See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the See also:

• LAT

Lat. prehensio, seizure)  , a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place for the confinement or compulsory See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint of See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

PRISON persons after See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest or See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence by arbitrary authority or See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . The earliest See also:

• OBJECT

object sought in imprisonment was to secure the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of the accused to ensure his See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance before his Bally See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges for trial, and after conviction to produce him Penalties. to take his See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment . They were applied to other uses less justifiable or defensible; they served to execute the will of the despotic See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master upon all who set them-selves in opposition to his authority, or were decreed, more or less wisely but still arbitrarily, by a See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government in the best interests of society, organized for the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

Coercion and intimidation slowly came to be leading ideas, the infliction of a lesser See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty than the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . The deprivation of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty under irksome circumstances, rough lodging, hard fare and perpetual labour was after all a milder measure than See also:

• DEATH

death, although See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long years elapsed before the prison was so used . Penal codes depended rather upon shorter and more cruel methods; the See also:

• SCAFFOLD
• SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING (from the O. Fr. escafaut, originally escafalt, modern echafaud, a corruption of the Italian or Spanish calafalco, a platform, especially a canopy over a bier, a catafalque; this word is composed of O. Span. altar, O. Ital. catare, t

scaffold was in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant use, with all manner of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain, See also:

• TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist)

torture before and after sentence, shameful exposure, hideous See also:

• MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed)

mutilation, See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile, selling into bondage as slaves . Incarceration was no doubt practised by irresponsible masters, regardless of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal rights, callous to the sufferings of their victims, to which death by See also:

• STARVATION

starvation or horrible neglect was a welcome See also:

• RELIEF

relief . But See also:

• CONSIGNMENT (from consign, Fr. consigner, Lat. consignare, to affix a signum, seal; whence, in Late Lat., to hand over, transmit)

consignment to a prison for lengthened periods was, as a penalty, of more See also:

• RECENT

recent introduction, and of still later date is the recognition of the duties See also:

• INCUMBENT (from Lat. incumbere, to lean, lie upon)

incumbent upon the authority to use its See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers mercifully by humane endeavours to reform and improve those on whom it laid hands . The progress made can only be realized by considering what prisons once were . The shocking picture See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• HOWARD (FAMILY)
• HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542)
• HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790)
• HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563–1640)
• HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-19o9)
• HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626–1698)

Howard Howard's of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of prisons at the latter end of the 18th Reforms In See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century will last for all See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . They were for the See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England. most See also:

• PART

part pestiferous See also:

• DENS, PETER (1690-1775)

dens, overcrowded, dark, foully dirty, not only See also:

• ILL

ill ventilated, but deprived altogether of fresh See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . The wretched inmates were dependent for See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food upon the caprice of their gaolers or the charity of the benevolent; See also:

• WATER

water was denied them except in the scantiest proportions; their only bedding was putrid See also:

• STRAW

straw .

Every one in See also:

• DURANCE (anc. Druentia)

durance, whether tried or untried, was heavily ironed . All alike were subject to the rapacity of their gaolers and the extortions of their See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows . See also:

• GAOL, or JAIL

Gaol fees were levied ruthlessly—" See also:

• GARNISH

garnish " also, the tax or contribution paid by each individual to a See also:

• COMMON

common fund to be spent by the whole See also:

• BODY

body, generally in drink . Idleness, See also:

• DRUNKENNESS

drunkenness, vicious intercourse, sickness, starvation, squalor, See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty, chains, awful oppression and everywhere culpable neglect—in these words may be summed up the state of the gaols at the time of Howard's visitation . At this time prisons were primarily places of detention, not of punishment, peopled by accused persons, still See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent in the eyes of the law, and debtors guilty only of breaches of the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial rules of a commercial See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, framed chiefly in the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of the creditor . Freedom from arrest was guaranteed by Magna Carta, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save on a criminal See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge, yet thousands were committed to gaol on legal See also:

• FICTIONS

fictions and retained indefinitely for See also:

• COSTS

costs far in excess of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt . The impecunious were locked up and deprived of all See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of earning means to obtain enlargement; while their families and persons dependent on them shared their imprisonment and added to the overcrowding . The prisons were always full . Gaol deliveries were of rare occurrence, even when tardy trial ended in acquittal See also:

• RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

release was delayed until illegal charges in the way of fees had been satisfied . In the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article See also:

• DEPORTATION

DEPORTATION it is shown how the discoveries in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern seas led to the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of penal exile in preference to other suggested improvements in the See also:

• ENGLISH

English prison systems . The See also:

• PENITENTIARY (med. Lat. poenitentiarius, from poenitentia, penance, poena, punishment, a term used both as adjective and substantive, referring either to the means of repentance or that of punishment. In its ecclesiastical use the word is used as the equi

penitentiary See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme proposed by Howard was not, however, abandoned . It was revised and kept alive by See also:

• JEREMY, EPISTLE OF

Jeremy See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham in his fanatical scheme for a " panopticon or inspection See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house," described as " a circular See also:

• BUILDING

building, an See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron cage. glazed, a See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass See also:

• LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa urritp, a torch or lamp, Aaµaew, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the 16th- and 17th-century form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn," as a m

lantern as large as See also:

• RANELAGH

Ranelagh, with the cells on the See also:

• OUTER

outer circumference." His See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan was to keep every inmate of every See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell under constant See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close observation, and all were to be reformed by solitude and seclusion while constantlyemployed in remunerative labour, in the profits of which they were to See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share .

The scheme hung See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, owing, it was alleged, to the personal hostility of See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George III. to Bentham as an advanced See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical . Lands were, however, See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased which were eventually taken over by the government and utilized for the erection of Millbank penitentiary, begun in 1813 and partially completed in 1816 . It was now fully recognized that the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

reformation of prisoners could best be attempted by seclusion, " employment and religious instruction." Millbank, as a new and most enlightened undertaking in prison affairs, was opened with much eclat . It was to be governed by a specially appointed See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of distinguished personages, the chairman being the See also:

• SPEAKER

Speaker of the House of See also:

• COMMONS

Commons . The sum See also:

• TOTAL

total expended upon the buildings amounted to See also:

• HALF

half a million of See also:

• MONEY

money, and the yearly charges of the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment were a heavy See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden on the See also:

• EXCHEQUER

exchequer . The erection of Millbank was a step in the right direction . The See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy with which it was undertaken was the more remarkable because elsewhere throughout the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom the prisons, with few exceptions, remained deplorably See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad . J . Neild, who in 1812 followed in the footsteps of John Howard, found that the old conditions remained unchanged . " The See also:

• GREAT

great reformation produced by Howard," to use Neild's own words, " was merely temporary . . . 'prisons were relapsing into their former horrid state of privation, filthiness, severity and neglect." Yet the legislature was alive to the need for prison reform .

Besides the building of Millbank it had promulgated many acts for the amelioration of prisoners . Gaol fees were once more distinctly abolished; the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of chaplains was insisted upon, and the erection of improved prison buildings was rendered imperative upon See also:

• LOCAL

local authorities . But these, with other and much older acts, remained in See also:

• ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping")

abeyance . Thus an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act which provided for the See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of prisoners had remained a dead See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter; even the separation of the See also:

• MALES

males from the See also:

• FEMALES

females was not a universal See also:

• RULE

rule . Roused by these crying evils, a small See also:

• BAND

band of See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest men formed themselves into an association for the improvement of prison discipline . They perambulated the country inspecting the prisons; they issued lengthy interrogatories to prison officials; they published periodical reports giving the result of their inquiries, with their views on the true principles of prison management, and much See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice, accompanied by elaborate plans on the subject of prison construction . The labours of this society brought out into strong relief the naked deformity of the bulk of the See also:

• BRITISH

British gaols . Speaking of St Albans from his personal observation Mr (afterwards See also:

• SIR

Sir T . F.) See also:

• BUXTON
• BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707–1772)
• BUXTON, SIR THOMAS POWELL (1786-1845)

Buxton, a most active member of the society, said: " All were in ill See also:

• HEALTH

health; almost all were in rags; almost all were filthy in the extreme . The state of the prison, the desperation of the prisoners, broadly hinted in their conversation and plainly expressed in their conduct, the uproar of oaths, complaints and See also:

• OBSCENITY (from the adjective " obscene," Lat. obscenus, evil-looking, filthy)

obscenity, the indescribable stench, presented together a concentration of the utmost misery and the utmost See also:

• GUILT

guilt." The reports of the society laid See also:

• BARE

bare the existence of similar horrors in See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of other gaols . Yet this was in 1818, when the legislature was setting a praiseworthy example—when half a million had been spent in providing large See also:

• AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892)

airy cells for a thousand prisoners . Even in See also:

• LONDON

London itself, within easy reach of the palatial Millbank penitentiary, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief prison of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, Newgate, was in a disgraceful See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition .

