PROGRESS OF See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

GEOGRAPHICAL  See also:

• DISCOVERY

DISCOVERY Exploration and See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical discovery must have started from more than one centre, and to See also:

• DEAL

deal justly with the See also:

• MATTER

matter one ought to treat of these separately in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early ages before the whole civilized See also:

• WORLD

world was See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound together by the bonds of See also:

• MODERN

modern intercommunication . At the least there should be some See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of four See also:

• SEPARATE

separate systems of discovery—the Eastern, in which See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese explorers acquired knowledge of the See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography of See also:

• ASIA

Asia, and See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt their way towards See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and See also:

• AMERICA

America; the Western, in which the dominant races of the Mexican and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICAN

American plateaus extended their knowledge of the American See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent before See also:

• COLUMBUS
• COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -15o6)

Columbus; the Polynesian, in which the conquering races of the Pacific Islands found their way from See also:

• GROUP

group to group; and the Mediterranean . For some of these we have no certain See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, and regarding others the tales narrated in the early records are so hard to reconcile with See also:

• PRESENT

present knowledge that they are better fitted to be the See also:

• BATTLE

battle-ground of scholars championing See also:

• RIVAL

rival theories than the basis of definite See also:

• HISTORY

history . So it has come about that the only practicable history of geographical exploration starts from the Mediterranean centre, the first See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of that See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization which has come to be known as See also:

• EUROPEAN

European, though its See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of activity has See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long since overspread the habitable See also:

• LAND

land of both temperate zones, eastern Asia alone in See also:

• PART

part excepted . From all centres the leading motives of exploration were probably the same—commercial intercourse, warlike operations, whether resulting in See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest or in See also:

• FLIGHT

flight, religious zeal expressed in pilgrimages or missionary journeys, or, from the other See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, the avoidance of persecution, and, more particularly in later years, the See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement of knowledge for its own See also:

• SAKE

sake . At different times one or the other See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive predominated . Before the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. the See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt had carried the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of their arms southward from the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta of the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile well-nigh to its source, and eastward to the confines of See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria . The hieroglyphic See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions of Egypt and the See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform inscriptions of Assyria are See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in records of the movements and achievements of armies, the conquest of towns and the subjugation of peoples; but though many of the recorded sites have been identified, their discovery by wandering armies was isolated from their subsequent history and need not concern us here . The Phoenicians are the earliest Mediterranean See also:

• PEOPLE

people in the consecutive See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of geographical discovery which joins prehistoric The Phoe- See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time with the present . From See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon, and later from its The Ph more famous rival See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant adventurers of See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia explored and colonized the coasts of the Mediterranean and fared forth into the ocean beyond . They traded also on the Red See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, and opened up See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic with See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India as well as with the ports of the south and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, so that it was natural for See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon to employ the merchant navies of Tyre in his oversea See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . The western See also:

• EMPORIUM (a Latin adaptation of the Gr. Eµabpuov, from f)

emporium known in the scriptures as Tarshish was probably situated in the south of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, possibly at See also:

• CADIZ
• CADIZ (Cadiz)
• CADIZ (in Lat. Gades, and formerly called Cales by the English)

Cadiz, although some writers contend that it was See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage in See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa .

Still more diversity of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion prevails as to the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold-exporting See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• OPHIR

Ophir, which some scholars See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia, others at one or another point on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of Africa . Whether associated with the exploitation of Ophir (q.v.) or not the first See also:

• GREAT

great voyage of See also:

• AFRICAN

African discovery appears to have been accomplished by the Phoe- ' History of Civilization, vol. i . (1857) . 2 See H . J . Mackinder in See also:

• BRITISH

British Association See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report (See also:

• IPSWICH

Ipswich), 1895, p . 738, for a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German opinion, which has been expressed by many writers in a somewhat voluminous literature.nicians sailing the Red sea . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (himself a notable traveller in the 5th century B.C.) relates that the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Necho of the XXVIth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

Dynasty (c . 60o n.c.) built a See also:

• FLEET

fleet on the Red Sea, and confided it to Phoenician sailors with the orders to See also:

• SAIL

sail south-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward and return to Egypt by the Pillars of See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules and the Mediterranean sea . According to the tradition, which Herodotus quotes sceptically, this was accomplished; but the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story is too vague to be accepted as more than a possibility . The great Phoenician See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of Carthage, founded before 80o B.c., perpetuated the commercial enterprise of the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and ex-tended the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical trade to the ocean shores of Africa and Europe . The most celebrated voyage of antiquity undertaken for the See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express purpose of discovery was that fitted out by the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate of Carthage under the command of See also:

• HANNO

Hanno, with the intention of See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding new colonies along the west coast of Africa .

