See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)  , the contracted See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of " See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

presbyter " (7rpeo-,&npos, " See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder "; see PRESBYTER), a name of See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, already mentioned in the New Testament . But in the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible the presbyters of the New Testament are called " elders," not " priests "; the latter name is reserved for ministers of pre-Christian religions, the Semitic o'in (kohdnim, sing. kohen) and o^ ?? (kemdrim), or the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek iepeIs . The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of this will appear more clearly in the sequel; it is enough to observe at See also:

• PRESENT

present that, before our English word was formed, the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a presbyter had been overlaid with others derived from pre-Christian See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest-hoods, so that it is from these and not from the etymological force of the word that we must start in considering historically what a priest is . The theologians of the Greek and Latin churches expressly found the conception of a Christian priest-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood on the See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of the Jewish See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, while the names by which the sacerdotal See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character is expressed—iepe6s, sacerdos —originally designated the ministers of sacred things in Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman heathenism, and then came to be used as See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations into Greek and Latin of the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew kohen . Kohen, iepebs, sacerdos, are, in fact, See also:

• FAIR

fair translations of one another; they all denote a See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister whose stated business was to perform, on behalf of the community, certain public See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual acts, particularly sacrifices, directed godwards . Such ministers or priests existed in all the See also:

• GREAT

great religions of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . The See also:

• TERM

term 31" a priest " is sometimes taken to include " sorcerer," but this use is open to See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism and may produce confusion . The See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close inter-relation which existed in See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive society between magic, priesthood and kingship has been indicated by Frazer in his Early See also:

• HISTORY

History of the Kingship . His remarks throw some See also:

• LIGHT

light on the early character of priesthood as well as See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king-See also:

• SHIP

ship . " When once a See also:

• SPECIAL

special class of sorcerers has been segregated from the community and entrusted by it with the See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of duties on which the public safety and welfare are believed to depend, these men gradually rise to See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power till their leaders blossom out into sacred See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings." Ac-cording to Frazer's view, " as See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time goes on the See also:

• FALLACY (Lat. fall-ax, apt to mislead)

fallacy of magic becomes more and more apparent and is slowly displaced by See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion; in other words the magician gives way to the priest . Hence the king starting as a magician tends gradually to See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange the practice of magic for the functions of See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer and See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice." We are not concerned here with the debatable question whether magic preceded religion .

Probably magic was always accompanied by some primitive form of See also:

• ANIMISM (from animus, or anima, mind or soul)

animism whether the Melanesian mana or See also:

• FETISHISM

fetishism (see Dr Haddon's Magic and Fetishism, pp . 58-62, 64-90) . The investigations which have been carried on in See also:

• RECENT

recent years by King . Tallquist and Zimmern, as well as by Briinnow and See also:

• CRAIG, JOHN (1512 ?-1600)
• CRAIG, SIR THOMAS (c. 1538–1608)

Craig, on the magic and ritual of Babylonia and See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria have been fruitful of results . The question, however, remains to be settled how far the officials and their functions, which in the much more highly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed civilization of Babylonia came to be differentiated and specialized, can be strictly included under the functions of priesthood . The See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to this question will be in many cases negative or affirmative according to our strict adherence or the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse to the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of the priest set forth above as " a minister whose stated business it was to perform on behalf of the community certain ritual acts, in some cases sacrifices (or the recitation of prayers), directed Godwards." On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the seer, diviner and See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet is a minister whose See also:

• FUNCTION

function it is to communicate See also:

• GOD

God's will or word to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . This is not a distinction which governs Zimmern and other writers . Our See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief source of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information is Zimmern's Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon: Religion, pp . 81-95, from which See also:

• LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813)

Lagrange in his Etudes sur See also:

• LES

les religions semitiquesz has chiefly derived his materials (ch. vi. p . 222 sqq.) respecting Babylonia and Assyria . Zimmern's results are summarized in K.A.T3. p . 589 sqq .

Here we find magic and soothsaying closely intertwined with priestly functions as, we shall see, was the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in early Hebrew pre-exilian days with the Kohen . It must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that primitive humanity is not governed by logical distinctions . Among the Babylonians and Assyrians the See also:

• BARD

bard (from See also:

• BARE

bare to see, inspect) was a soothsaying priest who was consulted whenever any important undertaking was proposed, and addressed his inquiries to Samas the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun god (or See also:

• ADAD

Adad) as See also:

• BEL

bel See also:

• BIRI

biri or See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord of this See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle (accompanied by the sacrifice of See also:

• LAMBS

lambs) . The signs were usually obtained from the inspection of the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver (according to Johns, that of the See also:

• LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Lamm)
• LAMB, CHARLES (1775–1834)

lamb that was sacrificed); or it took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place through birds; hence the name in this case given to the See also:

• BARN

barn of dagil insure" " See also:

• BIRD

bird inspector." Johns, however, is disposed to regard him as a distinct functionary . Sometimes See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination took place through vessels filled with See also:

• WATER

water and oil (see See also:

• OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")

OMEN and DIVINATION) . As contrasted with the bard or soothsaying priest, as he is called by Zimmern, we have the asipu, who was the priest-magician who dealt in conjurations (siptu), whereby diseases were removed, spells broken, or in expiations whereby sins were expiated . Tallquist's edition of the Maklic See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of incantations and his explanations of the ritual, and also the publications by Zimmern of the Surpu series of tablets in his Beitrdge have rendered us See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with the functions of the asipu . See See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article " Magic " in See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

Hastings's Dict . Bible, where examples are given of incantations with magical by-See also:

• PLAY

play . Also compare Jastrow's Religion of Babylonia (1898), ch. xvi., " The Magical Texts," where a See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller treatment will be found . Now, as the conjurations were addressed to the deity, asipu, according to the definition given above, comes more reasonably under the categoryof priest . But the priest belongs to the See also:

• REALM

realm of religion proper, which involves a relation of dependence on the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior power, whereas the asipu belongs to the realm of magic, which is coercive and seeks " to constrain the hostile power to give way " (Lagrange) .

