See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; See also:

• LAT

Lat. Borussia)  , a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, and the largest, most populous and most important See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . (For See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map see GERMANY.) It is bounded on the N. by the Baltic, See also:

• MECKLENBURG

Mecklenburg, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark and the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, on the E. by See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, on the S. by See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, the kingdom of See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, the Thuringian states, See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria and See also:

• HESSE
• HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen)

Hesse-See also:

• DARMSTADT

Darmstadt, on the W. by See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Alsace-See also:

• LORRAINE

Lorraine, See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg, See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium and the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands . Its frontiers have a See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of about 475o m., and with the exception of the enclaves See also:

• OLDENBURG

Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick and other small German states, and certain small See also:

• APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. appertinentia, from appertinere, to appertain)

appurtenances, such as See also:

• HOHENZOLLERN

Hohenzollern, in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg, it forms a tolerably compact See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of territory, and occupies almost the whole of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Germany . Its longest See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis is from S.W. to N.E . With the exception of the sea on the north and the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain-barrier on the south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, the frontiers are See also:

• POLITICAL

political rather than See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical . The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area of the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy is 134,622 sq. m. and comprises almost two-thirds of the entire extent of the German Empire . Its See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel is the See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of See also:

• BRANDENBURG

Brandenburg, See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round which the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the state has been gradually built up . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—Fully three-fifths of See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia belong to the See also:

• GREAT

great north See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain and may be generally characterized as lowlands . The plain is much wider on the east, where only the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern margin of Prussia is mountainous, than on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, where the Hanoverian hills approach to within less than See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo m. of the sea . A See also:

• LINE

line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from See also:

• DUSSELDORF

Dusseldorf through See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle to See also:

• BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau would, roughly speaking, See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country from the hilly districts . In the 'south-east Prussia is separated from Austria and Bohemia by the Sudetic See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, which begins at the valley of the See also:

• ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

Oder and extends thence towards the north-west . This chain includes the Riesen Gebirge, with the highest mountain in Prussia (See also:

• SCHNEEKOPPE

Schneekoppe), and subsides gradually in the hills of See also:

• LUSATIA (Ger. Lausitz)

Lusatia .

The Harz Mountains, however, beyond the Saxon plain, follow the same See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general direction and may be regarded as a detached continuation of the See also:

• SYSTEM

system, To the south of the Harz the Prussian frontier intersects the northern part of the Thuringian See also:

• FOREST

Forest, which is also prolonged towards the north-west by the See also:

• WESER (O. Ger. Visuracha, Wisura, Lat. Visurgis)

Weser Gebirge and the Teutoburger Wald . The south-west of Prussia is occupied by the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, including on the See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• BANK

bank the Hunsriick and the See also:

• EIFEL

Eifel, and on the right the See also:

• TAUNUS

Taunus, the Westerwald and the See also:

• SAUERLAND

Sauerland . Between the lower Rhenish and Thuringian systems are interposed the Vogelsberg, the Rhon, and other hills belonging to the Triassic system of the upper Rhine . The Silesian Mountains are composed chiefly of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, while the Harz and the lower Rhenish plateau are mainly of Devonian and See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian formation . To the north of the Sauerland is the important carboniferous system of the See also:

• RUHR

Ruhr, and there are also extensive coalfields in See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia . With the exception of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube Prussia is traversed by all the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of Germany, comprising almost the entire course of the Oder and the Weser . Nearly the whole of the German See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-line belongs to Prussia, and it possesses all the important seaports (see also GERMANY) except See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg, See also:

• BREMEN

Bremen and See also:

• LUBECK

Lubeck . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate of Prussia may be described as moderate, and is generally healthy . The greatest extremes of temperature are found between the east and west, the mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature in the See also:

• BLEAK, or BLICK (Alburnus lucidus)

bleak and exposed provinces of the north-east being about 44° F., while that of the sheltered valley of the Rhine is 6° higher . In See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter the respective means are 26° and 35°; in summer the difference is not above 2° to 4° . In Prussia as a whole the thermometer ranges from loo° to 130°, but these extremes are rarely reached . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average annual rainfall is about 21 in.; it is highest in the hilly See also:

• DISTRICT

district on the west (34 in.) and on the north-west coast (30 to 32 in.), and lowest (16 in.) in the inland parts of the eastern provinces .