According to See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny, the only authority on this point, the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the voyage was that of the greatest prosperity of Carthage, which may be taken as somewhere between 570 and 480 B.C . The extent of this voyage is doubtful, but it seems probable that the farthest point reached was on the east-See also:

• RUNNING

running coast which See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds the Gulf of See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea on the north . Himilco, a contemporary of Hanno, was charged with an expedition along the west coast of Iberia northward, and as far as the uncertain references to this voyage can be understood, he seems to have passed the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• BISCAY (Vizcaya)
• BISCAY, BAY OF (Fr. Golfe de Gascogne; Sp. Golfo de Vizcaya)

Biscay and possibly sighted the coast of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . The sea power of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek communities on the coast of Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor and in the See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago began to be a formidable rival to the Phoenician soon after the time of Hanno and Himilco, and See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• INTEREST

interest attaches to the first recorded Greek The voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules . See also:

• PYTHEAS

Pytheas, a navigator of the Phocean colony of Massilia (See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles), determined the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude of that port with considerable precision by the somewhat clumsy method of ascertaining the length of the longest See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, and when, about 330 B.C., he set out on exploration to the northward in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search of the lands whence came gold, See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin and See also:

• AMBER

amber, he followed this See also:

• SYSTEM

system of ascertaining his position from time to time . If on each occasion he himself made the observations his voyage must have extended over six years; but it is not impossible that he ascertained the approximate length of the longest day in some cases by questioning the natives . Pytheas, whose own narrative is not preserved, coasted the Bay of Biscay, sailed up the See also:

• ENGLISH

English Channel and followed the coast of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain to its most northerly point . Beyond this he spoke of a land called See also:

• THULE

Thule, which, if his estimate of the length of the longest day is correct, may have been See also:

• SHETLAND, or ZETLAND

Shetland, but was possibly See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland: and from some confused statements as to a sea which coukl not be sailed through, it has been assumed that Pytheas was the first of the Greeks to obtain See also:

• DIRECT

direct knowledge of the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic regions . During this or a second voyage Pytheas entered the Baltic, discovered the coasts where amber is obtained and re-turned to the Mediterranean . It does not seem that any maritime trade followed these discoveries, and indeed it is doubtful whether his contemporaries accepted the truth of Pytheas's narrative; See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo four See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years later certainly did not, but the See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical studies of modern scholars have rehabilitated the Massilian explorer . The See also:

• GRECO, EL

Greco-See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• WARS

wars had made the remoter parts of Asia . Minor more than a name to the Greek geographers before the time of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the Great, but the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of that See also:

• CON

con- queror Alexander from 329 to 325 B.C. opened up the greater Asia to the knowledge of Europe .

His armies crossed the plains the Great. beyond the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian, penetrated the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain passes north-west of India, and did not turn back until they had entered on the Indo-Gangetic See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . This was one of the few great epochs of geographical discovery . The world was henceforth viewed as a very large place stretching far on every side beyond the Midland or Mediterranean Sea, and the land See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey of Alexander resulted in a voyage of discovery in the See also:

• OUTER

outer ocean from the mouth of the See also:

• INDUS

Indus to that of the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris, thus opening direct intercourse between Grecian and See also:

• HINDU

Hindu civilization . The Greeks who accompanied Alexander described with care the towns and villages, the products and the aspect of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The conqueror also intended to open up trade by sea between Europe and India,_ and the narrative of his See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• NEARCHUS

Nearchus records this famous voyage of discovery, the detailed accounts of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• PILOT

pilot See also:

• ONESICRITUS, or ONESICRATES

Onesicritus being lost . At the beginning of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 326 B.C . Nearchus See also:

• LEFT

left the Indus with his fleet, and the anchorages sought for each See also:

• NIGHT

night are carefully recorded . He entered the Persian Gulf, and rejoined Alexander at See also:

• SUSA (anc. Segusio, q.v.)
• SUSA (Biblical, Shushan)
• SUSA (Fr. Sousse)

Susa, when he was ordered to prepare another expedition for the circumnavigation of Arabia . Alexander died at See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon in 323 B.C., and the fleet was dispersed without making the voyage . The dynasties founded by Alexander's generals, Seleucus, See also:

• ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus and See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy, encouraged the same spirit of enterprise which their See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master had fostered, and extended geographical knowledge in several directions . Seleucus Nicator established the Greco-Bactrian See also:

• EMPIRE

empire and continued the intercourse with India . See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

Authentic information respecting the great valley of the See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges was supplied by Megasthenes, an See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador sent by Seleucus, who reached the remote See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Patali-putra, the modern See also:

• PATNA

Patna .