There was also a third See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of priest called the zammaru, whose function it was to sing See also:

• HYMNS

hymns . In the earlier See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy we find the king holding the office of pa-te-si or isakku or (more definitely) the sangu, i.e. priest of Agur, the See also:

• PATRON

patron-deity of Assyria . This high-priestly office towaids the tutelary deity of the nation appears to have belonged to the king by virtue of his royal See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . In Babylonia under the last See also:

• EMPIRE

empire (except in the case of See also:

• NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar, who calls himself patesi "exalted priest," K.I.B. iii. p . 6o) no such high-priestly function attached to the king, for in Babylonia the priesthoods were endowed with great wealth and power, and even the king stood in See also:

• AWE, LOCH

awe of them (see johns, Babylonian and Assyrian See also:

• LAWS

Laws, Contracts and Letters, p . 212 sqq) . These powerfully-organized priesthoods, as well as the elaborate nature of their ritual and apparatus of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, must have deeply and permanently impressed the exiled Jewish community . Thus arose the more developed See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

Ezekiel's See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme (xl.-xlviii.) and of the Priestercodex and the high dignity which became attached to the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of the High Priest (reflected in the narrative of See also:

• UZZIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] is [my] strength ")

Uzziah's leprosy in 2 Chron. See also:

• XXVI

xxvi . 16-2o) . Other See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels to the sacerdotal system of the Priestercodex may here be noted . (I) According to Zimmern the barn and the agipu formed close See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds and the office passed from See also:

• FATHER

father to son . This is certainly true of the sangutu or priesthood, which was connected with a special See also:

• FAMILY

family attached to a particular temple and its worship .

(2) Johns also points out the existence of the See also:

• RAB

rab-barii, chief soothsayer, and the rab-masmasu or chief magician . (3) Bodily defects (as squinting, lack of See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth, maimed See also:

• FINGER

finger) was disqualifications for priesthood (cf . Lev. xxi . 17 sqq.) . (4) In the ritual tablets for the agipu published in Zimmern's Beitrdge, No . 26, See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

col. iii . 19 sqq., we read " that the masmasu (priest's magician) is to pass forth to the gateway, sacrifice a See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep in the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace portal, and to smear the See also:

• THRESHOLD

threshold and posts of the palace gateway right and See also:

• LEFT

left with the See also:

• BLOOD

blood of the Iamb." We are reminded of Exod. xii . 7 (P) . (5) The Babylonian term kuppuru (infin . Pael) is used of the magician-priest or agipu and means " wipe out." This confirms the view that the Hebrew See also:

• KIPPER

kipper, which appears to be a See also:

• LATE

late word (specially employed in Ezek, and P.), originally had the meaning which belongs to the Aramaic viz . " wipe off " and not " See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover " as in Arabic . Zimmern thinks that the meaning " atone" " expiate," which belongs to the Pael form of the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root k-p-r in both Aramaic and Arabic was borrowed See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor the Babylonian (cf .

See also:

• DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846– )

Driver's See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note in "See also:

• DEUTERONOMY

Deuteronomy," Int . Commentary, p . 425 sqq, and especially his article " Propitiation" in Hastings's Dict . Bible) . The Rev . C . H . W . Johns, to whom reference has already been made, demurs (in a communication to the writer) to the See also:

• FUSION

fusion of the priest and the magician, and to the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of " calling every unknown See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official a priest or a See also:

• EUNUCH (Gr. Evvoi3Xos)

eunuch." " If a Babylonian said sangu he meant one thing, by issipu another, and by ramku another . I do not deny that the same man might unite all three functions in one person . Thus a sangu had a definite See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the offerings, a masimasiu a different share . It seems to me that the priests belonged to the old families who were descended from the original tribe or See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan, &c., that founded the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, and they could not admit outsiders See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save by See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption into the family .

If a new god had a temple set up he had a new set of priests, but this priesthood descended in its See also:

• LINE

line, e.g. a Samas priest did not beget a man who became a priest of NabQ . Further `priest' implied a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar relation to the god . A soothsayer was a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general practitioner in his See also:

• ART

art, not attached to any one god or temple . Anyone could be a ramku who actually poured out libations; that a priest usually did it was no exception to that See also:

• RULE

rule . The priest was only a sort of specialist in the practice . The priest also offered prayer, interceded, &c . I cannot see that he taught . An oracle of the god came through him . If the modus operandi was akin to soothsaying it was only because that special form of soothsaying was peculiar to the particular cult of that god, and even this as a secondary development . I do not think that early priests received oracles save in dreams, &c . That magic early invaded religion is possible, but there are many traces of its being a See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element . This is not usually pointed out." Among the ancient Egyptians the See also:

• LOCAL

local god was the See also:

• PROTECTOR

protector and lord of the See also:

• DISTRICT

district .

Consequently it was the See also:

• INTEREST

interest and See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the inhabitants to maintain the cultus of the patron-deity of their city who dwelt in their midst . Moreover, in the earlier times we find the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of the See also:

• NOME

nome acting as the High Priest of the local god, but in course of time the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, represented by the king, began to an ever-increasing degree to take oversight over the more important local cults . Thus we find that the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian monarch was empowered to exercise priestly functions before all the gods . We constantly see him in the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall-paintings portrayed as a priest in the conventional attitudes before the images of the gods . In the chief sanctuaries the chief priests possessed special privileges, and it is probable that those in the immediate entourage of the king were elected to these positions . The highest See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility in the nome sought the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of priesthood in the service of the local deity . One special class called kher heb were charged with reciting the divine formulae, which were popularly held to possess magical virtue . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle empire (VIIth to XIIth Dynasties) the See also:

• LAY

lay element maintains its position in religious cultus despite its complexity . But under the new empire (Dynasties XVIIIth and following) the professional priest had attained to ominous power . The temples possessed larger estates and became more wealthy . Priests increased in number and were divided into ranks, and we find them occupying state offices, just as in Babylonia the priest acts as See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge or inspector of canals (Johns, Babyl. and Assyr . Laws, &c., p .