See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The following See also:

• SCHEDULE

schedule shows the area and population of the whole kingdom and of each of its fourteen provinces on the 1st of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1900, and the 31st of December 1905 . Provinces . Area in Pop., 1900 . Pop., 1905 . Eng. sq. m . East Prussia - 14,284 1,996,626 2,030,176 West Prussia 9,859 1,563,658 1,641,746 See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin . . 29 1,888,848 2,040,148 Brandenburg 15,382 3,108,554 3,531,906 See also:

• POMERANIA (German, Pommern)

Pomerania 11,620 1,634,832 1,684,326 Silesia . . . 15,568 4,668,857 4,942,611 See also:

• POSEN
• POSEN (Polish Poznan)

Posen . . . 11,186 1,887,275 1,986,637 Saxony 9,751 2,832,616 2,979,221 See also:

• SCHLESWIG (Dan. Slesvig)

Schleswig-See also:

• HOLSTEIN
• HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837–1909)

Holstein 1 . 7,338 1,387,968 1,504,248 See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover 14,870 2,590,939 2,759,544 See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia .

. 7,803 3,187,777 3,618,090 Hesse See also:

• NASSAU

Nassau 6,o62 1,897,981 2,070,052 Rhineland . 10,423 5,759,798 6,436,337 Hohenzollern 441 66,780 68,282 134,616 34,472,509 37,293,324 ' 1 Including See also:

• HELIGOLAND (Ger. Helgoland)

Heligoland . The increase of population proceeds most rapidly, as would be expected, in Berlin, and next follow Westphalia, the Rhineland, Brandenburg and Saxony, while it is weakest in Hohenzollern, Pomerania and East Prussia . The population is densest in the See also:

• MINING

mining and manufacturing district of the Rhine, which is closely followed by the See also:

• COAL

coal regions of Silesia and parts of Saxony and Westphalia . Both the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth-See also:

• RATE

rate and the See also:

• DEATH

death-rate show a tendency to diminish . (For statistical tables under this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, see GERMANY.) In Prussia, the annual increase in the See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban population is about seven times as great as that in the rural communities . In 1905 Prussia contained twenty-two towns each with upwards of See also:

• IOO

ioo,000 inhabitants . The annual rate of See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide in Prussia is high, and among German states is only exceeded in the kingdom of Saxony . Divided according to nationalities (by speech), the population of Prussia includes roughly 31,000,000 Germans, over 3,000,000 Poles (in the eastern provinces), 107,000 See also:

• LITHUANIANS

Lithuanians (in the north-east), 137,000 Danes (in Schleswig Holstein), 65,000 See also:

• WENDS

Wends (in Brandenburg and Silesia), 25,000 Czechs (in Silesia) and 78,000 See also:

• WALLOONS (Wallons, from a common Teut. word meaning " foreign," cf. Ger. Welsch, Du. waalsch, Eng. Welsh)

Walloons (near the Belgian frontier) . In the rural districts of Posen and in parts of Silesia the Poles See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the predominant See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of the population . Communication.—With most See also:

• INTERNAL

internal means of communication Prussia is well provided . Hardly any of its excellent highroads existed in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick the Great, and many of them date from the See also:

• NAPOLEONIC

Napoleonic era .