The See also:

• PTOLEMIES

Ptolemies in Egypt showed equal anxiety to extend the bounds of geographical knowledge . Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.) rendered the greatest service to geography by the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection and encouragement of Eratosthenes, whose labours gave the first ap-The proximate knowledge of the true See also:

• SIZE

size of the spherical Ptolemies. See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . The second Euergetes and his successor Ptolemy Lathyrus (118—115 B.c.) furnished See also:

• EUDOXUS

Eudoxus with a fleet to explore the Arabian sea . After two successful voyages, Eudoxus, impressed with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that Africa was surrounded by ocean on the south, left the Egyptian service, and proceeded to Cadiz and other Mediterranean centres of trade seeking a See also:

• PATRON

patron who would See also:

• FINANCE

finance an expedition for the purpose of African discovery; and we learn from Strabo that the See also:

• VETERAN

veteran explorer made at least two voyages southward along the coast of Africa . The Ptolemies continued to send fleets annually from their Red Sea ports of See also:

• BERENICE
• BERENICE, or BERNICE

Berenice and Myos Hormus to Arabia, as well as to ports on the coasts of Africa and India . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans did not encourage See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce with the same ardour as their predecessors; still the luxury of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, The which gave rise to. demands for the varied products Romans. of all the countries of the known world, led to an active trade both by See also:

• SHIPS

ships and caravans . But it was the military See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of Rome, and the ambition for universal empire, which led, not only to the discovery, but also to the survey of nearly all Europe, and of large tracts in Asia and Africa . Every new See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war produced a new survey and itinerary of the countries which were conquered, and added one more to the imperishable roads that led from every See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the known world to Rome . In the height of their power the Romans had surveyed and explored all the coasts of the Mediterranean, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, See also:

• GREECE

Greece, the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula, Spain, See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, western See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and southern Britain . In Africa their empire included Egypt, Carthage, See also:

• NUMIDIA

Numidia and Mauritania . In Asia they held Asia Minor and See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, had sent expeditions into Arabia, and were acquainted with the more distant countries formerly invaded by Alexander, including See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, See also:

• SCYTHIA (Gr. EKuOia)

Scythia, See also:

• BACTRIA (Bactriana)

Bactria and India . See also:

• ROMAN

Roman intercourse with India especially led to the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of geographical knowledge .

Before the Roman legions were sent into a new region to extend the limits of the empire, it was usual to send out exploring expeditions to report as to the nature of the country . It is narrated by Pliny and See also:

• SENECA

Seneca that the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero sent out two centurions on such a See also:

• MISSION

mission towards the source of the Nile (probably about A.D . 6o), and that the travellers pushed southwards until they reached vast marshes through which they could not make their way either on See also:

• FOOT

foot or in boats . This seems to indicate that they had penetrated to about 9° N . Shortly before A.D . 79 Hippalus took See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the regular See also:

• ALTERNATION (from Lat. alternare, to do by turns)

alternation of the monsoons to make the voyage from the Red Sea to India across the open ocean out of 'sight of land . Even though this sea-route was known, the author of the See also:

• PERI, JACOPO (1561–16 ?)

Peri plus of the Erythraean Sea, published after the time of Pliny, recites the old itinerary around the coast of the Arabian Gulf . It was, however, in the reigns of See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus and his immediate successors that Roman intercourse with India was at its height, and from the writings of See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias (c . 174) it appears that direct communication between Rome and See also:

• CHINA

China had already taken place . After the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the Roman empire, See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople became the last See also:

• REFUGE

refuge of learning, arts and See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste; while See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria continued to be the emporium whence were imported the commodities of the East . The emperor Justinian (483—565), in whose reign the greatness of the Eastern empire culminated, sent two Nestorian monks to China, who returned with eggs of the silkworm concealed in a hollow See also:

• CANE

cane, and thus See also:

• SILK

silk manufactures were established in the See also:

• PELOPONNESUS (" Island of Pelops ")

Peloponnesus and the Greek islands . It was also in the reign of Justinian that See also:

• COSMAS

Cosmas Indicopleustes, an Egyptian merchant, made several. voyages, and afterwards composed his XpLO'TLavoo roiro ypa4,la (See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

Topography), containing, in addition to his absurd See also:

• COSMOGONY (from Gr. K6Qµos, world and yiyvevGay to be born)

cosmogony, a tolerable description of India .