213) . We now turn to the priesthood as we find it in ancient See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer knows special priests who preside over ritual acts in the temples to which they are attached; but his kings also do sacrifice on behalf of their See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The king, in fact, both in Greece and in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, was the acting See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the state religion, and when the See also:

• REGAL

regal power came to an end his sacred functions were not transferred to the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary priests, but either they were distributed among high See also:

• OFFICERS

officers of state, as archons and prytanes, or the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of " king " was still preserved as that of a religious functionary, as in the case of the rex sacrorum at Rome and the See also:

• ARCHON (apywv, ruler)

archon basileus at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens . In the domestic circle the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of priesthood and natural headship was never disturbed; the Roman paterfamilias sacrificed for the whole family . On the other hand, gentes and phratriae, which had no natural head, had special priests chosen from their members; for every circle of ancient society, from the family up to the state, was a religious as well as a See also:

• CIVIL

civil unity, and had its own gods and sacred See also:

• RITES

rites . The lines of religious and civil society were identical, and, so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as they remained so, no antagonism could arise between the spiritual and the temporal power . In point of fact, in Greece and Rome the priest never attained to any considerable See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent importance; we cannot speak of priestly power and hardly even of a distinct priestly class . In Greece the priest, so far as he is an independent functionary and not one of the magistrates, is simply the elected or hereditary minister of a temple charged with " those things which are ordained to be done towards the gods " (see See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, Pol. vi . 8), and remunerated from the revenues of the temple, or by the gifts of worshippers and sacrificial dues . The position was often lucrative and always See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable, and the priests were under the special See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the gods they served . But their purely ritual functions gave them no means of establishing a considerable See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the minds of men, and the technical knowledge which they possessed as to the way in which the gods could be acceptably approached was neither so intricate nor so mysterious as to give the class a special importance .

The funds of the temples were not in their See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, but were treated as public moneys . Above all, where, as at Athens, the decision of questions of sacred See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell not to the priests but to the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of E tit-neat, one great source of priestly power was wholly lacking . There remains, indeed, one other sacred function of great importance in the ancient See also:

• WORLD

world in which the Greek priests had a share . As man approached the gods in sacrifice and prayers, so too the gods declared themselves to men by See also:

• DIVERS

divers signs and tokens, which it was possible to read by theart of Divination (q.v.) . In many nations divination and priest-hood have always gone hand in hand; at Rome, for example, the See also:

• AUGURS

augurs and the X V viri sacrorum, who interpreted the Sibylline books, were priestly colleges . In Greece, on the other hand, divination was not generally a priestly function, but it did belong to the priests of the Oracles (see ORACLE) . The great oracles, however, were of Panhellenic celebrity and did not serve each a particular state, and so in this direction also the See also:

• RISK

risk of an independent priestly power within the state was avoided.' In Rome, again, where the functions of the priesthood were politically much more weighty, where the technicalities of religion were more complicated, where priests interpreted the will of the gods, and where the pontiffs had a most important See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction in sacred things, the state was much too strong to suffer these See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from its own immediate control: the old monarchy of the king in sacred things descended to the inheritors of his temporal power; the highest civil and religious functions met in the same persons (cf . Cie . De dom. i . 1); and every priest was subject to the state exactly as the magistrates were, referring all weighty matters to state decision and then executing what the one supreme power decreed . And it is instructive to observe that when the plebeians extorted their full share of See also:

• POLITICAL

political power they also demanded and obtained See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to every priestly college of political importance, to those, namely, of the pontiffs, the augurs, and the X V viri sacrorum . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, it need hardly be said, had no hereditary priests.2 We can only glance briefly at the ancient religions of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India (See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan) .

" In See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical times the priesthood is rigidly confined to members of the See also:

• BRAHMAN

Brahman See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste, who are regarded as the representatives of God on See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . But there are indications that at an earlier date the Kshatriya or See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior caste often became priests . The power of the priesthood began with the delegation by the king of his sacrificial duties to a ` See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president ' (purohita) . This power See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew with the growing importance of the sacrifice and the complication of its ceremonial . In the See also:

• POST

post-Vedic period ` right ' or ` wrong ' simply means the exact performance or the neglect, whether intentional or unintentional—of all the details of a prescribed ritual, the centre of which was the sacrifice . At this period the priestly caste gained its unbounded power over the minds of men " (See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Rapson) . For further details as to the development of the priestly caste and See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom in India the reader must refer to BRAHMINISM; here it is enough to observe that among a religious people a priesthood which forms a close and still more an hereditary See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation, and the assistance of which is indispensable in all religious acts, must rise to See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical supremacy in society except under the strongest form of despotism, where the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign is head of the Church as well as of the state . Among the Zoroastrian Iranians, as among the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans, the aid 'of a priest to recite the sacrificial See also:

• LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. X€Zros, public, and Epyov, work; )Aetrovpy6s, a public servant)

liturgy was necessary at every offering (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. i . 132), and the Iranian priests (&llravans, later Magi) claimed, like the Brahmans, to be the highest See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of society; but a variety of conditions were lacking to give them the full place of their Indian brethren . Zoroastrianism is not a nature religion, but the result of a reform which never, under the old empire, thoroughly penetrated the masses; and the priesthood, as it was not based on family tradition, did not form a strict hereditary caste . It was open to any one to obtain entrance into the priesthood, while on the other hand it was only as a priest that he could exercise sacerdotal functions, for these were strictly reserved to priests . Accordingly the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy formed a compact hierarchy not inferior in influence to the clergy of the Christian middle ages, had great power in the state, and were often irksome even to the great king .

1 For the Greek priests, see, besides See also:

• SCHOMANN, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1793—1879)

Schomann and other See also:

• WORKS

works on Greek antiquities, See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton, Essays on Art and See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology, p . 136 seq . (from epigraphic material) . See also for Greek as well as Roman priest, art . " Sacerdos " (Sacerdotium) in Warre Cornish's Concise See also:

• DIET

Diet. of Greek and Roman Antiquities . 2 On the Roman priests, see in general See also:

• MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812–1882)

Marquardt, Romische Slaatsverwaltung, vol. iii., and for the pontiffs in particular the art . Sacerdos " in Warre Cornish's Concise Dict., also See also:

• PONTIFEX

Pontifex . But the best established hierarchy is not so powerful as a caste, and the monarchs had one strong hold on the clergy by retaining the patronage of great ecclesiastical places, and another in the fact that the Semitic provinces on the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris, where the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital lay, were mainly inhabited by men of other faith) . The duties of the priests were not restricted to the services of the temple, but they also took See also:

• PART

part in the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household cults . The ritual had a See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical character and was by no means attractive . It is impossible to enter into the manifold details of the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire cultus which forms the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main part of the worship in the Avesta . They belong to an earlier period than the Zoroastrian, nor was this fire cultus restricted to the temples .

