view that the compiler took of his itineraries . Still we have Cathay placed in the true position of China, as a great empire filling the south-east of Asia . The trans-Gangetic See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula is absent, but that of India proper is, for the first time in the history of geography, represented with a See also:

• FAIR

fair approximation to correct See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form and position . It is curious that, in the following age, owing partly to his unhappy reversion to the See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy of a circular disk, the map of Fra Mauro (1459), one of the greatest map-making enterprises in history, and the result of immense labour in the collection of facts and the endeavour to combine them, gives a much less accurate See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of Asia than the Carta catalana . See also:

• COLUMBUS
• COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -15o6)

Columbus possessed a printed copy of the Latin version of Polo's book made by Pipino, and on more than seventy pages of this there are manuscript notes in the See also:

• ADMIRAL

admiral's See also:

• HANDWRITING

handwriting, testifying, what is sufficiently evident from the whole history of the Columbian voyages, to the immense influence of the work of the Venetian See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant upon the discoverer of the new world . When, in the 16th century, attempts were made to combine new and old knowledge, the results were unhappy .

The earliest of such combinations tried to realize Columbus's ideas regarding the identity of his discoveries with the Great Khan's dominions; but even after See also:

• AMERICA

America had vindicated its See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent existence, and the new knowledge of the Portuguese had named China where the Catalan map had spoken of Cathay, the latter country, with the whole of Polo's nomenclature, was shunted to the north, forming a separate See also:

• SYSTEM

system . Henceforward the influence of Polo's work on maps was simply injurious; and when to his names was added a sprinkling of See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy's, as was usual throughout the 16th century, the result was a hotchpotch conveying no approximation to facts (see further MAP) . As to the alleged introduction of important inventions into Europe by Polo—although the striking resemblance of early European See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block-books to those of China seems clearly to indicate the derivation of the See also:

• ART

art from that country, there is no reason for connecting this introduction (any more than that of See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder or the mariner's See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass) with the name of Marco . In the 14th century not only were missions of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Church established in some of the chief cities of eastern China, but a See also:

• REGULAR

regular overland trade was carried on between See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and China, by way of See also:

• TANA

Tana (See also:

• AZOV
• AZOV, SEA OF

Azov), See also:

• ASTRAKHAN

Astrakhan, Otrar, Kamul (See also:

• HAMI

Hami) and Kanchew . Many a traveller other than Marco Polo might have brought home the block-books, and some might have witnessed the See also:

• PROCESS

process of making them . This is the less to be ascribed to Polo, because he so curiously omits to speak of the process of See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing, when, in describing the block-printed paper-See also:

• MONEY

money of China, his subject seems absolutely to challenge a description of the art . See the Recueil of the Paris Geographical Society (1824), vol. i., giving the text of the fundamental MS . (Nat . Libr . Paris, Fr . 1116; see above), as well as that of the oldest Latin version ; G . Pauthier's edition, Livre .

. . de Marco Polo . . . (Paris, 1865), based mainly upon the three Paris MSS . (Nat . Libr . Fr . 281o; Fr . 5631; Fr . 5649; see above) and accompanied by a commentary of great value; Baldelli-Boni's Italian edition, giving the oldest Italian version (Florence, 1827) ; See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• YULE
• YULE, SIR HENRY (182o-1889)

Yule's edition, which in its final shape, as revised and augmented by See also:

• HENRI

Henri Cordier ( . . . Marco Polo . . .

See also:

• LONDON

London, 1903)', is the most complete 1 Printed by See also:

• BONGARS, JACQUES (1554-1612)

Bongars in the collection called Gesta Dei per Frances (161I), ii . I-281 . storehouse of Polo learning in existence, embodying the labours See also:

• GOAL

goal-hitters and their scoring is higher . They defeated the See also:

• ENGLISH

English players in 1909 with ease . Polo was first played in England by the loth Hussars in 1869 . The See also:

• GAME

game spread rapidly and some good See also:

• PLAY

play was seen at Lillie See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge . But the organization of polo in England dates from its See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption by the Hurlingham See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club in 1873 . The ground was boarded along the sides, and this See also:

• DEVICE

device, which was employed as a remedy for the irregular shape of the Hurlingham ground has become almost universal and has greatly affected the development of the game . The club See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee, i11 1874, See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up the first See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of rules, which reduced the number of players to five a See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and included offside . The next step was the foundation of the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

Champion See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

Cup, in 1877 . Then came the See also:

• RULE

rule dividing the game into periods of ten minutes, with intervals of two minutes for changing ponies after each period, and five minutes at half-time . The height of ponies was fixed at 14.2, and a little later an official measurer was appointed, no See also:

• PONY
• PONY (from the Lowland Scots powney, probably from 0. Fr. pouleriet, diminutive of poulain, a colt or foal; Late Lat. pullanus, Lat. pullus, a young animal)

pony being allowed to play unless registered at Hurlingham .