The great outburst of See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan conquest in the 7th century was followed by the Arab civilization, having its centres at See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad The See also:

• ARABS

Arabs. and See also:

• CORDOVA (Span. C6rdoba)
• CORDOVA (Span. Cordoba; Lat. Corduba)

Cordova, in connexion with which geography again received a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . The See also:

• WORKS

works of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Greek geographers were translated into Arabic, and starting with a See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound basis of theoretical knowledge, exploration once more made progress . From the 9th to the 13th century intelligent Arab travellers wrote accounts of what they had seen and heard in distant lands . The earliest Arabian traveller whose observations have come down to us is the merchant Sulaiman, who embarked in the Persian Gulf and made several voyages to India and China, in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 9th century . See also:

• ABU

Abu Zaid also wrote on India, and his See also:

• WORK

work is the most important that we possess before the See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making discoveries of Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo . Masudi, a great traveller who knew from See also:

• PERSONAL

personal experience all the countries between Spain and China, described the plains, mountains and seas, the dynasties and peoples, in his Meadows of Gold, an abstract made by himself of his larger work See also:

• NEWS

News of the Time . He died in 956, and was known, from the comprehensive- ness of his survey, as the Pliny of the East . Amongst his contempo- raries were Istakhri, who travelled through all the Mahommedan countries and wrote his See also:

• BOOK

Book of Climates in 950, and See also:

• IBN

Ibn Haukal, whose Book of Roads and Kingdoms, based on the work of Istakhri, was written in 976 . See also:

• IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154]

Idrisi, the best known of the Arabian geo- graphical authors, after travelling far and wide in the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 12th century, settled in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, where he wrote a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise descrip- tive of an armillary sphere which he had constructed for See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger II., the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman king, and in this work he incorporated all accessible results of contemporary travel . The Northmen of See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark and See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, whose piratical adventures were the terror of all the coasts of Europe, and who established themselves in Great Britain and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and The Sicily, were also geographical explorers in their rough but Northmen. practical way during the darkest period of the middle ages . All Northmen were not See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent on rapine and See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder; many were peaceful merchants . See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred the Great, king of the See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons in England, not only educated his people in the learning of the past ages; he inserted in the geographical works he translated many narratives of the travel of his own time .

Thus he placed on See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record the voyages of the merchant Ulfsten in the Baltic, including particulars of the geography of Germany . And in particular he' told of the remarkable voyage of Other, a See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian of Helgeland, who was the first authentic Arctic explorer, the first to tell of the rounding of the North Cape and the sight of the midnight See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun . This voyage of the middle of the 9th century deserves to be held in happy memory, for it unites the first Norwegian polar explorer with the first English See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector of travels . Scandinavian merchants brought the products of India to England and Ireland . From the 8th to the I ith century a commercial route from India passed through See also:

• NOVGOROD
• NOVGOROD (formerly known as V elikiy-Novgorod, Great Novgorod)

Novgorod to the Baltic, and Arabian coins found in See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, and particularly in the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• GOTLAND

Gotland, prove how closely the enterprise of the North-men and of the Arabs intertwined . Five-sixths of these coins preserved at See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm were from the mints of the Samanian dynasty, which reigned in See also:

• KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan and Transoxiana from about A.D . 900 to 1000 . It was the trade with the East that originally gave importance to the city of See also:

• VISBY, or WISBY

Visby in Gotland . In the end of the 9th century Iceland was colonized from Norway; and about 985 the intrepid See also:

• VIKING

viking, See also:

• ERIC

Eric the Red, discovered See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green-land, and induced some of his Icelandic countrymen to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle on its in-hospitable shores . His son, Leif Ericsson, and others of his followers were concerned in the discovery of the North American coast (see See also:

• VINLAND (Old Norse, Vinland, i.e. Vineland or Wineland)

VINLAND), which, but for the See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation of Iceland from the centres of European awakening, would have had momentous consequences . As things were, the importance of this discovery passed unrecognized . The story of two Venetians, Nicolo and See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio See also:

• ZENO

Zeno, who gave a vague See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of voyages in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern seas in the end of the 13th century, is no longer to be accepted as history .