This had been exposed by a See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary inquiry as far back as 1814, but nothing had been done to remedy the evils laid bare . The state of the See also:

• FEMALE

female See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side had already attracted the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of that devoted woman, Mrs See also:

• FRY
• FRY, ELIZABETH (178o-1845)
• FRY, SIR EDWARD (1827– )

Fry, whose ministrations and wonderful success no doubt encouraged, if they did not bring about, the formation of the Prison Society . Mrs Fry went first to Newgate in 1813, but only as a casual visitor . It was not until 1817 that she entered upon the See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble See also:

• WORK

work with which her name will ever be associated . She worked a See also:

• MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder)

miracle there in an incredibly See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short space of time . The See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward into which she penetrated was like a den of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild beasts; it was filled with See also:

• WOMEN

women unsexed, fighting, See also:

• SWEARING (O. Eng. swerian, to swear, originally to speak aloud, cf. andswerian, to answer, Ger. schworen, Dan. svaerge, &c., all from root sorer-, to make a sound, cf. " swarm," properly the buzzing of bees, Lat. susurrus)

swearing, dancing, gaming, yelling and justly deserved its name of " See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

hell above ground." Within a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month it was transformed . and presented, says an eyewitness, " a See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene where stillness and propriety reigned." The wild beasts were tamed . Movements similar to that which Mrs Fry headed were soon set on See also:

• FOOT

foot both in England and on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

Continent, and public attention was generally directed to the urgent See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for prison reform . Stimulated by the success achieved by Mrs Fry, the Prison Discipline Society continued its labours . Hostile critics were not wanting; many voices were raised in protest against the ultra-humanitarianism which sought to make gaols too comfort-able and tended to pamper criminals . But the society pursued its See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, undeterred by See also:

• SARCASM

sarcasm . Many of these are now accepted as axioms in prison treatment; for instance, that female See also:

• OFFICERS

officers only should have charge of female prisoners, that prisoners of both sexes should be kept apart and constantly employed .

Yet these principles were unacknowledged at that time and were first enunciated in acts such as the 4 Geo . IV. c . 65 and the 5 Geo . IV. c . 85 (1823-1824), the passing of which were mainly due to the strenuous exertions of the Prison Discipline Society . It was laid down in these that over and above safe custody it was essential to preserve health, improve morals, and enforce hard labour on all prisoners sentenced to it . Irons were strictly forbidden except in cases of " urgent and See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute necessity," and it was ruled that every prisoner should have a See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed to himself—if possible a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate cell, the last being the first formal statement of a principle upon which all future prison discipline was to be based . The importance of these acts cannot be over-estimated as supplying a legal See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of efficiency by which all prisons could be measured . Still the progress of improvement was extremely slow, and the managers of gaols still evaded or ignored the acts . Many local authorities grudged the money to rebuild or enlarge their gaols; others varied much in their See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the rules as to hard labour and the See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours of employment . One great See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback to general reform was that a large number of small prisons See also:

• LAY

lay beyond the reach of the law . Those under small jurisdictions in the boroughs and under the See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty corporate bodies continued open to the strongest reprobation, and thus remained until they were swept away by the measure which brought about the reform of the municipal corporations in 1835 .

But by this time a still more determined effort had been made to establish some See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform and improved See also:

• SYSTEM

system of prison discipline . In 1831 a select committee of the House of Commons went into the whole subject of secondary punishment and reported that, as the difficulties in the way of an effective classification of prisoners were insurmountable, they were strongly in favour of the confinement of prisoners in separate cells, recommending that the whole of the prisons should be altered accordingly and the expense See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the public exchequer . There can be little doubt that this committee was greatly struck by the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior methods of prison discipline pursued in the United States . The best See also:

• AMERICAN

American prisons had recently been visited by two eminent Frenchmen, J . A. de See also:

• BEAUMONT
• BEAUMONT, BELMONT, or BELLOMONT
• BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE (1703-1781)
• BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1583–1627)

Beaumont and A. de See also:

• TOCQUEVILLE, ALEXIS HENRI CHARLES MAURICE CLEREL, COMTE DE (1805-18J9)

Tocqueville, who spoke of them in terms of the highest praise . It was with the object of appropriating what was best in the American system that Mr W . See also:

• CRAWFORD, EARLS OF
• CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854–1909)
• CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814–1857)
• CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772–1834)

Crawford was despatched across the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic on a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• MISSION

mission of inquiry . His exhaustive See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report, published in 1834, was a valuable contribution to the whole question of penal discipline . Another select committee, this time of the House of Lords, returned to the subject in 1835, and after a long investigation re-enunciated the theory that all prisoners should be kept separate from one another . It also urged in strong terms the necessity for one uniform system of treatment, more especially as regarded dietaries, labour and See also:

• EDUCATION

education, and strongly recommended the appointment of See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official inspectors to enforce obedience to the acts . These recommendations were eventually adopted and formed the basis of a new departure . For fifty years transportation (see DEPORTATION) had been in England the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of secondary punishment for See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime .

See also:

• PRIMARY

Primary or capital punishment still existed, but to a greatly modified extent . The pious See also:

• QUAKERS

Quakers of See also:

• PENN, WILLIAM (1621–1670)
• PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718)

Penn- sylvania at the end of the 18th century had realized a deeper See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty towards the offenders than their extinction, and sought to amend and reform the living . The See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note struck first in the See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

Walnut See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

Street penitentiary began a new era in prison treatment, and the methods adopted were destined to extend over the whole See also:

• WORLD

world . This was the germ of the nearly universal principle of individual confinement, and the origin of what some advanced thinkers have denounced as the greatest crime of the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, the invention of the separate cell . It was and still is held by many that the criminal may be best and most effectually weaned from his evil ways by shutting him up for lengthy periods between four walls, and subjecting him, when most susceptible, to curative processes, to constant exhortation and searching See also:

• INTROSPECTION (from Lat. introspicere, to look within)

introspection, changing his nature and restoring him to society a reformed See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man . It must be at once admitted that the system of See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation has produced no remarkable results . Solitary confinement has neither conquered nor appreciably diminished crime, even where it has been applied with extreme care, as in See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, and more recently in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, where it obtains strict and unbroken for long terms of years . Cloistered seclusion is an artificial condition quite at variance with human instincts and habits, and the treatment, long continued, has proved injurious to health, inducing See also:

• MENTAL

mental breakdown . A slow death may be defended indeed on moral grounds if regeneration has been compassed, but it is only another form of capital punishment . Still the See also:

• MEASURES

measures introduced in the United States and the See also:

• ACTION

action taken upon them fill a large See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page in prison See also:

• HISTORY

history and must be recorded here . Several states in the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union followed the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead of See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania . That of New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York built the great See also:

• AUBURN
• AUBURN (from the Low Lat. alburnus, whitish, light-coloured)

Auburn penitentiary in 1816 to carry out the new principles .