The first Prussian railway was laid in 1838, but the railway system did not receive its full development until the events of 1866 removed the obstacles placed in the way by Hanover . Most of the lines were laid by private companies, and the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government confined itself to establishing lines in districts not likely to attract private See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . In 1879, however, a measure was passed authorizing the acquisition by the state of the private See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, and in 1884 nine-tenths of the 13,800 m. of railway in Prussia were in the hands of government . The proportion of railway mileage in Prussia (5 m. per 10,000 inhabitants) is nearly as high as in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, but the See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic is much less . Between 188o and 1886 the state-owned lines of railway increased by 9240 m., the increase being principally due to the policy of buying up private lines; and since 1886 there has been a further increase . In 1903 the state lines amounted to a total of 18,520 m., and the private lines to 1248 M . The former total includes lines in Hesse-Darmstadt, the railways of this See also:

• GRAND

grand duchy having been incorporated with the Prussian railways in 1896 . The See also:

• BUILDING

building of the railways in Prussia has in almost every See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case been influenced by military requirements; and this applies also to the making of private lines . The most important See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk line of Prussia is that which enters the western frontier. at Herbesthal, and runs through See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne, Dusseldorf, Hanover, Berlin, See also:

• DIRSCHAU

Dirschau and See also:

• KONIGSBERG (Polish Krolewiec)

Konigsberg, and leaves the eastern boundary at Eydtkuhnen for St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg . Generally speaking, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal lines of the country either radiate from Berlin or run alongside the frontiers and boundaries . To the former See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category belong the lines which connect the capital with Hamburg and See also:

• KIEL

Kiel, with See also:

• STETTIN

Stettin, with See also:

• DANZIG, or DANTSIC (Polish Gdansk)

Danzig and Konigsberg, with Posen and Breslau (dividing at See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort-on-Oder), with See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden, with See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig and Bavaria, with Frankfort-on-See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main via Halle and See also:

• ERFURT

Erfurt, with See also:

• COBLENZ (KOBLENZ)

Coblenz via See also:

• CASSEL
• CASSEL, or KASSEL

Cassel, and with Cologne via See also:

• MAGDEBURG

Magdeburg and Brunswick . The second category embraces lines from Hamburg to Stettin, from Stettin to Posen and Breslau, and from Breslau to Halle; the See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring is again taken up at Frankforton-Main, and continues up the Rhine (on both See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks) to Cologne, and thence through See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster and Bremen to Hamburg .

Besides these there are two other important lines, one connecting Hamburg with Frankfort-on-Main via Hanover and Cassel, the other linking Hanover with Halle . Prussia possesses also an extensive system of natural and artificial waterways . In the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period 1880-1893 the Prussian Government spent no less than L'11,677,750 upon the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance and construction of locks, canals, See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal buildings, See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges, roadways, &c . Besides this there was a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• VOTE

vote of £6,197,600 for the construction of the See also:

• DORTMUND

Dortmund-See also:

• EMS

Ems Canal and the improvement of the See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of the Oder, See also:

• VISTULA (Ger. Weichsel, Polish Wisla)

Vistula, See also:

• SPREE

Spree and other waterways in Brandenburg . The most important of the canals are the North Sea and Baltic Canal (officially the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal), the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe-See also:

• TRAVE

Trave Canal (to give Lubeck See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the Elbe), and the Dortmund-Ems Canal, and its continuation, the Dortmund-Rhine Canal (see further, GERMANY) . The largest See also:

• SHIP

ship-owning ports are Flensburg, Stettin, Kiel, See also:

• ROSTOCK

Rostock and Danzig; and Geestemunde owns the largest deep-sea fishing See also:

• FLEET

fleet . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—Of the total area of cultivable See also:

• LAND

land in the German Empire fully 66% belongs to Prussia . About 29% of the See also:

• SOIL

soil of Prussia consists of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• LOAM (O.E. lam; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger. Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud, clay)

loam or See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, 32 % is mediocre or of loam and See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand mixed, 31 % is predominantly sandy, and 6% is occupied by bogs and marshes . The north-eastern provinces contain a high proportion of poor soil, and in the north-west occur large tracts of See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

heath and See also:

• MOOR

moor . The reclaimed marshlands in both districts, as well as the soil in the neighbourhood of the rivers, are usually very fertile, and tracts of fruitful ground are found in the valleys of the Rhine and its affluents and in the plain around Magdeburg, the so-called Bahrde . The most fertile Prussian See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province is Saxony, while the least productive are East and West Prussia . The principal See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop in Prussia is See also:

• RYE

rye, of which the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• BREAD

bread of the country is made; it grows in all parts of the kingdom, especially in the north and east, and occupies about one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of the whole tilled See also:

• SURFACE

surface .