At length the long period of barbarism which accompanied and followed the fall of the Roman empire See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew to a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close in Europe . The See also:

• CRUSADES

Crusades had a favourable See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the intellectual state of the Western nations . Interesting regions, Close of known only by the scant reports of pilgrims, were made the darA the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of attention and study; while religious zeal, ages. and the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of gain, combined with motives of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere curiosity, induced several persons to travel by land into remote regions of the East, far beyond the countries to which the operations of the crusaders extended . Among these was See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin of See also:

• TUDELA

Tudela, who set out from Spain in 116o, travelled by land to Constantinople, and having visited India and some of the eastern islands, returned to Europe by way of Egypt after an See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of thirteen years . Joannes de Plano See also:

• CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO

Carpini, a Franciscan See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk, was the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head. of one of the See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions despatched by See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

Innocent to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the chief and people of the See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars to a better mind . He reached See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic the headquarters of See also:

• BATU

Batu, on the See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga, in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February journeys . 1246; and, after some stay, went on to the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp of the great See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

khan near See also:

• KARAKORUM (Turkish, " black stone debris ")

Karakorum in central Asia, and returned safely in the autumn of 1247 . A few years afterwards, a See also:

• FLEMING, PAUL (1609-1640)
• FLEMING, RICHARD (d. 1431)
• FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD (1827- )
• FLEMING, SIR THOMAS (1S44-1613)

Fleming named See also:

• RUBRUQUIS (or RUBROUCK), WILLIAM OF

Rubruquis was sent on a similar mission, and had the merit of being the first traveller of this era who gave a correct account of the Caspian Sea . He ascertained that it had no outlet . At nearly the same time See also:

• HAYTON (HAITITON, HETHUM)

Hayton, king of See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia, made a journey to Karakorum in 1254, by a route far to the north of that followed by Carpini and Rubruquis . He was treated with See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour and hospitality, and returned by way of See also:

• SAMARKAND

Samarkand and See also:

• TABRIZ

Tabriz, to his own territory . The curious narrative of King Hayton was translated by See also:

• KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835)
• KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817)

Klaproth .

While the republics of Italy, and above all the state of See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, were engaged in distributing the rich products of India and the Far East over the Western world, it was impossible that motives of curiosity, as well as a See also:

• DESIRE

desire of commercial advantage, should not be awakened to such a degree as to impel some of the merchants to visit those remote lands . Among these were the See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers Polo, who traded with the East and themselves visited Tatary . The See also:

• RECITAL (from Lat. recitare, to read out, particularly of a public document)

recital of their travels fired the youthful See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Marco Polo, son of Nicolo, and he set out for the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of Kublai Khan, with his See also:

• FATHER

father and See also:

• UNCLE

uncle, in 1265 . Marco remained for -seventeen years in the service of the Great Khan, and was employed on many important missions . Besides what he learnt from his own observation, he collected much information from others concerning countries which he did not visit . He returned to Europe possessed of a vast See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of knowledge respecting the eastern parts of the world, and, being afterwards made a prisoner by the Genoese, he dictated the narrative of his travels during his captivity . The work of Marco Polo is the most valuable narrative of travels that appeared during the middle ages, and despite a See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold reception and many denials of the accuracy of the record, its substantial truthfulness has been abundantly proved . The Portuguese, following the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead of See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry, continued to look for the road to India by the Cape of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good Hope . The same end was sought by See also:

• CHRISTOPHER, SAINT (Christophorus, Christoferus)

Christopher Columbus, following the Columbus. See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of Toscanelli, and under-estimating the dia- See also:

• METER, ELECTRIC

meter of the globe, by sailing due west . The voyages of Columbus (1492=1498) resulted in the discovery of the West Indies and North America which barred the way to the Far East . In 1493 the pope, Alexander VI., issued a See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull instituting the famous " See also:

• LINE

line of demarcation " running from N. to S. See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo leagues W. of the See also:

• AZORES (Acores), or WESTERN ISLANDS

Azores, to the west of which the Spaniards were authorized to explore and to the east of which the Portuguese received the See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of discovery . The direct line of Portuguese exploration resulted in the discovery of the Cape route to India by Vasco da Gama (1498), and in 1500 to the See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent discovery of South America by Pedro See also:

• ALVAREZ, DON JOSE (1768-1827)
• ALVAREZ, DON MANUEL (1727-1797)
• ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO (c. 1465-1541?)

Alvarez Cabral .

The voyages of Columbus and of Vasco da Gama were so important that it is unnecessary to detail their results in this place . See COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER; GAMA, VASCO DA . The three voyages of Vasco da Gama (who died on the See also: