PRESBYTERIANISM  , a highly organized See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government in which presbyters or elders occupy a prominent See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . As one of the three See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal systems of ecclesiastical polity known to the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Church, Presbyterianism occupies an intermediate position between See also:

• EPISCOPACY (from Late Lat. episcopatus, the office of a bishop, episcopas)

episcopacy and See also:

• CONGREGATIONALISM

congregationalism . A brief comparison with these will indicate its salient features . In episcopacy the supreme authority is a diocesan See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop; in congregationalism it is the members of the See also:

• CONGREGATION (Lat. congregatio, a gathering together, from cum, with, grex, gregis, a flock, herd)

congregation assembled in church See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting; in Presbyterianism it is a church See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council composed of representative presbyters . In episcopacy the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of church affairs is almost entirely withdrawn from the See also:

• PEOPLE

people; in congregationalism it is almost entirely exercised by the people; in Presbyterianism it rests with a council composed of duly appointed See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office-bearers chosen by the people . The ecclesiastical unit in episcopacy is a See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese, comprising many churches and ruled by a See also:

• PRELATE (Lat. praelatus, set above, from praefero, prefer)

prelate; in congregationalism it is a single church, self-governed and entirely See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of all others; in Presbyterianism it is a See also:

• PRESBYTERY

presbytery or council composed of ministers and elders representing all the churches within a specified See also:

• DISTRICT

district . It may be said broadly, therefore, that in episcopacy the government is monarchical; in congregationalism, democratic; and in Presbyterianism, aristocratic or representative . I.—THE See also:

• SYSTEM

SYSTEM DESCRIBED As compared with the Church of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England (Episcopal) in which there are three orders of See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy—bishops, priests and deacons, One See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order. the Presbyterian Church recognizes but one spiritual order, viz. presbyters . These are ecclesiastically of equal See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, though differentiated, according to their duties, as ministers who preach and administer the sacraments, and as elders who are associated with the ministers in the oversight of the people . There are deacons in Presbyterianism inferior in rank to presbyters, their duties being regarded as non-spiritual . The membership of a Presbyterian Church consists of all who are enrolled as communicants, together with their See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children . Member- Others who See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship regularly without becoming See also:

• SHIP

ship. communicants are called adherents .

Only com- municants exercise the rights of membership . They elect the See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister and other office-bearers . But, in contrast with Congregationalism, when they elect and " See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call " a minister their See also:

• ACTION

action has to be sustained by the presbytery, which See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges of his fitness for that particular See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere, of the measure of the congregation's unanimity, and of the adequacy of See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial support . When satisfied, the presbytery proceeds with the ordination and See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction . The ordination and induction of ministers is always the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of a presbytery . The ordination and induction of elders in some branches of the Church is the act of the See also:

• KIRK, SIR JOHN (1832- )

kirk-session; in others it is the act of the presbytery . The kirk-session is the first of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• COUNCILS

councils or church courts which are an essential feature of Presbyterianism . It Kirk- consists of the ministers and ruling elders . The minister Kirson. is ex officio See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president or See also:

• MODERATOR (from Lat. moderare, to impose a modus, limit)

moderator . Without his presence or the presence of his duly-appointed See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy the meeting would not be in order nor its proceedings valid . The moderator has not a deliberative, but only a casting See also:

• VOTE

vote . (This is true of the moderator in all the church courts.) Neither the session nor the congregation has See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction over the minister .

He holds his office ad vitam See also:

• AUT

aut culpam; he cannot demit it or be deprived of it without consent of the presbytery . In this way his See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence among the people to whom he ministers is to a large extent secured . The kirk-session has oversight of the congregation in regard to such matters as the See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours of public worship, the arrangements for See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the sacraments, the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of new members and the exercise of church discipline . New members are either catechumens or members transferred from other churches, The former are received after See also:

• SPECIAL

special instruction and profession of faith; the latter on presenting a certificate of church membership from the church which they have See also:

• LEFT

left . Though the admission of new members is, strictly speaking, the act of the session, this See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty usually devolves upon the minister, who reports his See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure tothe session for approval and See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation . Matters about which there is any doubt or difficulty, or See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion in the session, may be carried for See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement to the next higher See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, the presbytery . The presbytery consists of all the ministers and a selection of the ruling elders from the congregations within a prescribed See also:

• AREA

area . The presbytery chooses its moderator periodically from The among its ministerial members . His duty is to see Prespytery. that business is transacted according to Presbyterian principle and procedure . The moderator has no special See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power or supremacy over his brethren, but is honoured and obeyed as See also:

• PRIMUS, MARCUS ANTONIUS

primus inter pares . The See also:

• WORK

work of the presbytery is episcopal . It has oversight of all the congregations within its See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds; hears references from kirk-sessions or appeals from individual members; sanctions the formation of new congregations; superintends the See also:

• EDUCATION

education of students for the See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry; stimulates and guides See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral and evangelistic work; and exercises discipline over all within its bounds, including the ministers .

Three members, two of whom must be ministers, form a See also:

• QUORUM (Lat. for " of whom ")

quorum; a small number compared with the important business they may have to transact, but the right of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to a higher court is perhaps sufficient safe-guard against abuse . Presbytery meetings are either See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary or occasional . The former are held at prearranged intervals . Occasional meetings are either in hunc effectum or See also:

• PRO

pro re nata . The presbytery fixes the former for specific business; the latter is summoned by the moderator, either on his own initiative or on the requisition of two or more members of presbytery, for the transaction of business which has suddenly emerged . The first question considered at a pro re nata meeting is the action of the moderator in calling the meeting . If this is approved the meeting proceeds; if not, the meeting is dissolved . Appeals and complaints may be taken from the presbytery to the See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod . The synod is a provincial council which consists of the ministers and representative elders from all the congregations within a specified number of presbyteries,- in the same way as The Synod the presbytery is representative of a specified number of congregations . Though higher in rank and larger than most presbyteries it is practically of less importance, not being, like the presbytery, a court of first instance, nor yet, like the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly, a court of final appeal . The synod at its first meeting chooses a minister as its moderator whose duties, though somewhat more restricted, are similar to those of presbyterial moderators . The synod hears appeals and references from presbyteries; and by its discussions and decisions business of various kinds, if not settled, is ripened for See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration and final settlement by the general assembly, the supreme court of the Church .

The general assembly is representative of the whole Church, either, as in the Irish General Assembly, by a minister and See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder sent See also:

• DIRECT

direct to it from every congregation, or, as in the TheQenerai Scottish General Assemblies, by a proportion of dele- Assembly . See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates, ministers and elders from every presbytery . The general assembly annually at its first meeting chooses one of its ministerial members as moderator . He takes See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence, primus inter pares, of all the members, and is recognized as the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Church during his See also:

• TERM

term of office . His position is one of See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour and See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, but he remains a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

presbyter, without any special See also:

• RULE

rule or jurisdiction . The general assembly reviews all the work of the Church; settles controversies; makes administrative See also:

• LAWS

laws; directs and stimulates missionary and other spiritual work; appoints professors of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology; admits to the ministry applicants from other churches; hears and decides complaints, references and appeals which have come up through the inferior courts; and takes See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance of all matters connected with the Church's interests or with the general welfare of the people . As a judicatory it is the final court of appeal; and by it alone can the graver censures of church discipline be reviewed and removed . The general assembly meets once a See also:

• YEAR

year at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and place agreed upon and appointed by its predecessor . By means of this series of conciliar courts the unity of the Church is secured and made See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest; the combined, simultaneous effort of the whole is made possible; and disputes, instead of Conciliar being fought out where they arise, are carried for See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle- Courts . ment to a larger and higher judicatory, See also:

• FREE

free from See also:

• LOCAL

local feeling and See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice . As See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the church courts is the right of all, and involves but slight expense, the See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty of even the humblest member of the Church is safeguarded, and local oppression or injustice is rendered difficult . The weak point in the system is that episcopal superintendence being exercised in every See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case by a See also:

• PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality of individuals there is no one, moderator or See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

senior member, whose special duty it is to take initial action when the unpleasant work of judicial investigation or ecclesiastical discipline becomes necessary .

This has led in some quarters to a See also:

• DESIRE

desire that the moderator should be clothed with greater responsibility and have his See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of office prolonged; should be made, in fact, more of a bishop in the See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican sense of the word . Though the See also:

• JUS

jus divinum of presbytery is not now insisted upon as in some former times, Presbyterians claim that it is the church polity set forth in the New Testament . The case is usually stated somewhat as follows . With the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction and under the guidance of the Apostles, See also:

• OFFICERS

officers called elders and deacons were appointed in every newly-formed church.' They were elected by New the people, and ordained or set apart for their sacred Testament work by the Apostles.' The elders were appointed to Authority. See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach and rule;' the deacons to minister to the poor.' There were elders in the church at See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem,' and in the church at See also:

• EPHESUS
• EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF

Ephesus;' See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul and See also:

• BARNABAS

Barnabas appointed elders in the cities of See also:

• LYCAONIA

Lycaonia and See also:

• PISIDIA

Pisidia;' Paul left See also:

• TITUS
• TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS
• TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO

Titus in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete to appoint elders' in every See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city ;3 the elders amongst the strangers scattered throughout See also:

• PONTUS

Pontus, See also:

• GALATIA

Galatia, See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia, See also:

• ASIA

Asia and See also:

• BITHYNIA (BtOvpta)

Bithynia received a special exhortation by See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter.9 These elders were rulers, and the only rulers in the New Testament Church . Just as in the See also:

• SYNAGOGUE (avvaywyii)
• SYNAGOGUE, UNITED

synagogue there was a plurality of rulers called elders, so there was in every Christian church a plurality of elders . The elders were different from the deacons, but there is no indication that any one elder was of higher rank than the others . The elder was not an officer inferior and subordinate to the bishop . The elder was a bishop . The two titles are applied to the same persons . See Acts xx . 17, 28; " he sent and called for the elders of the church ... . Take heed to all the See also:

• FLOCK

flock over which the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages; O.E. vest, Dutch, 'geest, Ger. Geist)

Ghost hath made you bishops." See also Titus i .

5, 6: " ordain elders . . . for a bishop must be blameless." This is now admitted by See also:

• MODERN

modern expositors.10 The elders were chosen by the people . This is not expressly stated in the New Testament but is regarded as a necessary inference . When an apostle was about to be chosen as successor to Judas, the people were invited to take See also:

• PART

part in the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election ;I' and when deacons were about to be appointed the Apostles asked the people to make the choice." It is inferred that elders were similarly chosen . It is worthy of See also:

• NOTICE

notice that there is no See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account at all of the first See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of elders as there is of deacons . Probably the recognition and appointment of elders was simply the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer from the synagogue to the Church of a usage which was regarded as essential among See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews; and the See also:

• GENTILE
• GENTILE, C

Gentile churches naturally followed the example of the Jewish Christians.13 The elders thus chosen by the people and inducted to their office by the Apostles acted as a church court . Only thus could a plurality of rulers of equal rank act in an efficient and orderly way . They would See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge their pastoral duties as individuals, but when a See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn ecclesiastical act, like ordination, was performed, it would be done, as in the case of See also:

• TIMOTHY
• TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO
• TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO

Timothy, by " the laying on of the hands of the presbytery ";14 and when an authoritative decision had to be reached, as in regard to See also:

• CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut)

circumcision, a synod or court was called together for the purpose." The action of Paul and Barnabas at See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch" seems to See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord with Presbyterian rather than Congregational polity . - The latter would have required that the question should have been settled by the church at Antioch instead of being referred to Jerusalem . And the decision of the council at Jerusalem was evidently more than advisory; it was authoritative and meant to be binding on all the churches." The principle of ministerial parity which is fundamental in Presbyterian-ism is founded not merely on apostolic example but on the words of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ Himself: " Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles exercise dominion over them, and they that are great exercise authority upon them . But it shall not be so among you." 18 From the foregoing outline it will be seen that Presbyterianism may be said to consist in the government of the Church by representative assemblies composed of the two Alternative Deflattlons.classes of presbyters, ministers and elders, and so arranged as to manifest and realize the visible unity of the whole Church . Or it may be described as denying (i) that the apostolic office is perpetual and should still exist in the Christian Church; (2) that all church power should be vested in the clergy; (3) that each congregation should be independent of all the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest; and as asserting (I) that the people ought to have a substantial part in the government of the Church; (2) that presbyters, i.e. elders or bishops, are the highest permanent officers in the Church and are of equal rank; (3) that an outward and visible Church is one in the sense that a smaller part is controlled by a larger and all the parts by the whole.19 Though Presbyterians are unanimous in adopting the general system of church polity as here outlined, and in claiming New Phil. i .

1 . 9 Acts xx . 17 . 2 Acts vi . 2-6 . Acts xiv . 23 . • i Tim. v . 17; Titus i . 9 . 3 Titus i . 5 .

• Acts vi . 1, 2 . 9 I Peter v . 1 . Acts xi . 29, xv . 2, 4, 6, xvi . 4 . 10 See Bishop See also:

• LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675)
• LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889)

Lightfoot's exhaustive See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay in his See also:

• VOLUME

volume on the See also:

• EPISTLE

Epistle to the See also:

• PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Philippians . '' Acts i . 15-26 . " Acts xv .

6-2o . 12 Acts vi . 2-6 . " Acts xv . 2 . u Acts xiv . 23 . " Acts xvi . 4 . 14 Timothy iv . 14 . 18 Matt. xx.25, 26 ; See also:

• LUKE
• LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

Luke xxii.2 5, 26 .

19 Proceedings of Seventh General Council of the See also:

• ALLIANCE

Alliance of Re-formed Churches holding the Presbyterian System (See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington, 1899) Testament authority for it, there are certain See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of view in regard to details which may be noticed . There is no doubt that considerable indefiniteness in regard to the precise status and rank of the ruling elder is See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin- Divergent views. monly prevalent . When ministers and elders are associated in the membership of a church court their equality is admitted; no such See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea as voting by orders is ever entertained . Yet even in a church court inequality, generally speaking, is visible to the extent that an elder is not usually eligible for the moderator's See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair . In some other respects also a certain disparity is apparent between a minister and his elders . Practically the minister is regarded as of higher See also:

• STANDING

standing . The duty of teaching and of administering the sacraments and of always presiding in church courts being strictly reserved to him invests his office with a dignity and influence greater than that of the elder . It was inevitable, therefore, that this question as to the exact status of the ruling elder should claim See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention in the discussions of the See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan-Presbyterian Alliance . At its meeting in See also:

• BELFAST

Belfast in 1884 a See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report was submitted by a " See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee on the eldership " which had been previously appointed . According to this committee there are prevalent three distinct theories in regard to the office and See also:

• FUNCTION

function of ruling elders: I . That while the New Testament recognizes but one order of presbyters there are in this order two degrees or classes, known as teaching elders and ruling elders . In teaching, in Theories of dispensing the sacraments, in presiding over public the ThRum, eories o worship, and in the private functions by which he Blden ministers to the comfort, the instruction and the improve- ment of the people committed to his care, a pastor acts within his See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish (or congregation) according to his own discretion; and for the discharge of all the duties of the pastoral office he is accountable only to the presbytery from whom he received the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the parish (or congregation) .

But in everything which concerns what is called discipline—the exercise of that jurisdiction over the people with which the office-bearers of the church are conceived to be invested, he is assisted by See also:

• LAY

lay-elders . They are laymen in that they have no right to teach or to dispense the sacraments, and on this account they fill an office in the Presbyterian Church inferior in rank and power to that of the pastors . Their See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar business is expressed by the term " ruling elders." 20 II . A second theory is contended for by Principal See also:

• CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788–1866)
• CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865– )
• CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719–1796)
• CAMPBELL, JOHN
• CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775)
• CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861)
• CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS
• CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908)
• CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867— )
• CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777—1844)

Campbell in his See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on the eldership, and by others also, that there is no See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant in Scripture for the eldership as it exists in the Presbyterian Church; that the ruling elder is not, and is not designed to be, a counterpart of the New Testament elder; in other words, that he is not a presbyter, but only a layman chosen to represent the laity in the church courts and permitted to assist in the government of the church . The practice of the Presbyterian churches of the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day is in accord with the first-named theory . Where attempts are made to reduce the third theory to practice the result is not satisfactory . Nor is the first-named Practseicnte. day theory less in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with Scripture teaching than the third . In the initial stages of the Apostolic Church it was no doubt sufficient to have a plurality of presbyters with absolutely similar duties and See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers . At first, indeed, this may have been the only possible course . But apparently it soon became desirable and perhaps necessary to specialize the work of teaching by setting apart for that duty one presbyter who should withdraw from See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular occupation and devote his whole time to the work of the ministry . There seems to be See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of this in the later writings of the New Testament.2' It is now held by all Presbyterian churches that one presbyter in every congregation should have specially committed to him the work 2° See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill's View of the Constitution of the Church of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, pp . 37, 38 .