Portable fire altars were carried about and the worship could be celebrated in any spot . It may be noted that in all the ceremonies in the religion of the Avesta, incantations, prayers and confessions play a very large part . The prevailing element in the incantations consists in the See also:

• EXORCISM (Gr. EEop,d av, to conjure out)

exorcism of devils . In fact, the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian religion throughout all its multitude of purifications, observances and expiations was a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant warfare against impurity, See also:

• DEATH

death and the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil . Amid all the ceremonialism of its priesthood there were also high ideals set forth in Zoroastrian religion of what a priest should be . Thus we read in Vendidad xviii., " Many there be, See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble Zarathustra, who See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the mouth bandage, who have yet not girded their loins with the law . If such a one says ` I am an Athravan ' he lies, See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call him not Athravan, noble Zarathustra, said Ahura Mazda, but See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou shouldst call him priest, noble Zarathustra, who sits awake the whole See also:

• NIGHT

night through and yearns for See also:

• HOLY

holy wisdom that enables man to stand on death's See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge fearless and with happy See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart, the wisdom whereby he attains the holy and glorious world of See also:

• PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

paradise." In this rapid glance at some of the chief priesthoods of antiquity we have hitherto passed over the pure Semites, whose priesthoods call for closer examination because of the profound influence which one of them—that of the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews—has exercised on See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, and so on the whole history of the See also:

• MODERN

modern world . But before we proceed to this it may be well to note one or two things that come out by comparison of the systems already before us . Priestly acts—that is, acts done by one and accepted by the gods on behalf of many—are See also:

• COMMON

common to all See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique religions, and cannot be lacking where the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary subject of religion is not the individual but the natural community . But the origin of a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate priestly class, distinct from the natural heads of the community, cannot be explained by any such broad general principle; in some cases, as in Greece, it is little more than a See also:

• MATTER

matter of convenience that part of the religious duties of the state should be confided to special ministers charged with the care of particular temples, while in others the intervention of a special priesthood is indispensable to the validity of every religious See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, so that the priest ultimately becomes a mediator and the vehicle of all divine See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace . This position, we see, can be reached by various paths: the priest may become indispensable through the growth of ritual observances and precautions too complicated for a layman to See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, or he may lay claim to special nearness to the gods on the ground, it may be, of his See also:

• RACE

race, or, it may be, of habitual practices of purity and See also:

• ASCETICISM

asceticism which cannot be combined with the duties of ordinary See also:

• LIFE

life, as, for example, See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy was required of priestesses of See also:

• VESTA (Gr. 'Errata)

Vesta at Rome . But the highest developments of priestly influence are hardly separable from something of magical superstition, the See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

opus operatum of the priest has the power of a sorcerer's spell .

The strength of the priesthood in See also:

• CHALDAEA

Chaldaea and in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt stands plainly in the closest connexion with the survival of a magical element in the state religion, and Rome, in like manner, is more priestly than Greece, because it is more superstitious . In most cases, however, where an ancient civilization shows us a strong priestly system we are unable to make out in any detail the steps by which that system was elaborated; the clearest case perhaps is the priesthood of the Jews, which is not less interesting from its origin and growth Cf. especially See also:

• NOLDEKE
• NOLDEKE, THEODOR (1836— )

Noldeke's See also:

• TABARI [Abu Ja'far Mahommed ibn Jarir ut-Tabari] (838-923)

Tabari, p . 450 seq.than from the influence exerted by the system long after the priests were dispersed and their See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary laid in ruins . Among the nomadic Semites, to whom the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews belonged before they settled in See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan, there has never been any developed priesthood . The acts of religion partake of the general simplicity of See also:

• DESERT

desert life; apart from the private worship of household gods and the oblations and See also:

• SALUTATIONS, or GREETINGS

salutations offered at the See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves of departed kinsmen, the ritual observances of the ancient See also:

• ARABS

Arabs were visits to the tribal sanctuary to salute the god with a See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift of See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, first-fruits or the like, the sacrifice of firstlings and vows (see See also:

• NAZARITE

NAZARITE and See also:

• PASSOVER

PASSOVER), and an occasional See also:

• PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage to discharge a See also:

• VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE)

vow at the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual feast and fair of one of the more distant holy places (see See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

MECCA) . These acts required no priestly aid; each man slew his own victim and divided the sacrifice in his own circle; the share of the god was the blood which was smeared upon or poured out beside See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone (nosb, ghabghab) set up as an See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar or perhaps as a See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of the deity . It does not appear that any portion of the sacrifice was burned on the altar, or that any part of the victim was the due of the sanctuary . We find therefore no trace of a sacrificial priesthood, but each temple had one or more doorkeepers (sadin, hajib), whose office was usually hereditary in a certain family and who had the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the temple and its treasures . The sacrifices and offerings were acknowledgments of divine See also:

• BOUNTY (through O. Fr. bontet, from Lat. bonitas, goodness)

bounty and means used to insure its continuance; the Arab was the " slave " of his god and paid him See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute, as slaves used to do to their masters, or subjects to their lords; and the See also:

• FREE

free Bedouin, trained in the solitude of the desert to habits of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute self-reliance, knew no master except his god, and acknowledged no other will before which his own should See also:

• BEND

bend . The See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice of the god might be uttered in omens which the skilled could read, or conveyed in the inspired rhymes of soothsayers, but frequently it was sought in the oracle of the sanctuary, where the sacred See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot was administered for a See also:

• FEE

fee by the sadin . The sanctuary thus became a seat of See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment, and here, too, compacts were sealed by oaths and sacrificial ceremonies . These institutions, though known to us only from See also:

• SOURCES

sources belonging to an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age when the old faith was falling to pieces, are certainly very ancient .

The fundamental type of the Arabic sanctuary can be traced through all the Semitic lands, and so appears to be older than the Semitic See also:

• DISPERSION
• DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter)

dispersion; even the technical terms are mainly the same, so that we may justly assume that the more developed ritual and priesthoods of the settled Semites sprang from a state of things not very remote from what we find among the See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen Arabs . Now among the Arabs, as we have seen, ritual service is the affair of the individual, or of a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of individuals gathered in a great feast, but still doing worship each for himself and his own private circle; the only public aspect of religion is found in connexion with divination and the oracle to which the affairs of the community are submitted . In Greece and Rome the public sacrifices were the chief function of religion, and in them the priesthood represented the ancient kings . But in the desert there is no king and no See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty save that of the divine oracle, and therefore it is from the soothsayers or ministers of the oracle that a public See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry of religion can most naturally See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring . With the beginning of a settled state the sanctuaries must rise in importance and all the functions of See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation will gather See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round them . A sacrificial priesthood will arise as the worship becomes more complex (especially as sacrifice in antiquity is a common preliminary to the consultation of an oracle), but the public ritual will still remain closely associated with oracle or divination, and the priest will still be, above all things, a revealer . That this was what actually happened may be inferred from the fact that the Canaanite and Phoenician name for a priest (kahen) is identical with the Arabic kahin, a " soothsayer." Soothsaying was no modern importation in See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia; its characteristic form—a monotonous croon of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short rhyming clauses—is the same as was practised by the Hebrew " wizards who peeped and muttered " In the days of See also:

• ISAIAH
• ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF

Isaiah, and that this form was native in Arabia is clear from its having a technical name (saj'), which in Hebrew survives only in derivative words with modified sense' The kahin, therefore, is not a degraded priest but such a soothsayer as is found in most primitive See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, and the Canaanite priests grew out of these early revealers . In point of fact some form of revelation or oracle appears to have existed in every great See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine of Canaan and See also:

• SYRIA

Syria,' and the importance of this element in the cultus may be measured from the fact that at See also:

• HIERAPOLIS

Hierapolis it was the charge of the chief priest, just as in the Levitical.legislation . But the use of kahin ' for " priest " in the Canaanite See also:

• AREA

area points to more than this: it is connected with the orgiastic character of Canaanite religion . The soothsayer differs from the priest of an oracle by giving his revelation under excitement and often in a frenzy allied to madness . In natural soothsaying this frenzy is the necessary See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of an afflatus which, though it seems supernatural to a See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude people, is really akin to poetic See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration . I Meshugga', 2 Kings ix .

II, Jer. See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 26—a term of contempt applied to prophets . (See HEBREW RELIGION.) ' For examples, see See also:

• PALMYRA

PALMYRA and See also:

• PHILISTINES

PHILISTINES; see further, See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian, De dea Syria, 36, for HierapoliS; See also:

• ZOSIMUS

Zosimus i . 58, for Aphaca; See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, H . N. See also:

• XXXVII

xxxvii . 58 (compared with Lucian, ut supra, and See also:

• MOVERS, FRANZ KARL (18o6–1856)

Movers, Phoenizier, i . 655), for the temple of Melkart at See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre . But it is soon learned that a similar physical state can be produced artificially, and at the Canaanite sanctuaries this was done on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . We see from i Kings xviii., 2 Kings x., that great See also:

• BAAL

Baal temples had two classes of ministers, kohanim and neebhiim, priests " and " prophets," and as the former bear a name which primarily denotes a soothsayer, so the latter are also a kind of priests who do sacrificial service with a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild ritual of their own How deeply the orgiastic character was stamped on the priesthoods of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north Semitic nature-worship is clear from Greek and Roman accounts, such as that of Appuleius (Metam. bk. viii.) . The Hebrews, who made the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of Canaan their own, took also the Canaanite name for a priest . But the earliest forms of Hebrew priesthocd are not Canaanite in character; the priest, as he appears in the older records of the time of the See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

Judges, See also:

• ELI (Hebrew for "high"? i Sam. chaps. i.-iv.)

Eli at See also:

• SHILOH
• SHILOH, BATTLE OF

Shiloh, See also:

• JONATHAN
• JONATHAN (Heb. " Yah [weh] gives ")

Jonathan in the private temple of See also:

• MICAH
• MICAH (r )

Micah and at See also:

• DAN

Dan, is much liker the sddin than the kahin.' The whole structure of Htorew society at the time of the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest was almost precisely that of a federation of Arab tribes, and the religious ordinances are scarcely distinguishable from those of Arabia, save only that the great deliverance of the See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

Exodus and the period when See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses, sitting in judgment at the sanctuary of Kadesh, had for a whole See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation impressed the sovereignty of See also:

• JEHOVAH (YAHWEH2)

Jehovah on all the tribes, had created an idea of unity between the scattered settlements in Canaan such as the Arabs before See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet never had . But neither in civil nor in religious life was this ideal unity expressed in fixed institutions, the old See also:

• INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. individualis, that which is not divided, an individual)

individualism of the Semitic See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad still held its ground .

Thus the firstlings, first-fruits and vows are still the free gift of the individual which no human authority exacts, and which every householder presents and consumes with his circle in a sacrificial feast without priestly aid . As in Arabia, the ordinary sanctuary is still a sacred stone (n; 2 = nofb) set up under the open See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven, and here the blood of the victim is poured out as an offering to God (see especially i Sam. xiv . 34, and cf . 2 Sam. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 16, 17) . The priest has no place in this ritual; he is not the minister of an altar,' but the See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian of a temple, such as was already found here and there in the See also:

• LAND

land for the custody of sacred images and palladia or other consecrated things (the See also:

• ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

ark at Shiloh, i Sam . 3; images in Micah's temple, Judges xvii . 5 . ; See also:

• GOLIATH

Goliath's See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword lying behind the "See also:

• EPHOD

ephod " or plated See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image at See also:

• NOB

Nob, i Sam. xxi . 9; no doubt also See also:

• MONEY

money, a See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin the Canaanite temple at See also:

• SHECHEM (mod. Nablus)

Shechem, Judges ix . 4) . Such treasures required a guardian; but, above all, wherever there was a temple there was an oracle, a kind of sacred lot, just as in Arabia (I Sam. xiv .

41, See also:

• SEPT

Sept.), which could only be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn where there was an "ephod " and a priest (I Sam. xiv . 18, Sept., and xxiii . 6 seq.) . The Hebrews had already possessed a See also:

• TENT

tent-temple and oracle of this kind in the See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness (Exod. xxxiii . 7 seq.), of which Moses was the priest and See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua the aedituus, and ever since that time the judgment of God through the priest at the sanctuary had a greater See also:

• WEIGHT

weight than the word of a seer, and was the ultimate See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of every controversy and claim (1 Sam. ii . 25; Exod . )(xi . 6, xxii . 8, 9, where for " judge," " judges," of A.J. read " God " with R.V.) . The temple at Shiloh, where the ark was preserved, was the lineal descendant of the See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic sanctuary —for it was not the place but the See also:

• PALLADIUM (Gr. sraXXit&ov)
• PALLADIUM [symbol Pd, atomic weight Io6.7 (O=16)]

palladium and its oracle that were the essential thing—and its priests claimed See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin with Moses himself . In the divided state of the nation, indeed, this sanctuary was hardly visited from beyond Mt See also:

• EPHRAIM

Ephraim; and every man or tribe that cared to provide the necessary apparatus (ephod, See also:

• TERAPHIM (A.V. sometimes transcribes, e.g. Judges xvii. 5; xviii. 14 seq.; Hosea iii. 4; sometimes translates " image," r Sam. xix. 13; " idols," Zech. x. 2; idolatry," 1 Sam. xv. 23: R.V. renders consistently "teraphim ")

teraphim, &c.) and hire a priest might have a temple and oracle of his own at which to consult Jehovah (Judges xvii., xviii.); but there was hardly another sanctuary of equal dignity . The priest of Shiloh is a much greater person than Micah's priest Jonathan; at the great i This appears even in the words used as synonyms for " priest " man, can Inc, which exactly corresponds to sadin and hajib .

That the name of ins was borrowed from the Canaanites appears certain, for that out of the multiplicity of words for soothsayers and the like common to Hebrew and Arabic (either formed from a common root or expressing exactly the same idea—'WT, ' arraf; nh, habir; mi, rs',, Nazi; See also:

• ASP ( Vipera aspis)

asp, cf. istil sam) the two nations should have chosen the same one independently to mean a priest is, in view of the great difference in character between old Hebrew and Canaanite priesthoods, inconceivable . Besides ]n- Hebrew has the word -ins (pl. oho:), which, however, is not applied to priests of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national religion . This, in fact, is the old Aramaic word for a priest (with suffixed article, kumra) . Its origin is obscure . In the Aramaic papyri discovered near Assouan (Syene) 'is priest of the gods (See also:

• COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667)
• COWLEY, HANNAH (1743-1809)
• COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY

Cowley and See also:

• SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

Sayce, Pap . E. line 15), presumably See also:

• KHNUM

Khnum and Set; and in Sachau's Pap . I. line 5, WV= definitely mean the priests of the god I3nab . This coincides with the Hebrew use of the term as idolatrous priests, Nos. x . 5; Zeph. i . 4; 2 Kings xxiii . 5 . It is not clear from 1 Sam. ii .

15 whether even at Shiloh the priest had anything to do with sacrifice, whether those who burned the See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat were the worshippers themselves or some subordinate ministers of the Temple . Certainly it was not the " priest " who did so, for he in this narrative i3 always in the singular . Hophni and Phinehas are not called priests, though they See also:

• BORE

bore the ark and so were priests in the sense of Josh. iii.feasts he sits enthroned by the See also:

• DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. Iran, Lat. porte)

doorway, preserving decorum among the worshippers; he has -certain legal dues, and, if he is disposed to exact more, no one ventures to resist (I Sam. ii . I2 seq., where the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text needs a slight correction) . The priestly position of the family survived the fall of Shiloh and the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of the ark, and it was members of this See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house who consulted Jehovah for the early kings until See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon deposed See also:

• ABIATHAR (Heb. Ebyathar, "the [divine] father is pre-eminent")

Abiathar . Indeed, though priesthood was not yet tied to one family, so that Micah's son, or Eleazar of Kirjath-jearim (I Sam. vii . 1), or See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David's sons (2 Sam. viii . 18) could all be priests, a Levite—that is, a man of Moses' tribe—was already preferred for the office elsewhere than at Shiloh (Judges xvii . 13), and such a .priest naturally handed down his place to his posterity (Judges xviii . 30) . Ultimately, Indeed, as sanctuaries were multiplied and the priests all over the land came to form one well-marked class, " Levite and legitimate priest became See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent expressions, as is explained in the article See also:

• LEVITES

LEVITES . But between the priesthood of Eli at Shiloh or of Jonathan at Dan and the priesthood of the Levites as described in Deut. xxxiii .

8 seq. there lies a period of the inner history of which we know almost nothing . It is See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain that the various priestly colleges regarded themselves as one order, that they had common traditions of law and ritual which were traced back to Moses, and common interests which had not been vindicated without a struggle (Deut., ut supra) . The kingship had not deprived them of their functions as fountains of divine judgment (cf . Deut . xvii . 8 seq.); on the contrary, the decisions of the sanctuary had grown up into a See also:

• BODY

body of sacred law, which the priests administered according to a traditional precedent . According to Semitic ideas the See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of law is quite a distinct function from the enforcing of it, and the royal executive came into no collision with the purely declaratory functions of the priests . The latter, on the contrary, must have grown in importance with the unification and progress of the nation, and in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability the consolidation of the priesthood into one class went hand in hand with a consolidation of legal tradition . And this See also:

• WORK

work' must have been well done, for, though the general corruption of society at the beginning of the Assyrian period was nowhere more conspicuous than at the sanctuaries and among the priesthood, the invective of Hos. iv. equally with the eulogium of Deut. xxxiii. proves that the position which the later priests abused had been won by ancestors who earned the respect of the nation as worthy representatives of a divine Torah . The ritual functions of the priesthood still appear in Deut. xxxiii. as secondary to that of declaring the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence of God, but they were no longer insignificant . With the prosperity of the nation, and especially through the absorption of the Canaanites and of their -holy places, ritual had become much more elaborate, and in royal sanctuaries at least there were See also:

• REGULAR

regular public offerings maintained by the king and presented by the priests (cf . 2 Kings xvi .

15) . Private sacrifices, too, could hardly be offered without some priestly aid now that ritual was more complex; the See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of Deut . xviii. as to the priestly dues is certainly ancient, and shows that besides the tribute of first-fruits and the like the priests had a fee in kind for each sacrifice, as we find to have been the case among the Phoenicians according to the sacrificial tablet of See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles . Their judicial functions also brought profit to the priests, fines being exacted for certain offences and paid to them (2 Kings xii . 16; Hos: iv . 8; See also:

• AMOS
• AMOS, SHELDON (1835–1886)

Amos ii . 8) . The greater priestly offices were therefore in every respect very important places, and the priests of the royal sanctuaries were among the grandees of the realm (2 Sam. viii . 18; 2 Kings x . I1, xii . 2); See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor offices in the sanctuaries were in the patronage of the great priests and were often miserable enough,' the See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty priest depending largely on what " customers " he could find (2 Kings xii . 7 [8]; Deut. xviii .