There every prisoner was kept continuously in See also:

• COMPLETE

complete isolation . He saw no one, spoke to no one, and did no work . Within a short See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period very deplorable results began to show themselves . Many prisoners became insane; health was generally impaired and See also:

• LIFE

life greatly endangered . Mr Crawford, whose mission to the United States has been already referred to, was in favour of solitary confinement, but he could not deny that several cases of See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide followed this isolation . Some relaxation of the disastrous severity seemed desirable, and out of this See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew the second great system, which was presently introduced at Auburn and afterwards at the no less renowned prison of Sing Sing . It was called the silent system . While the prisoners were still separated at See also:

• NIGHT

night or meals, they were suffered to labour in association, but under a rule of silence ruthlessly and rigorously maintained . The latter, entrusted to irresponsible subordinates, degenerated into a despotism which brought the system into great discredit . All discipline officers were permitted to wield the See also:

• WHIP

whip summarily and without the slightest check . Under such a system the most frightful excesses were possible and many cases of brutal cruelty were laid bare . Reviewing the merits and demerits of each system, Mr Crawford gave his See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion to that of unvarying solitude as pursued in the Eastern penitentiary in Pennsylvania .

Mr Crawford came back from the United States an ardent See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the solitary system . He saw, however, great difficulties in making this the universal rule, chief cellular among which was the enormous expense of provid- separation, See also:

• ING

ing suitable prisons . Some modification of the rule of unbroken solitude would be inevitable; but he strongly urged its adoption for certain classes, and he was equally convinced of the imperative necessity for giving every prisoner a separate sleeping cell . It is clear that the government endorsed Mr Crawford's views . Where it was possible they gave effect to them at once . At Millbank, with its spacious solitary cells, the rule of seclusion was more and more strictly enforced . Ere long permissive legislation strove to disseminate the new principles . In 1830 See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord John See also:

• RUSSELL (FAMILY)
• RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
• RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
• RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
• RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
• RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
• RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
• RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
• RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
• RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )

Russell had given it as his See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that cellular separation was desirable in all prisons . But it was not until 1839 that an act was passed which laid it down that individuals might be confined separately in single cells . Even now the executive did not insist upon the construction of prisons on a new plan . It only set a good example American Progress . by undertaking the erection of one which should serve as a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model for the whole country .

In 184o the first See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone of Pentonville prison was laid, and after three years of considerable outlay, its cells, 520 in number, were occupied on the solitary, or more exactly the separate system—the latter being somewhat less rigorous and irksome in its restraints . To the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of many local jurisdictions, they speedily followed the lead of the central authority . Within half a dozen years no fewer than fifty-four new prisons were built on the Pentonville plan, which now began to serve generally as a " model " for See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation, not in England alone, but all over the world . Sir See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua See also:

• JEBB, JOHN (1736–1786)
• JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOTJSE (1841–1905)

Jebb, who presided over its erection, may fairly claim indeed to be the author and originator of See also:

• MODERN

modern prison See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture . The building of Pentonville was See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making . The modern prison See also:

• DATES

dates from it . The penal discipline of to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, much modified and varied it is true, may be largely traced to it . The " cell " scheme of individual separation holds the ground, and countries which can afford the outlay have built or are building cellular prisons . France has made steady progress in this respect . Great additions have been made to La Sante prison in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, and a new prison on gigantic lines has been opened at Fresnes See also:

• LES

les Rungis, on the outskirt of the See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

metropolis, to replace the obsolete Mazas, and to give cellular See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation to the large numbers always on See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand in Paris . See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany has embarked on penitentiary reforms with the See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of several new prisons; it is the same with the United States, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark, See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden . In See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy a comprehensive scheme has been drawn up so that cellular imprisonment may become a general rule .

In Belgium, where penal See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration has received the closest attention for a number of years, the regime of cellular imprisonment has been long carried to its farthest limits, and solitary confinement ranging over ten years and in some cases much more has been strictly enforced . Of See also:

• LATE

late years however a new school has arisen in Belgium which expresses strong doubts of the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom or efficacy of prolonged cellular confinement . In England, moreover, which, if not the first to adopt separation in principle, certainly gave the largest effect to it in practice, continuous cellular confinement for short terms is ceasing to be the inevitable rule; and although it has been retained in cases of penal See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude for the first six months, it was in 1899 practically abandoned for lesser sentences, and all prisoners after the first month work together in association under surveillance . In See also:

• JULY

July 1910 the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home secretary announced his intention to reduce it to one month in all cases, except those of recidivists (see REemrvisM) . The See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias of modern practice, in short, is towards milder methods, not only in treatment, but in those anticipatory processes which may render imprisonment unnecessary . To understand the existing British prison system it is necessary to consider its See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual growth and the steps taken to establish it . Its See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations were laid by Sir George See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

Grey, The Moc,ern home secretary, when transportation ended rather British abruptly by the refusal of the chief colonies to System. continue to be the dumping ground for British convicts . Sir George Grey sought to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the difficulty as a whole, and to provide for all classes of criminals, the most heinous deserving severe correction and the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor offenders in the earliest stages of misconduct . For the first there was some urgency, the latter was still the business of the local jurisdictions . The system now introduced consisted of three principal parts: (1) of a limited period of separate confinement in a home prison or penitentiary, accompanied by See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial employment and moral training; (2) of hard labour at some public See also:

• WORKS

works prison either at home or abroad; and (3) of exile to a See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony with a conditional See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon or See also:

• TICKET (O. Fr. esliquet, also estiquette, mod. etiquette, from Ger. sleeken, to stick up)

ticket-of-leave (q.v.) . No pains were spared to give effect to this plan . Pentonville was available for the first phase; Millbank was also pressed into the service and accommodation was hired in some of the best provincial prisons, as at See also:

• WAKEFIELD
• WAKEFIELD, GILBERT (1756-1801)

Wakefield and See also:

• LEICESTER
• LEICESTER, EARLS OF
• LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL
• LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626)
• LEICESTER, THOMAS WILLIAM COKE, EARL OF (1754-1842)

Leicester .

Few facilities existed for carrying out the second See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, but they were speedily improvised . Although the hulks at home had been condemned, convict establishments in which these floating prisons still formed the principal part were organized at Bermuda and See also:

• GIBRALTAR

Gibraltar . Neither of these was a conspicuous success; they were too remote for effective supervision; and although they lingered on for some years they were finally abolished . The chief efforts of the authorities were directed to the formation of public works prisons at home, and here the most satisfactory results were soon obtained . The construction of a See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of See also:

• REFUGE

refuge at See also:

• PORTLAND
• PORTLAND, EARL OF
• PORTLAND, ISLE OF
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, EARL
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK

Portland had been recommended in 1845; in 1847 an act was passed to facilitate the See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase of See also:

• LAND

land there, and a sum of money was taken in the estimates for the erection of a prison which was begun next See also:

• YEAR

year . At another point, See also:

• DARTMOOR

Dartmoor, a prison already stood available, although it had not been occupied since the last See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, when ten thousand See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French and American prisoners had been incarcerated in it . A little re-construction made Dartmoor into a modern gaol, and in the See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste lands around there was ample labour for any number of convict hands . Dartmoor was opened in r85o; two years later a convict prison was established at See also:

• PORTSMOUTH
• PORTSMOUTH, EARLS OF
• PORTSMOUTH, LOUISE DE

Portsmouth in connexion with the dockyard, and another of the same class at See also:

• CHATHAM
• CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT

Chatham in 1856 . The third stage in Sir George Grey's scheme contemplated the enforced See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration of released convicts, whom the discipline of separation and public works was supposed to have purged and purified, and who would have better hopes of entering on a new career of honest See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry in a new country than when thrown back among vicious associations at home . The theory was good, the practice impossible . No colony would receive these ticket-of-leave men . See also:

• VAN

Van See also:

• DIEMEN, ANTHONY VAN (1593–1645)

Diemen's Land positively refused to do so, even though this denial cut off the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of labour, now urgently needed .