2' 1 Tim. iv . 15, v . 17; See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Col. iv . 17 . of teaching, administering the sacraments, visiting the flock pastorally, and taking oversight, with his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow elders, of all the interests of the church . To See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share with the minister such general oversight is not regarded by intelligent and influential laymen as an incongruous or unworthy office; but to identify the duties of the eldership, even in theory, with those of the minister is a sure way of deterring from accepting office many whose counsel and influence in the eldership would be in-valuable.' Another subject upon which there is a difference of opinion in the Presbyterian churches is the question of Church Establishments . The view, originally held by all Presbyterian churches in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

Continent, that See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union with and support by the See also:

• CIVIL

civil government are not only lawful but also desirable, is now held only by a minority, and is practically exemplified among See also:

• ENGLISH

English-speaking Presbyterians only in the Church of Scotland (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF) . The See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law-fulness of Church Establishments with due qualifications is perhaps generally recognized in theory, but there is a growing tendency to regard connexion with the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state as inexpedient, if not actually contrary to See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound Presbyterian principle . That this tendency exists cannot be doubted, and there is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to fear that its influence, by identifying Presbyterianism with dissent in England and Scotland, is unfavourable to the general See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the Presbyterian Church . Those who favour state connexion and those who oppose it agree in claiming spiritual independence as a fundamental principle of Presbyterianism . That principle is spiritual /n- equally opposed to Erastianism and to Papacy, dependence. to the civil power dominating the Church, and to the ecclesiastical power dominating the state . All Presbyterians admit the supremacy of the state in things secular, and they claim supremacy for the Church in things spiritual .

Those who favour a Church See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

Establishment hold that Church and state should each be supreme in its own sphere, and that on these terms a union between them is not only lawful but is the highest exemplification of Christian statesmanship . So See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as these two See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres are at all points clearly distinct, and so long as there is a desire on the part of each to recognize the supremacy of the other, there is little danger of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction or collision . But when spiritual and secular interests come into unfriendly contact and entanglement; when controversy in regard to them becomes inevitable; from which sphere, the spiritual or the civil, is the final decision to come ? Before the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation the Church would have had the last word; since that event the right and the duty of the civil power have been generally recognized . The origin of Presbyterianism is a question of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• INTEREST

interest . By some it is said to have begun at the Reformation; Origin by some it is traced back to the days of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt; by most, however, it is regarded as of later Jewish origin, and as having come into existence in its present form simultaneously with the formation of the Christian Church . The last is Bishop Lightfoot's view . He connects the Christian ministry, not with the worship of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple, in which were priests and sacrificial See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual, but with that of the synagogue, which was a local institution providing spiritual edification by the See also:

• READING

reading and exposition of Scripture .3 The first Christians were regarded, even by themselves, as a Jewish See also:

• SECT

sect . They were spoken of as " the way."4 They took with them, into the new communities which they formed, the Jewish polity or rule and oversight by elders . The appointment of these would be regarded as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of course, and would not seen to call for any special notice in such a narrative as the Acts of the Apostles . But Presbyterianism was associated in the 2nd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century with a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of episcopacy . This episcopacy was at first rather congregational than diocesan; but the tendency of its growth was undoubtedly towards the latter .

Hence for See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that their ' Report of Proceedings, Third General Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches, &c . (1884), pp . 373 seq. and App. p . 131. z See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

Exodus iii . 16; iv . 29 . ' St Luke iv . 16 seq . ' Acts ix . 2.church polity is apostolic Presbyterians are accustomed to appeal to the New Testament and to the time when the apostles were still living; and for proof of the apostolicity limo,* of prelacy Episcopalians appeal rather to the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Episcopacy . Church fathers and to a time when the last of the Apostles had just passed away.' It is generally admitted that distinct traces of Presbyterian polity are to be found in unexpected quarters (e.g . See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, See also:

• IONA

Iona, the See also:

• CULDEES

Culdees, &c.) from the early centuries of church See also:

• HISTORY

history and throughout the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval ages down to the Reformation of the 16th century .

Only in a very modified sense, therefore, can it be correctly said to date from the Reformation . At the Reformation the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible was for the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of both priests and people a new See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery . The study of it See also:

• SHED

shed floods of See also:

• LIGHT

light upon all church questions . The leaders of the The Reformation searched the New Testament not only for Reformers. doctrinal truth but also to ascertain the polity of the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive Church . This was specially true of the Reformers in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, Scotland, See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland and in some parts of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther gave little attention to New Testament polity, though he believed in and clung passionately to the universal priesthood of all true Christians, and rejected the idea of a sacerdotal See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste . He had no See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream or See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of the Church's spiritual independence and See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative . He was content that ecclesiastical supremacy should be with the civil power, and he believed that the work of the Reformation would in that way be best preserved and furthered . In no sense can his " consistorial " system of church government be regarded as Presbyterian . It was different with the Reformers outside Germany . While Luther studied the Scriptures in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of true See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and Christian See also:

• LIFE

life and was indifferent to forms of church Lpolity, they studied the New Testament not only in Leaders the search of primitive church doctrine but also of primitive Reformed church polity . One is struck by the unanimity with Church. which, working individually and often in lands far apart, they reached the same conclusions .

They did not get their ideas of church polity from one another, but See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew it directly from the New Testament . For example, See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

Row, one of the five commissioners appointed by the Scottish Privy Council to draw up what is now known as the First See also:

• BOOK

Book of Discipline, distinctly says that " they took not their example from any kirk in the See also:

• WORLD

world; no, not from See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva "; but they drew their See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan from the sacred Scriptures.' This was true of them all . They were unanimous in rejecting the episcopacy of the Church of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, the sanctity of See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy, the sacerdotal character of the ministry, the See also:

• CONFESSIONAL (Late Lat. confessionale, neut. adj. from confessionalis, " pertaining to confession," Fr. confessional, Ital. confessionale)

confessional, the propitiatory nature of the mass . They were unanimous in adopting the idea of a church in which all the members were priests under the See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord Jesus, the One High See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

Priest and Ruler; the officers of which were not mediators between men and See also:

• GOD

God, but preachers of One Mediator, Christ Jesus; not lords over God's heritage, but ensamples to the flock and ministers to render service . They were unanimous in regarding ministerial service as mainly pastoral; See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching, administering the sacraments and visiting from See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house to house; and, further, in perceiving that Christian ministers must be also spiritual rulers, not in virtue of any magical influence transmitted from the Apostles, but in virtue of their election by the Church and of their appointment in the name of the Lord Jesus . When the conclusions thus reached by many independent investigators were at length reduced to a system by See also:

• CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564)

Calvin, in his famous Institutio, it became the definite ideal of church government for all the Reformed, in contradistinction to the Lutheran, churches . Yet we do not find that the leaders of the Reformed Church succeeded in establishing at once a fully-See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed Presbyterian polity . Powerful influences hindered them from realiz- See also:

• ING

ing See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

Ear/ their ideal . We notice two . In the first place, the Hindrances . people generally dreaded the recurrence of ecclesiastical tyranny . So dreadful had been the yoke of Rome, which they had shaken off, that they feared to submit to anything similar even under See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant auspices .

When their ministers, moved by an intense desire to keep the Church pure by means of the exercise of scriptural discipline, claimed special spiritual rule over the people, it was not wonderful that the latter should have been reluctant to submit to a new spiritual despotism . So strong was this feeling in some places that it was contended that the discipline of ex-communication, if exercised at all, should be exercised only by the secular power . A second powerful influence was of a different kind, viz. municipal See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of church power . The municipal authority in those times claimed the right to exercise a censorship over the citizens' private life . Any See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt on the part of the Church to exercise discipline was resented as an intrusion . It has been a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake to think of Calvin and contemporary Reformers 'See Lightfoot's Essay in Commentary on the Epistle co the Philippians . ' See also:

• KNOX, HENRY (1750-1806)
• KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505–1572)
• KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE (1853– )

Knox, Winran, See also:

• SPOTSWOOD (SPOTTSwooD or SPOTTISwOOD), ALEXANDER (1676-1940)

Spotswood and See also:

• DOUGLAS
• DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522)
• DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721—1807.)
• DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
• DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
• DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (18,3–1861)

Douglas—all of them John—were the other commissioners . as introducing a discipline of stern repression which made the See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent gaieties of life impossible, and produced a dull uniformity of straitlaced See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners and hypocritical morals . The discipline was there before the Reformers . There were civil laws which regulated clothing, See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and social festivity . Hence friction, at times, between the Reformers and civic authorities friendly to the Reformation; not as to whether there should be " discipline " (that was never doubted) but as to whether it should be ecclesiastical or municipal . Even, therefore, where people desired the Reformation there were powerful influences opposed to the setting up of church government and to the exercise of church discipline after the manner of the apostolic Church; and one ceases to wonder at the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• COMPLETE

complete Presbyterianism in the countries which were forward to embrace and adopt the Reformation .

Indeed the more favourable the secular authorities were to the Reformation the less need was there to discriminate between civil and ecclesiastical power, and to define strictly how the latter should be exercised . We look in vain, therefore, for much more than the germs and principles of Presbyterianism in the churches of the first Reformers . Its See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution and the thorough application of its principles to actual church life came later, not in See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony or Switzer-See also:

• LAND

land, but in France and Scotland; and through Scotland it has passed to all English-speaking lands . The doctrines of Presbyterianism are those generally known as evangelical and Calvinistic . The supreme See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of Theology. belief is the Word of God in the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages . The subordinate See also:

• STANDARDS

standards have been numerous, though marked by striking agreement in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BODY

body of Christian doctrine which they set forth . Much has been done of See also:

• LATE

late years to make these subordinate standards of reformed doctrine more generally known . The following See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list is fairly complete: Switzerland.—First Helvetic See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

Confession (1536) . Geneva Confession (1J36) . Geneva See also:

• CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, teach by word of mouth)

Catechism (1545) . England.—See also:

• FORTY

Forty-two Articles (1553) . See also:

• THIRTY

Thirty-eight Articles (1563) .

Thirty-nine Articles (1571) . See also:

• LAMBETH

Lambeth Articles (1595) . Irish Articles (1615) . See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster Confession (1644-1647) . Larger and Shorter Catechisms (1647) . France.—Confessio gallicana (1559) . Scotland.—Scottish Confession (1560) . Westminster Confession (1647) . Larger and Shorter Catechisms (1647) . See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands.—Frisian Confession (1528) . Confessio belgica (1561) . Netherlands Confession (1566) .

See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary . Hungarian Confession (1562) . Bohemia . Bohemian Confession (1609) . The form of worship associated with Presbyterianism has been marked by extreme simplicity . It consists of reading of Presby- Holy Scripture, psalmody, non-liturgical See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer terian and preaching . There is nothing in the standards Worship, of the Presbyterian Church against liturgical worship . In some of the early books of order a few forms of prayer were given, but their use was not compulsory . On the whole, the preponderating preference has always been in favour of so-called extemporaneous, or free prayer; and the Westminster See also:

• DIRECTORY

Directory of Public Worship has to a large extent stereotyped the form and order of the service in most Presbyterian churches . Within certain broad outlines much, perhaps too much, is left to the choice of individual congregations . It used to be customary among Presbyterians to stand during public prayer, and to remain seated during the acts of praise, but this peculiarity is no longer maintained . The See also:

• PSALMS, BOOK
• PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER

psalms rendered into See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre were formerly the only vehicle of the Church's public praise, but See also:

• HYMNS

hymns are now also used in most Presbyterian churches.' See also:

• ORGANS

Organs used to be. regarded as contrary to New Testament example, but their use is now all but universal .

The public praise used to be led by an individual called the " See also:

• PRECENTOR (Late Lat. praecentor, from praecipere, to sing before, lead in singing)

precentor," who occupied a See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box in front of, and a little See also:

• LOWER

lower than, the See also:

• PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equivalents are Fr. chaire d'eglise