8) . That at least the greater offices were hereditary—as in the case of the sons of Zadok, who succeeded to the royal priesthood in See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem after the fall of Abiathar—was almost a matter of course as society was then constituted, but there is not the slightest trace of an hereditary hierarchy officiating by divine right, such as existed after the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile . The sons of Zadok, the priests of the royal See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel, were the king's servants as absolutely as any other great officers of state; they owed their place to the fiat of King Solomon; and the royal will was supreme in all matters of cultus (2 Kings xii., xvi. to seq.) ; indeed the monarchs of See also:

• JUDAH

Judah, like those of other nations, did sacrifice in person when they See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose down to the time of the captivity (1 Kings ix . 25; 2 Kings xvi . 12 seq.; Jer. See also:

• XXX

xxx . 21) . And as the sons of Zadok had no divine right as against the kings, so too they had no claim to be more legitimate than the priests of the local sanctuaries, who also were reckoned to the tribe which in the 7th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. was recognized as having been divinely set apart as Jehovah's ministers in the days of Moses (Deut. x . 8, xviii. t seq.) . The steps which prepared the way for the post-exile hierarchy, the destruction of the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern sanctuaries and priesthoods by the Assyrians, the polemic of the spiritual prophets against the corruptions of popular worship, which issued in the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

reformation of See also:

• JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah, the suppression of the provincial shrines of Judah and the transference of their ministers to Jerusalem, the successful resistance of the sons a See t Sam. ii . 36, a passage written after the hereditary dignity of the sons of Zadok at Jerusalem was well established . of Zadok to the proposal to share the sanctuary on equal terms with these new-corners, and the theoretical See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification of the degradation of the latter to the position of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere servants in the Temple supplied by Ezekiel soon after the captivity, need not here be dealt with . Further details respecting priestly offices and hereditary priesthoods and the relation of Aaronids to Zadokids will be found briefly discussed in Ency .

Bib. vol. iii. cols . 3843–3845 . Cf . Hastings's Diet . Bible, iv . 72–75 ; See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

Comb . Bib . Essays (19o9), pp . 100 seq., 112 seq . It is instructive to observe how differently the prophets of the 8th century speak of the judicial or " teaching" functions of the priests and of the ritual of the great sanctuaries . For the latter they have nothing but condemnation, but the former they acknowledge as part of the divine order of the state, while they complain that the priests have prostituted their office for See also:

• LUCRE (Lat. lucrum, gain; the Indo-European root is seen in Gr. anoTavew, to enjoy, and in Ger. Lohn, wages)

lucre . In point of fact the one rested on old Hebrew tradition, the other had taken shape mainly under Canaanite influence, and in most of its features was little more than the crassest nature-worship .

In this respect there was no distinction between the Temple of See also:

• ZION, or SION (Heb. iiag, perhaps from runs " to be dry," nqs " to set up," or is " to protect "; Arabic analogies favour the meaning " hump," " summit of a ridge," and so " citadel ")

Zion and See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether shrines, or rather it was just in the greatest sanctuary with the most stately ritual that foreign influences had most play, as we see alike in the original institutions of Solomon and in the innovations of See also:

• AHAZ (Heb. for "[Yahweh] holds ")

Ahaz (2 Kings xvi. lo seq., xxiii . II seq.) . The Canaanite influence on the later organization of the Temple is clearly seen in the association of Temple prophets with the Temple priests under the control of the chief priest, which is often referred to by See also:

• JEREMIAH

Jeremiah; even the viler ministers of sensual worship, the male and See also:

• FEMALE

female prostitutes of the Phoenician temples, had found a place on Mt Zion and were only removed by Josiah's reformation.' All this necessarily tended to make the ritual ministry of the priests more important than it had been in old times; but it was in the reign of See also:

• MANASSEH (7th cent. B.C.)
• MANASSEH (apparently Hebrew for " he who causes to for-get," but see H. W. Hogg, Encyc. Bib., s.v.); in the Bible, a tribe of Israel, the elder but less important of the "sons" of Joseph. Its seat lay to the north of Ephraim, but its boundaries can scarce

Manasseh, when the sense of divine wrath lay heavy on the people, when the old ways of seeking Jehovah's favour had failed and new and more powerful means of See also:

• ATONEMENT

atonement were eagerly sought for (Micah vi . 6 seq.; 2 Kings xxi.; and cf . MoLocx), that sacrificial functions reached their full importance . In the time of Josiah altar service and not the function of " teaching " has become the essential thing in priesthood (Deut. x . 8, xviii . 7) ; the latter, indeed, is not forgotten (Jer. ii . 8, xviii . 18), but by the time of Ezekiel it also has mainly to do with ritual, with the distinction between holy and profane, clean and unclean, with the statutory observances at festivals and the like (Ezek. xliv . 23 seq.) . What the priestly Torah was at the time of the exile can be seen from the collection of laws in Lev. xvii.–xxvi., which includes many moral precepts, but regards them equally with ritual precepts from the point of view of the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of national holiness .

The holiness of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel centres in the sanctuary, and round the. sanctuary stand the priests, who alone can approach the most holy things without profanation, and who are the guardians of Israel's sanctity, partly try protecting the one See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-place of God and man from profane contact, and partly as the mediators of the continual atoning rites by which breaches of holiness are expiated . The bases of priestly power under this system are the unity of the altar, its inaccessibility to laymen and to the inferior ministers of the sanctuary, and the specific atoning functions of the blood of priestly sacrifices . All these things were unknown in old Israel . So fundamental a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change as lies between See also:

• HOSEA

Hosea and the Priestly See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

Code was only possible in the general See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the old life of Israel produced by the Assyrians and by the prophets; and indeed the new order did not take shape as a system till the exile had made a great change in old institutions . It was meant also to give expression to the demands of the prophets for spiritual service and national holiness, but this it did not accomplish so successfully; the ideas of the prophets could not be realized under any ritual system, but only in a new See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation (Jer. xxxi . 31 seq.), when priestly Torah and priestly atonement should be no longer required . Nevertheless, the concentration of all ritual at a single point, and the practical exclusion of laymen from active participation in it—for the old sacrificial feast had now shrunk into entire insignificance in comparison with the stated priestly holocausts and atoning rites2—See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent powerful assistance to the growth of a new and higher type of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal religion, the religion which found its social expression not in material acts of See also:

• OBLATION

oblation, but in the language of the See also:

• PSALMS, BOOK
• PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER

Psalms . In the best times of the old See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom the priests had shared the place of the prophets as the religious leaders of the nation; under the second Temple they represented the unprogressive traditional See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of religion, and the leaders of thought were the psalmists and the See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes, who spoke much more directly to the piety of the nation . But, on the other hand, the material influence of the priests was greater than it had ever been before; the Temple was the only visible centre of national life in the ages of See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude to foreign power, and the priests were the only great national functionaries, who See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew to themselves all the sacred dues as a matter of right and even appropriated the See also:

• TITHES

tithes paid of old to the king . When the High Priest stood at the altar in all his princely state, when he poured i 2 Kings xxiii . 7; cf . Deut. xxiii .

18, where " See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs "=the later Galli; cf . Corp. inst. sem. i . 93 seq . 2 Cf. the impression which the ritual produced on the Greeks, See also:

• BERNAYS, JAKOB (1824-1881)

Bernays's See also:

• THEOPHRASTUS

Theophrastus, pp . 85, III seq . The influence of the Hebrew priesthood on the thought and organization of Christendom was the influence not of a living institution, for it hardly began till after the fall of the Temple, but of the theory embodied in the later parts of the See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch . Two points in this theory were laid hold of—the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of priestly See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation and the system of priestly hierarchy . The first forms the text of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument in the See also:

• EPISTLE

Epistle to the Hebrews, in which the author easily demonstrates the inadequacy of the mediation and atoning rites of the Old Testament, and builds upon this demonstration the doctrine of the effectual high-priesthood of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, who, in his sacrifice of himself, truly " led His people to God," not leaving them outside as He entered the heavenly sanctuary, but taking them with Him into spiritual nearness to the See also:

• THRONE

throne of grace . This argument leaves no See also:

• ROOM

room for a special priesthood in the Christian Church, and in fact nothing of the kind is found in the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest organization of the new communities of faith . The idea that presbyters and bishops are priests and the successors of the Old Testament priesthood first appears in full force in the writings of See also:

• CYPRIAN, SAINT [Caecilius Cyprianus, called THASCIUS] (c. 200–258)

Cyprian, and here it is not the notion of priestly mediation but that of priestly power which is insisted on . Church office is a copy of the old hierarchy . Now among the Jews, as we have seen, the hierarchy proper has for its necessary See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition the destruction of the state and the bondage of Israel to a foreign prince, so that spiritual power is the only basis left for a national See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy .

The same conditions have produced similar spiritual aristocracies again and again in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East in more modern times, and even in antiquity more than one See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental priesthood took a line of development similar to that which we have traced in See also:

• JUDAEA

Judaea . Thus the hereditary priests of Kozak (KoM were the chief dignitaries in See also:

• IDUMAEA ('ISovµai'a)

Idumaea at the time of the Jewish conquest of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country (Jos . See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

Ant. xv . 7, 9), and the High Priest of Hierapolis wore the princely See also:

• PURPLE

purple and See also:

• CROWN

crown like the High Priest of the Jews (De dea Syria, 42) . The kingly insignia of the High Priest of the sun at Emesa are described by Herodian (v . 3, 3), in connexion with the history of Elagabalus, whose See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation to the Roman purple was mainly due to the extraordinary local influence of his sacerdotal place . Other examples of priestly princes are given by See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo in speaking of See also:

• PESSINUS (IIeaatvoi3r, lleacvoiis)

Pessinus (p . 567) and Olbe (p . 672) . As no such hierarchy existed in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, it is plain that if the idea of Christian priesthood was influenced by living institutions as well as by the Old Testament that influence must be sought in the East (cf . See also:

• LIGHTFOOT, JOHN (1602-1675)
• LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER (1828-1889)

Lightfoot, See also:

• PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Philippians, p . 261) .

The further development of the notion of Christian priesthood was connected with the view that the See also:

• EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)

Eucharist (q.v.) is a See also:

• PRO

pro-. pitiatory sacrifice which only a consecrated priest can perform . It is sufficient to remark here that the presentation of the sacrifice of the mass came to be viewed as the essential priestly office, so that the Christian presbyter really was a sacerdos in the antique sense . Protestants, in rejecting the sacrifice of the mass, deny also that there is a Christian priesthood " like the Levitical," and have either dropped the name of "priest" or use it in a quite emasculated sense . For further details as to the history and doctrine of priesthood in Christendom the reader is referred to the article, " Priestertum: Priesterweihe in der Christlichen Kirche," in P.R.E., 3rd ed., Bd. xvi. p . 47 sqq . There is probably no nature religion among races above mere savagery which has not had a priesthood; but an examination of other examples would scarcely bring out any important II feature that has not been already illustrated . Among higher religions orthodox See also:

• ISLAM

Islam has never had real priests, doing religious acts on behalf of others, though it has, like See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant churches, leaders of public devotion (imams) and an important class of privileged religious teachers (`See also:

• ULEMA (Arab. 'ulama, sing. 'alim, literally " knowers," in the sense of sciences)

ulema) . But a distinction of grades of holiness gained by ascetic life has never been entirely foreign to the Eastern mind, and in the popular faith of See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan peoples something very like priesthood has crept in by this channel . For where holiness is associated with ascetic practices the masses can never attain to a perfect life, and naturally tend to lean on the professors of special sanctity as the mediators of their religious welfare . The best example, how-ever, of a full-blown priestly system with a monastic hierarchy grafted in this way on a religion originally not priestly is found in Tibetan See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism (see See also:

• LAMAISM

LAMAISM), and similar causes undoubtedly had their share in the development of See also:

• SACERDOTALISM (from Lat. sacerdos, priest, literally one who presents sacred offerings, sacer, sacred, and dare, to give)

sacerdotalism in the Christian Church . The idea of priestly asceticism expressed in the celibacy of the clergy belongs also to certain types of heathen and especially Semitic priesthood, to those above all in which the priestly service is held to have a magical or theurgic quality . (W .

R . S.; O . C .