The appearance of a convict See also:

• SHIP

ship at the Cape of Good Hope nearly produced a revolt . Although See also:

• EARL

Earl Grey addressed a circular letter to all colonial governments offering them the questionable boon of transportation, only one, the comparatively new colony of Western See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, accepted . But this single receptacle could not absorb a tithe of the whole number of convicts awaiting exile . It became necessary therefore to find some other means for their disposal . Accordingly, in 1853 the first Penal Servitude Act was passed, substituting certain shorter sentences of penal servitude for transportation . It was only just to abbreviate the terms; under the old sentence the transportee knew that if well conducted he would spend the greater part of it in See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative freedom . But although sentences were shortened it was not thought safe to surrender all See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over the released convict; and he was only granted a ticket-of-leave for the unexpired portion of his original sentence . No effective supervision was maintained over these convicts at large . They speedily relapsed into crime; their numbers, as the years passed, became so great and their depredations so serious, especially in garrotte robberies, that a cry of indignation was raised against the system, which Ied to its See also:

• ARRAIGNMENT (from Lat. ad, to, and rationare, to reason, call to account)

arraignment before a select committee of the House of Commons in 1863 . Meanwhile prison discipline in the elementary stage, as inflicted on lesser offenders, was continually discussed . The subject was referred to many committees for inquiry, and it was shown that there was a lamentable want of uniformity in the enforcement of legal penalties . The processes and treatment varied with the localities .

Dietaries differed, here too ample, there meagre to starvation . The amount of exercise allowed varied greatly; there was no universal rule as to employment . In some prisons hard labour was insisted upon, and embraced tread-wheels or the newly-invented cranks; in some it did not exist at all . The cells inhabited by prisoners (and separate cellular confinement was now very general) were of different dimensions—variously lighted, warmed and ventilated . The time spent in these cells was not invariably the same, and as yet no authoritative decision had been made between the solitary and silent systems . The first named had been tried at Pentonville, but the period had been greatly reduced . The duration had been at first fixed at eighteen months, but it was proved that the prisoners' minds had become enfeebled by. this long isolation, and the period was limited to nine months . In many jurisdictions however the silent system, or that of associated labour in silence, was still preferred; and there might be prisons within a short distance of each other at which two entirely different systems of discipline were in force .. In 1849 Mr See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• PEARSON, CHARLES HENRY (1830-1894)
• PEARSON, JOHN (1612-1686)
• PEARSON, JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (1817-1897)

Pearson, M.P., moved for a select committee to report upon the best means of securing some uniform system which should be at once punitive, reformatory and self-supporting . He urged that all existing plans were inefficacious, and he advocated a new scheme by which the labour of all prisoners should be applied to See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture in See also:

• DISTRICT

district prisons . The result of a full inquiry was the reiteration of views already accepted in theory but not yet generally adopted in practice . Thirteen more years elapsed and still no such steps had been taken .

A new committee sat in 1863, and in its report again remarked in no measured terms upon the many and wide See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences that still existed in the gaols of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain as regards construction, See also:

• DIET

diet, labour and general discipline, " leading to an inequality, uncertainty and inefficiency of punishment productive of the most prejudicial results." Matters could only be mended by the exercise of legislative authority, and this came in the Prison Act of 1865, an act which consolidated all previous statutes on the subject of prison discipline, many of its provisions being still in force . Yet the years passed and uniformity was still far from secured; it was impossible indeed while prison administration was still See also:

• LEFT

left to a number of local authorities, no two of which were often of the same mind . The legislature had tried its best, but had failed . It had exercised some supervision through its inspectors, had forbidden cells to be used until duly certified as See also:

• FIT

fit, and had threatened to withhold exchequer contributions from prisons of which unfavourable reports were received . Such penalties had exercised no sufficient terrors . It began to be understood, moreover, that the prisons under local jurisdictions were not always conveniently and economic-ally situated . Crime, with the many facilities offered for rapid locomotion to those who committed it, had ceased to be merely local, and the whole state rather than individual communities ought to be taxed; prison charges should be borne by the public exchequer and not by local rates . These considerations gained strength and led at length to the introduction of the Prison See also:

• BILL

Bill which became law in 1877, by which the control of all gaols was vested in a body of prison commissioners appointed by and responsible to the home secretary . These commissioners had See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to consolidate by closing superfluous prisons, to establish one system of discipline, and generally by watchful supervision, aided by the experience of specialists, to maintain that much-desired uniformity which had been so long and unsuccessfully sought . At the same time the co-operation of the local magistrates was invited so far as advice and assistance were concerned; but all real power and control has passed from their hands into that of the commissioners of prisons . The system established by the act of 1877 is that now in force . As for penal servitude, the punishment reserved for the gravest offences, great changes had been introduced .

We left this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the subject at a parliamentary inquiry . The See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict given was in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main satisfactory; but doubts were expressed as to the severity of the discipline inflicted, the principal features of which were moderate labour, ample diet and substantial gratuities . The first was far less than the work See also:

• FREE

free men did for a livelihood, the second larger, the third excessive, so that convicts often left prisons with See also:

• THIRTY

thirty, See also:

• FORTY

forty, .even eighty pounds in their pockets . Penal servitude, to use the words of the lord chief See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice Sir See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• COCKBURN, ALICIA, or ALISON (1713-1994)
• COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS (1779–1854)
• COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND
• COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE

Cockburn, one of the members of the committee, " was hardly calculated to See also:

• PRO

pro-duce on the mind of the criminal that salutary dread of the recurrence of the punishment which may be the means of deterring him and, through his example, others from the See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission of crime." The chief recommendation put forward to mend the system comprised lengthening of all sentences, a diminution in the dietaries, the abolition of large gratuities, and, speaking broadly, a general tightening of the reins . The most notable See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change however was in regard to labour, the quantity and value of which was to be regulated in future by the so-called " See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark-system." This plan had originated with Captain365 Maconochie, at one to See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent in See also:

• NORFOLK
• NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Norfolk See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, who had recommended that the punishment inflicted upon criminals should be measured, not by time, but by the amount of labour actually performed . In support of his theory he devised an ingenious system of recording the convicts' daily industry by marks, which on reaching a given total would entitle them to their release . This mark system had already been tried with good results in See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, where the Irish system, as it was called, introduced by Sir See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter Crofton, had attracted widespread attention . There had been a very marked diminution in crime, attributable it was supposed to this system, which was in almost all respects the same as the English, although the Irish authorities had invented an " intermediate stage " in which convicts worked in a state of semi-freedom and thus practised the self-reliance which in many produced reform . As a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact the diminution in crime was traceable to general causes, such as a general See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

exodus by emigration, the introduction of a poor law and an increase in the facilities for earning an honest livelihood . It may be added here that judged by later experience the Irish system had no transcendent merits, and it is now See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . But we owe something to the Irish practice which first popularized the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of maintaining a strict supervision over convicts in a state of conditional release, and it reconciled us to a system which was long wrongfully stigmatized as espionage . The mark system, as recommended by the committee of 1863 and as subsequently introduced, had however little in common with either Maconochie's or the Irish plan .

It was similar in principle and that was all . According to the committee, every convict should have it in his power to See also:

• EARN

earn a remission—in other words, to shorten his sentence by his industry . This industry was to be measured by marks earned by hard labour at the public works, after a short probational See also:

• TERM

term of close " separate " confinement . But the remission gained did not mean absolute release . All males were to be sent, during the latter part of their sentence, " without disguise to a thinly peopled colony," to work out their time and their own re-habilitation . The committee still clung to the old theory of transportation, and this in spite of the lively protests of some of its members . The one outlet remaining, however, that of Western Australia, was soon afterwards (1867) closed to convict emigrants; and this part of the committee's recommendations became a dead letter . Not so the mark system, or the plan of earning remission by steady industry . This was carried out on a broad and intelligent basis by officials prompt to avail themselves of the advantages it offered . Thus in 1877–'878 efforts were made to minimize contamination by segregating the worst criminals and restricting conversation at exercise . A special class was formed in '88o, in which all convicts " not versed in crime," first offenders and comparatively innocent men, are now kept apart from the older and more hardened criminals . The committee last quoted gave it as their opinion that " penal servitude as at present administered is on the whole satisfactory; it is effective as a punishment and free from serious abuses .

. . a sentence of penal servitude is now generally an object of dread to the criminal See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population." Since then, steps have been taken in the classification of convicts when undergoing sentence with a view to dealing more effectually with habitual criminals . Having thus traced the history of secondary punishments and prison discipline in England, it will be well to de- Latest See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe the system now actually in force . This will measures be best understood if we follow those who break :'' Epa rl the law through all the stages from that of arrest, 1ngenal Oisclpliae through conviction, to release, conditional or In Bnyian& complete . After a short detention in a See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police cell, an offender, unless disposed of summarily, passes into one of His See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty's prisons, there to await his trial at sessions or assizes . The period thus spent in the provinces will never exceed three months; in London, with the frequent sitting at See also:

• CLERKENWELL

Clerkenwell and of the Central Criminal See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

Court, it is seldom more than one month . While awaiting trial the, prisoner may See also:

• WEAR

wear his own clothes, provide his own food, see and communicate with his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends and legal adviser so as to prepare fully for his See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence . His See also:

• FATE

fate after conviction depends on his sentence . If this be " imprisonment," so called to distinguish it from " penal servitude," although both mean deprivation of liberty and are closely akin, it is undergone in one of the " local " prisons—the prisons till 1878 under local See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction, but now entirely controlled by the state through the home secretary and the commissioners of prisons . The regime undergone is cellular; able-bodied prisoners are kept in strict separation for at least a month, and during that time subjected to severe labour; although the term of first-class hard labour and of purely penal See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character no longer exists . The tread-See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel has also been abolished . A system of progressive stages based on the mark system has been adopted in the local prisons, and the prisoner's progress through each depends on his own industry and good conduct . During the first month he sleeps on a See also:

• PLANK

plank bed, a wooden See also:

• FRAME

frame raised from the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor, with bedding but without See also:

• MATTRESS (O.Fr. materas, mod. matelas; the origin is the Arab. al-materah, cushion, whence Span. and Port. almadraque, Ital. materasso)

mattress .

When he has earned the proper number of marks, which at the earliest cannot be until one month has elapsed, he passes into the second stage and is allowed better diet and a mattress twice a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week . The third stage, at the end of the third month, gives him further privileges as regards diet and bed . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth stage concedes to the prisoner a mattress every night, and the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege, if well conducted, to communicate by letter or through visits with his friends outside . These stages are applicable to females except as regards the plank bed; youths under sixteen and old men above sixty are also allowed mattresses . A small gratuity may be earned during the second and three `following stages, amounting in the aggregate to ten shillings . The labour, too, may be industrial, and include instruction in tailoring, See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe-making, See also:

• BASKET

basket-making, See also:

• BOOKBINDING

bookbinding, See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing, and many more handicrafts . Throughout the sentence the prisoner has the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of religious and moral instruction; he attends divine service regularly, and whatever his creed is visited by a See also:

• CHAP

chap-lain professing it, and receives educational assistance according to his needs . His physical welfare is watched over by competent medical men; close attention is paid to the sanitary condition of prisons; strict rules govern the See also:

• SIZE

size of cells, with their See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting, warming and See also:

• VENTILATION (Lat. ventilare, from ventus, wind)

ventilation . Dietaries are everywhere the same; they are calculated with great nicety according to the time of durance, and afford variety and ample See also:

• NUTRITION

nutrition without See also:

• RUNNING

running into excess . In a word, as regards discipline, labour, treatment, exactly the same system obtains in the " local " prisons throughout the United Kingdom . Where the sentence passes beyond two years it ceases to be styled imprisonment and becomes penal servitude, which may be inflicted for any period from three years to life . The prisoner becomes a convict and undergoes his penalty in one or more of the convict prisons .

These are entirely under state management . A sentence of penal servitude as now administered consists of three distinct periods or stages: (1) that of See also:

• PROBATION

probation endured in separate confinement at a so-called " close " prison; (2) a period of labour in association at a public works prison; and (3) conditional release for the unexpired portion of the sentence upon See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence or ticket-of-leave . 1 . In the first stage, which was limited to six months, but which it is proposed to reduce to one month, the convict passes his whole time in his cell apart from other prisoners, enga.See also:

• GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749)

ged at some industrial employment . He exercises and goes to See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel daily in the society of others, but holds no communication with them; his only intercourse with his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-creatures is when he is visited by the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, See also:

• CHAPLAIN

chaplain, schoolmaster or See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade instructor . This period of almost unbroken solitude is of a painful character, and its duration has therefore been wisely limited . 2 . The second is a longer stage and endures for the whole or a greater part of the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the sentence, its duration being governed by the power a convict holds in his own hands to earn a remission . It is now passed at a public works prison; either at See also:

• AYLESBURY

Aylesbury (females), Borstal, Dartmoor, Parkhurst or Portland . While cellular separation, except at work,at prayers or exercise, is strictly maintained, labour is in association under the close and constant supervision of officials . Inter-communication no doubt takes place; men working together in See also:

• QUARRY

quarry, brickfield or See also:

• BARROW
• BARROW (from A.S. beorh, a mount or hillock)
• BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677)
• BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848)

barrow-run, and out of earshot of their guardians, may and do converse at times . But the work is too arduous to allow of long and desultory conversation; the See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of contamination is now minimized by the careful separation of the less hardened from the old offenders .

There is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to suppose that any great evils arise from this association, and without it the See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the many important See also:

• NATIONAL

national public works which now attest its value would have been impossible . Among these may be mentioned the following: the See also:

• QUARRYING

quarrying of stone for the great Portland See also:

• BREAKWATER

breakwater, nearly 2 M. in length and between 50 and 6o ft. deep in the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, with the defensive works on the See also:

• VERNE, JULES (1828-1905)

Verne, batteries, casements and See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks intended to render the island of Portland impregnable, and the enlargement and See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the See also:

• DOCK

dock-yards at Chatham and Portsmouth . At Borstal a See also:

• LINE

line of forts intended to protect Chatham on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west have been erected by convicts; they have also built magazines at Chattenden on the left See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• MEDWAY

Medway . Besides this, convict labour has been usefully employed in the erection of prison buildings at new points or in extension of those at the old . In all cases the bricks have been made, the stone quarried and dressed, the See also:

• TIMBER

timber sawn, the iron See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast, forged and wrought by the prisoners . The great merit of this system is the skill acquired in handicrafts by so many otherwise idle and useless hands . Convict See also:

• MECHANICS

mechanics are rarely found ready made . It is a fact that a large percentage of the total number employed at trades learnt them in prison . These results are ne doubt greatly aided by the judicious stimulus given to the highest effort of the mark system . The chief objection to enforced labour has been the difficulty in ensuring this; but the convict nowadays eagerly tries his best, because only thus can he win privileges while in prison and an earlier release from it . Every day's work is gauged and marks recorded according to its value; upon the total earned depends his passage through the stages or classes which regulate his diet and general treatment, and more especially his interviews and communications with his relations and friends . Yet more; steady willing labour continuously performed will earn a remission of a fourth of the sentence .

It must be borne in mind that the marks thus earned may be forfeited at any time by misconduct, but affect remission to this extent only . The full remission in a five years' sentence is one year and ninety-one days; in seven years, one year two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred and severity-three days; in fourteen, three years one hundred and ninety-seven days; in twenty, four years one hundred and. flinty days . " Lifers " cannot claim any remission, but their cases are brought forward at the end of twenty years and then considered on their merits . 3 . Having earned his remission the convict enters upon the third stage of his punishment . He is released, but only conditionally, on licence or ticket-of-leave . This permission to be at large may easily be forfeited by fresh breaches of the law . Stringent conditions are endorsed upon the licence and well known to every licence holder (see TICKET-OF-LEAVE) . Further modifications have been introduced from time to time in the British penal system, tending mostly to milder discipline, more intelligent classification of prisoners and a certain amelioration of their See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot . In its general outlines the system as set forth above has been maintained, but the depart-mental committee appointed in 1895 made some important recommendations which were presently adopted in part . The committee was dissatisfied with the moral results achieved and thought that more attention should be paid to reformatory processes . They believed that " few inmates left prison better than when they came in." Recommittals were frequent and See also:

• RECIDIVISM (from Fr. recidiver, to relapse and fall again into the same fault, or repeat the same offence as one committed before)

recidivism on the increase .

Imprisonment was not sufficiently deterrent to the habitual criminal class, and small attention was paid to the reclamation of less hardened offenders . The views of this committee were embodied in a Penal Servitude bill which was long debated, but became law in 1898 . It emphasized the excellence of the system devised in 1879 for the segregation of the comparatively innocent from convicts hardened in crime . The system of the " See also:

• STAR

star " class as originally established provided that the prisoner never previously convicted should be kept absolutely apart, at chapel, labour, exercise and in quarters, from his less fortunate fellows who had already been imprisoned . The rule was strictly enforced and with the most conspicuous results, so that little more than 1% of " stars " have been re-convicted when once more at large . The privilege of the " star " is only accorded after careful inquiry and reason-able See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that the individual has never before been sent to prison . Reference is made to the police at the time of conviction, and the duty of looking into previous and present character is very strictly performed . The inquiry is continuous and may be prolonged into the sentence; then, if necessary, correction is applied . But as a matter of fact very few mistakes are made . It is obvious that wrongful See also:

• ADMISSION

admission into the " star " class might be fraught with mischievous consequences, and it is well known that a first sentence does not necessarily mean absolute unacquaintance with crime . For administrative convenience the " stars "—whose name comes from the scrap of See also:

• CRIMSON

crimson See also:

• CLOTH

cloth worn on cap and jacket See also:

• SLEEVE (O. Eng. slieve, slyf, a word allied to " slip," cf. Dutch sloof, apron)

sleeve—have been generally concentrated at Portland, and employed in labours specially allotted to them, for the most part demanding a higher See also:

• RATE

rate of intelligence than the general See also:

• AVERAGE

average shown by convicts . Moulders, blacksmiths, carpenters, tinsmiths, stonemasons, bookbinders, painters and various other trades and handicrafts are the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of the " stars." The Prison Act of 1898 made some marked changes in penal discipline .

One was the strict See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation of See also:

• CORPORAL

corporal punishment to offences of See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

mutiny and See also:

• GROSS

gross personal violence to officers, where previously it might be inflicted for many forms of misconduct, and it can only now be adjudged under great restrictions . It was feared that the removal of this powerful deterrent would adversely affect discipline, but on the contrary, the yearly average of prison offences has diminished from 147 to 131 per thousand prisoners, and it has been See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt by the authorities that the limitation was salutary and See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise . Another change was the power given to courts of law to differentiate between offenders by ordering them one of three classes of treatment ranging from severe to less rigorous . The first of these divisions was akin to that of former first-class misdemeanants; the second See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division was allotted to persons guilty of trivial offences not amounting to moral depravity, the third division was apportioned to serious crime calling for severe repression, involving strict separation for the first twenty-eight days with " hard labour " (now an obsolete expression, since all prison labour is nowadays accounted " hard ") . The scheme was judicious, but courts have been slow to make use of its provisions . Yet a third improvement was permission conceded to prisoners locked up in See also:

• DEFAULT (Fr. defaut, from defailler, to fail, Lat. fallere)

default of See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of See also:

• FINE

fine, to obtain a reduction of time proportionate to part payment of the fine . The numbers under both categories are considerable, and taken together show a steady increase in the ten years from 1892 (when the acts first came into effect) to 1902, the figures being 33,802 in 1892 and 51,302 in 1902 . Imprisonment, albeit somewhat modified and diluted, continues to be used as the chief penalty and most trusted See also:

• PANACEA (Gr. lravaKeia, all-healing, from was, all, and aueioOae, to heal)

panacea for all crime . The See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine is so See also:

• SIMPLE

simple in application and so easily available that it is served out almost automatically and indifferently to every law-breaker; the pickpocket and the burglar are locked up next See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door to the clergyman at variance with his See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop; the weak-kneed and self-indulgent drunkard rubs shoulders with the See also:

• POLITICAL

political zealot who has endangered the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of nations . There is an enormous See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of so-called crime in England which is not crime at all, and still is perpetually penalized by am infliction of imprisonment for such short periods as to be perfectly futile . The bulk of the offences for which it is meted out are trivial and unimportant . Eighty-three per cent of the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual convictions, summarily and on See also:

• INDICTMENT (from Anglo-Fr. enditernent, enditer, to charge; Lat. in, against, dictare, declare)

indictment, followed by committal to gaol, are for misconduct that is distinctly non-criminal, such as breaches of municipal by-See also:

• LAWS

laws and police regulations, drunkenness, gaming and offences under thevagrancy acts .

The leniency of the sentences indicates the comparatively trifling character of the wrongdoing . Forty per cent. of the males and 39% of the females were sent to prison for periods of a week or less; on the other hand, no more than 4% were sentenced to six months and under, only 2 % were imprisoned for terms between six months and one year; and .75% to more than one year . The question will arise some day whether it is really necessary to maintain fifty-six local prisons, with all their elaborate See also:

• PARAPHERNALIA (Lat. paraphernalia, sc. bona, from Gr. aapaq5epva; impel, beside, and (*vii, dower)

paraphernalia, their imposing buildings and expensive See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff, to maintain discipline in daily life and insist upon the proper observance of customs and usages, many of them of purely modern invention . Of course there is in most cases the alternative of a fine, the non-payment of which entails the imprisonment; yet a penalty imposed on the See also:

• POCKET

pocket is so clearly the proper retribution for such misdeeds that better methods should be devised for the collection of fines . The chief aim of penal legislation should indeed be either to keep gaols empty or to use them only where distinct reduction in the number of offenders, whether by regeneration or by continuous withdrawal from noxious activity, can be obtained . An See also:

• AXIOM (Gr. &iwµa)

axiom based upon this view has been formulated, and although paradoxical it may well be quoted here . The great aim and object of all penal processes, it has been said, should be the recognition of the general principle of dividing all offenders into two categories: (1) those who ought never to enter a gaol, and (2) those who ought never to be allowed to leave it . Praise-worthy efforts to See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass the first end have been made in recent legislation . The First Offenders Act in 1887 had the effect of postponing sentence and sparing these offenders from incarceration subject to their good conduct . An average of about 4500 thus escaped imprisonment in the five years between 1893 and 1897, and an average of 5500 the five following years . The gain in this was great, seeing that no more than 6 to 8% were actually sent to gaol after the commission of a second offence, and that there was therefore a very distinct saving in expense of See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of prisoners incarcerated . The value of this act is to be seen in its wide adoption .

It is in force in some of the states of the American Union . It was adopted in France by the See also:

• BERENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS (1785-1866)

Berenger law of 1891, and in Belgium, where 14% of sentences of imprisonment in one year and a-half were postponed . In some countries the concession has been accompanied by admonition . The See also:

• SUMMARY

Summary Jurisdiction Acts, by which large numbers of minor offenders were discharged on See also:

• BAIL

bail, or subjected to fines or very brief terms of imprisonment, have also tended to diminish the prison population enormously . The number annually discharged increased from 33,000 in 1893 to 51,302 in 1902 . This excellent system has commended itself to many countries and it is now adopted by the hulk of governments and jurisdictions owing See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance to the British See also:

• CROWN

Crown . Two new systems of applying imprisonment have commended themselves to English administrators, and both have been effected by the Prevention of Crime Act 1908 . The first is a new method for educating and reforming See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young offenders, already on the frontiers of habitual crime, no longer See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, but at an age still susceptible of permanent improvement; the second is the legal See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of the principle of indefinite detention, the willingness to inflict an indeterminate sentence on those who have already forfeited the right to be at large . Both these measures originated in the United States . The Borstal scheme of a juvenile-adult reformatory has been to some extent planned on the institutions of See also:

• ELMIRA

Elmira reformatory in the state of New York and of See also:

• CONCORD
• CONCORD, BOOK OF (Liber Concordiae)

Concord in See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS) . Side by side with the new processes introduced, the idea of the indeterminate sentence was started and put in practice, by which release was made to depend upon reasonable hope of See also:

• AMENDMENT (through the O. Fr. amender, to correct, from Lat. mendum, a fault)

amendment and sentences were prolonged until it was more or less certain that the treatment had resulted in cure . Other measures are set forth in the new classification of convicts, prescribed by the secretary of state in the rules submitted by him to the House of Commons in 1904 .

All convicts are classed in three categories, viz . (A) the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

Ordinary division; (B) the Habitual Offenders' division; and (C) the Long Sentence division . The " A " or Ordinary division comprises all ordinary convicts under old rules who are still separated into the three classes of " star," intermediate and recidivist, as provided by the act of 1898 . The qualifications for each class are clearly laid down . Only those never previously convicted, or known as of not habitually criminal or corrupt habits, are eligible for the " star " class . The intermediate class takes those not previously convicted but deemed unsuitable as " stars " from antecedents and generally unsatisfactory character . The recidivist class is for those previously sentenced to penal servitude or whose See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record shows them to have been guilty of See also:

• GRAVE

grave and persistent crime . These three classes begin with cellular confinement, but for varying periods; the first for three months, the second six months and the third for nine months, in all cases subject to a medical report upon mental and physical condition . Female convicts pass the first three months of their sentence in separate cells . The " B " division indicates the worst penalties to be inflicted upon habitual criminals . There is no recognition whatever of the principle of the indeterminate sentence . The law merely prescribes the See also:

• FORFEITURE (from " forfeit," originally an offence, and hence a fine exacted as a penalty for such; derived through the O. Fr. forfeit, from the late Lat. foris factum, a trespass, that which is done foris, outside)

forfeiture of all remission .

The convict is not eligible for release or licence, but when the time of conditional liberation would have formerly arrived the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case is submitted to the authorities and dealt with on its merits . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early release depends upon the reports on industry and conduct, and the prospect of his keeping straight if set free . He may have to " do " his whole time but not an See also:

• HOUR

hour beyond it . Certain privileges are conceded to the " B " division to compensate those in it for the loss of remission . They wear a special See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, a band of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue cloth on the left See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm; they may earn an extra gratuity and spend a part of it in buying extra food or articles of comfort and relaxation; they may take their meals in association, converse at them or at exercise, but not at labour . The " C " division has been designed for convicts serving long sentences, who have gained all possible privileges in the early years of sentence and have little or nothing to expect further until the last year of their sentence, when they. may earn an additional gratuity . But after ten years they may enter the " C " division, earn a special gratuity therein, and enjoy the various privileges accorded to the " B " or habitual criminals' division with the additional advantage that there is no interference with their remission . Still milder and more humanitarian prison treatment was that put forward by the home secretary in 1910 in his speech already referred to . In it he suggested that the following reforms should be carried out, some by administrative See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order and some by future legislation: (1) time for the payment of fines inflicted for minor offences; (2) disciplinary treatment outside prison for all offenders under 21 years of age; (3) punishment of those guilty of offences not involving moral turpitude to be relieved of all degrading features; (4) the reduction of the period of solitary confinement to a maximum of one month; (5) and the abolition of the ticket-of-leave system . It was also proposed to give four lectures or concerts a year in convict prisons . Prisons in other Countries.—The general progress made in prison treatment will be best realized by a brief survey of penal institutions in the principal countries of the world . It will be convenient to take them alphabetically .

1 . Austria-See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary.—The regime of cellular confinement has not been universally adopted; only six prisons are built on that principle and no more than 15% of the whole number of prisoners can be subjected to the system . Cellular separation is not inflicted for long periods, the minimum being six months and the maximum three years . The bulk of the prisoners live and labour in common . A great feature has been the execution of public works by prisoners in a state of semi-liberty beyond prison walls—the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical adoption of the so-called " Irish " ors intermediate prison—and good results are seen in road-making and the improvement of See also:

• RIVER

river courses . 2 . Belgium.—This country has spared neither pains nor money in carrying out penal processes, and the Belgian prisons are examples of the cellular system prolonged to the utmost limits of human endurance . There is a minimum of ten years, but the individual may elect to continue in separation, or be transferred to partial association . A new school of Belgian criminologists has been headed by M . Prins, the chief of the prison See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department, who has protested that to hope the vicious, hardened offender, after a long detention, " surrounded with every attention, soaked with good counsel, will leave his cell regenerated," is a Utopian See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream . 3 . British Dominions beyond the Sea.—The principle of cellular separation was accepted as far back as 1836 and the model prison of Pentonville, opened in 1842, has since been copied throughout the civilized world .

The cellular system has been adopted in all British colonies with various modifications, and prisons built on modern principles are to be found in See also:

• CANADA

Canada, Australia, New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand and the Cape of Good Hope . See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India retains association as the system most suitable for its criminal classes, with other methods generally abandoned in Great Britain, such as the employment of well-conducted prisoners as auxiliaries in prison discipline and service; deportation is still the penalty for the worst offences and is carried out on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale and with satisfactory results in the Andaman Islands . In See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt since the establishment of British control a very marked change has been introduced in prison affairs . 4 . Denmark.—In Denmark all convicted prisoners pass through several stages, from cellular treatment to the intermediate prison and conditional liberty . Two new prisons on the latest model have been erected at See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen, one for males and the other for females . The smaller gaols for short terms are mostly on the cellular plan . 5 . France.—France has devoted very considerable attention to prison matters and is now practising the two extremes of treatment, the strict cellular isolation of the Belgian system and the penal exile or transportation which was long the English rule . 6 . Germany.—The unified See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire has not as yet adopted one system of prison treatment, and its various component kingdoms still retain See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence in views and practice . See also:

• BADEN
• BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF

Baden has a well-known cellular prison at See also:

• BRUCHSAL

Bruchsal, but separation is not imposed for more than four years and associated labour is carried out in another See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the prison .

See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria has four cellular prisons, the chief being at See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich and See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg, but the collective system also obtains . See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia having declared for the cellular system constructed the well-known Moabit prison in See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, also those of See also:

• RATIBOR (Polish Raciborz)

Ratibor in See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia and of See also:

• HERFORD

Herford in See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia, while those of See also:

• GRAUDENZ (Polish Grudziadz)

Graudenz, See also:

• BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau, See also:

• WERDEN

Werden and See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne have been added since . The total number of separate cells to-day is 11,041 against 3247 in 1869 . Two new cellular prisons, See also:

• LUTTRINGHAUSEN

Luttringhausen and Saarbruck, have recently been added . Frankfurt has a good prison on the Pentonville (London) plan; so has See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg; and new buildings have been erected at Wohlan, See also:

• SIEGBURG

Siegburg, Breslau and See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster . Separate cells in Prussia had increased in 1896 from 3247 to 6573 . The cellular regime is applicable to prisoners between 18 and 30, and to first offenders of 50 years of age, the term being fixed by the governor of the gaol, but never exceeding three years . See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony established a penitentiary at See also:

• ZWICKAU

Zwickau in 1850 and in its earlier management exhibited exaggerated kindness to its inmates . Both the cellular and the associated systems obtain . See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg has accepted the cellular system . There are prisons for females at See also:

• HEILBRONN

Heilbronn, and for males at See also:

• LUDWIGSBURG

Ludwigsburg and See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart; in Wurttemberg itself the regime is collective . 7 .

Holland has followed her nearest See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour Belgium and has now at command separate cells sufficient to receive the whole number of her prison population . The system of unbroken seclusion, prolonged to five years, is maintained with strictness . 8 . Italy.—Although accepting the principle of cellular imprisonment, Italy has not adopted it largely, partly from want of funds and not a little because the current of thought has set against it . The really penal establishments are 77 in number, the great ergasiolo of See also:

• SAN

San Stefano being one . Agricultural labour for convicts has been tried in colonies of coatti (or those provisionally released) planted out in the islands of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago . 9 . Norway.—The separation of Norway, as an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent state, from Sweden has produced no great change in its prison institutions, which still follow the lines of the neighbouring country . 10 . Portugal.—There are three or more cellular prisons at See also:

• LISBON (Lisboa)

Lisbon, See also:

• COIMBRA

Coimbra and See also:

• SANTAREM

Santarem, and the system of'strict separation when first adopted in 1884 was expected both to amend and deter . 11 . Sweden.—See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Oscar of Sweden was one of the earliest adherents of cellular imprisonment, and at his urgent See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation penitentiary reform was warmly espoused in 1841 .