The next See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was the present See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of penalties for offside, foul riding or dangerous play . A See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time after, the crooking of the adversary's stick, unless in the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of hitting the See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

ball, was forbidden . The game See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew faster, partly as the result of these rules . Then the ten minutes' rule was revised . The period did not close until the ball went over the boundary . Thus the period might be ex-tended to twelve or thirteen minutes, and although this time was deducted from the next period the See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain of the extra minutes was too great on men and ponies . It was therefore laid down that the ball should go out of play on going out of See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds or striking the See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board, whichever happened first . In 1910 a polo See also:

• HANDICAP

handicap was established, based on the See also:

• AMERICAN

American system of estimating the number of goals a player was See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth to his side . This was modified in the English handicap by assigning to each player a handicap number as at See also:

• GOLF (in its older forms GOFF, GOUFF or GOWFF, the last of which gives the genuine old pronunciation)

golf . The highest number is ten, the lowest one . The Hurlingham handicap is revised during the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, again in May, June and July, each handicap coming into force one month after the date of issue . In tournaments under handicap the individual handicap See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers are added together, and the team with the higher aggregate concedes goals to that with the See also:

• LOWER

lower, according to the conditions of the See also:

• TOURNAMENT, or TOURNEY (Fr. tournement, tournoi, Med. Lat. torneamentum, from tourner, to turn)

tournament .

The handicap serves to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide second from first class tournaments, for the former teams must not have an aggregate over 25 . The See also:

• SIZE

size of the polo ground is 300 yds. in length and from 16o to 200 yds. in width . The larger size is only found now where boards are not used . The ball is made of See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root, is 3} in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter, See also:

• WEIGHT

weight not over 5i oz . The polo stick has no See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard size or weight, and square or See also:

• CIGAR

cigar-shaped heads are used at the discretion of the player . On soft grounds, the former, on hard grounds the latter are the better, but Indian and American players nearly always prefer the cigar shape . The goal posts, now generally made of See also:

• PAPIER

papier m5.che, are 8 yds. apart . This is the goal line . See also:

• THIRTY

Thirty yards from the goal line a line is marked out, nearer than which to the goal no one of a fouled side may be when the side fouling has to See also:

• HIT

hit out, as a See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty from behind the back line, which is the goal line produced . At 50 yds. from each goal there is generally a mark to See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide the man who takes a See also:

• FREE

free hit as a penalty . Penalties are awarded by the umpires, who should be two in number', well mounted, and with a good knowledge of the rules of the game . The Hurlingham and See also:

• RANELAGH

Ranelagh clubs appoint official umpires .

There should also be a See also:

• REFEREE

referee in case of disagreement between the umpires, and it is usual to have a man with a See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag behind each goal to See also:

• SIGNAL

signal when a goal is scored . The Hurlingham club makes and revises the rules of the,game, and its code is, with some See also:

• LOCAL

local modifications, in force in the See also:

• UNITED

United Kingdom, English-speaking colonies, the See also:

• ARGENTINE

Argentine Republic, See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, and throughout Europe . America and India are governed by their own polo associations . The American rules have no offside, and their penalties consist of subtracting a goal or the fraction of a goal, according to the offence, from the side which has incurred a penalty for fouling . The differences between the Hurlingham and Indian rules of all the best students of the subject, and giving the essence of such works as those of See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major P . See also:

• MOLESWORTH, MARY LOUISA (1839- )
• MOLESWORTH, ROBERT MOLESWORTH, 1ST VISCOUNT (1656-1725)
• MOLESWORTH, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Molesworth Sykes (Ten Thousand See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles in Persia, &c.) so far as these See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch Marco Polo; the See also:

• ARCHIMANDRITE (from Gr. apxcov, a ruler, and µav3pa, a fold or monastery)

Archimandrite See also:

• PALLADIUS, RUTILIUS TAURUS AEMILIANUS

Palladius Katharov's " Elucidations of Marco Polo " (from vol. x. of the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of the North China See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1876), pp . 1–54; F. von Richthofen, Letters to Shangai Chamber of Commerce; E . C . Baber, Travels . . in Western China; G . See also:

• PHILLIPS
• PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE (1833-1882)
• PHILLIPS, EDWARD (163o-1696)
• PHILLIPS, JOHN (1800—1874)
• PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1814—1854)
• PHILLIPS, STEPHEN (1868– )
• PHILLIPS, THOMAS (1770-1845)
• PHILLIPS, WENDELL (1811-1884)

Phillips, Identity of . . .

Zaitun with Changchau in T'oung Pao (Oct . 1890), and other studies in T'oung-Pao (Dec . 1895 and July 1896) . There are in all lo French editions of Polo as well as 4 Latin editions, 27 Italian, 9 See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, 4 See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish, I Portuguese, 12 English, 2 Russian, 1 Dutch, I Bohemian (Chekh), I Danish and 1 See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish . See also E . See also:

• BRETSCHNEIDER, KARL GOTTLIEB (1776—1848)

Bretschneider, Mediaeval Researches from Eastern Asiatic See also:

• SOURCES

Sources, i . 239, 167; ii . 8, 71, 81–84, 184; See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon Cahun, Introduction a l'histoire de l'Asie, 339, 386; C . See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii . 15—160, 545-547, 554, 556-563 . (H . Y.; C .

R .