His See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence is still felt, and the system in force in Norway and Sweden is progressive from strict separation to working outside the cell . Sweden, which adopted the cellular system in 1842, has now cells sufficient for prisoners sentenced to two years and less . There are three principal central prisons, one at See also:

• LANGHOLM

Langholm near See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm, a second at See also:

• MALMO

Malmo and a third at Mya Varfet near See also:

• GOTHENBURG (Swed. Goteborg)

Gothenburg . 12 . United States.—The penal system of the United States varies between being the most advanced and the most backward in the civilized world . At one end of the scale are the numerous bad See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county gaols and the horrors of the convict See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease system in the southern states, now nearly extinct; at the other such modern and well-equipped reformatories as Elmira and Concord (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS) . The worst feature is the indiscriminate association sometimes seen of all inmates, See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond and free, the convicted and accused; even witnesses against whom there is no See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of a charge are sometimes imprisoned among felons . Nor is it only in distant corners of the great continent that this See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism applies, though constant improvements are removing the grounds for it . It is only a short time since the local gaol in the city of New York, " the Tombs," a house of detention for prisoners awaiting trial, was described in an official report to the state legislature as " a disgrace . . It is defective in every modern appliance . It is dark, See also:

• DAMP

damp and ill-ventilated . . . worst of all is the hideous system of keeping. two or three men in a cell ; .

. . a means of indescribable torture to a decent man and a prolific source of See also:

• VICE

vice and crime to a criminal . Such treatment of See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs would be gross cruelty." This building has, how-ever, now been pulled down, and a new and better one has taken its place . The administration of prisons rests mainly with the various state authorities, and there is no federal or general system which would introduce uniformity of treatment . The federal government has no influence or control except for offences against the federal laws, regulating coinage, postal service, the See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue andtirso forth . Prison management is essentially a local concern,' but some general features are common to all states, such as the rule that while petty offenders and prisoners awaiting trial are under county and city jurisdiction, the state takes charge of all persons convicted of serious crimes . The state prisons receive by far the largest proportion of the criminal population, more than half the general total being imprisoned therein . Some of them are See also:

• MODELS

models of cleanliness and good order, built on the best and most imposing lines with large comfortable cells and an abundance of See also:

• LIGHT

light and air . The earnest See also:

• DESIRE

desire of most prison administration is to develop industrial training and trade profits side by side with mildness of treatment . The latter sometimes lapses into methods which are not usually thought compatible with prison discipline, such as the permission to See also:

• PLAY

play on musical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, the holding of concerts, the privilege of smoking and chewing See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, of receiving baskets of provisions, novels and See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers from friends outside . It is worthy of note that prison architecture in the United States misses many of the gloomy features common to such constructions . The newest prisons are generally lighter, more roomy, better ventilated and on the whole more comfortable than even the best British prisons . In 19oo Sir E .

Ruggles Brise, the English See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert on prisons, declared that " the purity of the air and the cleanliness of the American prisons are admirable, and under a very elaborate system of warming by hot air, a See also:

• REGULAR

regular and uniform temperature is sustained throughout the year, which, considering the varying nature of the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate from extreme See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat to See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold many points below zero, is a considerable See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph." Prison See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—It is an axiom in prison See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science that enforced labour cannot easily be made productive . No doubt the problem has been in a measure solved in England by that useful incentive to industry, the mark system . But the more substantial returns cannot always be expected with the sedentary employments and single-handed effort inseparable from the regime of cellular imprisonment . England for many years past, in adopting the principle of Public Works Prisons after a certain short period spent in separation, has pronounced in favour of open-air employment in association . Although the system still has many hostile critics its value cannot be contested . It has been said by a trustworthy authority,' " We are convinced also that severe labour on public works is most beneficial in teaching criminals habits of industry and training them to such employments as digging, road-making and See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick-making--work of a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind which cannot be carried on in separate confinement." A good proof of the value of the system as remunerative and healthful, morally and physically, is seen in the growing desire of other countries to follow our lead . Very similar operations have been carried out in Austria-Hungary, where large tracts of land have been brought into cultivation, and watercourses have been diverted successfully despite serious difficulties, See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic and physical; in See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia convict labour has been largely used in the construction of the Trans-siberian railway; the military operations in the See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan were greatly aided by convict labourers engaged in useful work at the See also:

• BASE

base and all along the line; Italy passed a law in 1904 enacting outdoor labour for the reclamation and draining of waste lands by prisoners under long sentence; and France, although much wedded to cellular imprisonment, is beginning to favour extra-mural employment of prisoners under strict regulations . The subject was discussed at the Penitentiary See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress at See also:

• BUDAPEST

Budapest in 1905, and a See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution passed recommending extra-mural employment for prisoners of rural origin, vagrants and drunkards, and those subject to tuberculous disease, " so largely the concomitant of cellular confinement." Prison industries continue to be largely sedentary in character; they See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover a wide range, although the conditions of life are for the most part artificial . Most trades and handicrafts are practised, such as shoemaking, tailoring, See also:

• CARPENTRY

carpentry, the work of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white- andblacksmiths; skilful and intelligent workmen, such as the French and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese, find a wide outlet for their versatile and See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent . The well-known products, styled articles de Paris, prison-made, find a large See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale, and many objects of high See also:

• ART

art, fine paintings, cloisonne enamels and See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold See also:

• LACQUER, or LACICER

lacquer are among the beautiful products from Japanese prisoners . The indoor manufactures followed in British prisons are not so varied as the foregoing and have been limited by the protests and objections raised by free or outside labour against alleged unfair competition . Accordingly, the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of goods has been largely curtailed for the open See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market and prison labour is restricted nowadays to supplying articles required for current use by public departments—such as the See also:

• NAVY

navy, See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, See also:

• POST

post See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office and, of course, all prison establishments .

Prison labour has found an outlet, therefore, in such work as service blanket making, See also:

• HAMMOCK

hammock making, See also:

• MAIL

mail-bag making, the manufacture of See also:

• CARTRIDGE (corruption of Fr. cartouche)

cartridge cases, flags, chopping firewood for barracks and so on, having been diverted almost entirely from See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

mat-making, once an exclusive prison trade originally invented indeed by prison task-masters . The total annual value of the labour applied in English prisons has varied . In 1896–1847 the total accruing from manufactures, See also:

• FARM

farm operations and the ordinary service of the prison was £213,812, the prison population in local and convict prisons being 17,614; in 1903–1904 the total amounted to £244,518, the prison population on the 31st of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1904 being 21,117 . The gross See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure was £524,289 for 1896-1897, as against £615,656 for 1903–1904 . Figures are not avail-able for any exact comparison of outlay and return in other countries, but the earnings in See also:

• EUROPEAN

European countries generally run to about half the expenditure . In the United States the policy varies between the two extremes of making prisoners self-supporting and of leaving them in idleness so that the whole See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of expense falls upon the state . In some states economic considerations have carried the day; in others the stringency of labour laws under the pressure of labour associations has paralysed all prison industry . In the first mentioned, the See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract system, by which a contractor hires the prisoner's labour from the state, has proved very profitable, but at the See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice of discipline and neglect of reformatory processes upon the individual . This leasing-out system has been carried further in some of the southern states, and has produced the convict camps, which have been much criticized and condemned from the harshness of the discipline enforced, the many abuses that exist and the meagre results other than monetary that have been obtained . The modern See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement in favour of industrial employment combined with humane and intelligent considerations has swept away the more or less barbaric method of enforcing labour by automatic machinery such as the treadmill, See also:

• CRANK

crank and shot See also:

• DRILL

drill (see TREADMILL) . (A . G.) PRISONERS' BASE (PRISONERS' BARS), an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• GAME

game much affected by children .

The players are divided into two sides, each See also:

• STANDING

standing within a base or home marked off at some distance apart . After preliminary songs and war-like challenges, a player on one side runs out and is pursued by one of " the enemy "; if touched he becomes a prisoner of the side to which his captor belongs . If another player from the side of the pursued runs between him and his pursuer, the latter has to follow him, but the last to leave his base is privileged to See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch any one of the enemy who left his base before him . The rules of the game are, however, traditional, and necessarily somewhat elastic . The end comes, of course, when all of one side have been captured by the other .