Oats occupy an area equal to about See also:

• HALF

half that devoted to rye, and are also grown most extensively in the north-eastern districts . See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

Wheat, which is chiefly cultivated in the south and west, does not See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover more than a fourth as much ground as rye . See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

Barley is most largely grown in Saxony and Silesia . Other See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain crops are spelt (chiefly on the Rhine), See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat (Hanover and Schleswig-Holstein) and See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet; See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize is grown for See also:

• FODDER

fodder in some districts . The produce of grain does not cover the See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption and is supplemented by imports of rye and other cereals from Russia and See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland . Potatoes, used both as See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and for the See also:

• DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation of See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits, are cultivated over nearly as large an area as rye and are especially predominant in the eastern provinces . The See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• BEET

beet is extensively grown for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of See also:

• SUGAR

sugar in the provinces of Saxony, Hanover, Silesia, Pomerania and Brandenburg . See also:

• FLAX

Flax and See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp occupy considerable areas in East Prussia, Silesia and Hanover, while hops are raised chiefly in Posen and Saxony . The cultivation of See also:

• RAPE
• RAPE (from Lat. rapere, to seize)
• RAPE (Lat. rapum or rapa, turnip)

rape-See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed for oil has fallen off since the use of See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum has become general . The See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco of Silesia, Brandenburg, Hanover and the Rhine province is inferior to that of Germany; the annual value of Prussian-grown tobacco is about £500,000, or one-fourth of the total produce of the empire . Of the total cultivated area less than 5 % is divided into farms of less than 5 acres each, about 33 % amongst farms ranging from 5 to 50 acres, 32.01 % amongst farms ranging from 50 to 250 acres, and the rest amongst farms exceeding 250 acres . The provinces in which large estates (up to 2500 acres and more) are the See also:

• RULE

rule, are Pomerania, Posen, Silesia, East Prussia, Brandenburg, West Prussia and Saxony, in the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order named .

The estates of the old landed gentry (Rittergiiter) of Prussia, taking the estates above 500 acres each, aggregate in all some 13,400,000 acres . Small estates (See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant holdings) prevail principally in the Rhine province, Hesse-Nassau and Westphalia, and to some extent also in Hanover, Silesia and Saxony, but large peasant holdings (50 to 250 acres) exist only in Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, East Prussia, Westphalia, Saxony and Brandenburg . Notwithstanding the continuous decline in prices, and other drawbacks from which agriculture has suffered throughout See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, the Prussian farmers have on the whole fairly well maintained their position, owing mainly to the fact that they have been both eager and skilful in availing themselves of the opportunities offered by the progress of agricultural knowledge . One of the latest departures in this See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field has been the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of central stations for the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of electric See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to the estates in its neighbourhood, the power to be used for See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving both fixed and movable machinery (See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, See also:

• CHAFF (from the A.S. ceaf, allied to the O. High Ger. cheva, a husk or pod)

chaff-cutters, threshing-See also:

• MACHINES

machines, ploughs, &c.). for See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting buildings and houses, for cooking and See also:

• HEATING

heating, and on large estates for giving signals and conveying orders . The cultivation of the beetroot for sugar has had a far-reaching effect upon Prussian agriculture, especially in the provinces of Saxony, Silesia, Posen, Hanover, West Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg, the Rhine province, and other parts of the kingdom, where the beetroot is extensively cultivated . Owing to the deep cultivation of the soil and the incessant hoeing which the beet crop requires, the three or four crops which follow it are invariably good, and the liability to failure of the immediately succeeding crop is reduced to a minimum . Moreover, the fiscal policy of the Prussian government has been of first-rate assistance to the Prussian See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer . See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

Hand in hand with the cultivation of the beetroot has gone the cultivation of barley and See also:

• CHICORY

chicory, crops of scarcely inferior value from the See also:

• CULTIVATOR

cultivator's point of view . Barley is grown on more than 11 i, million acres . The Prussian province of Saxony produces one-half of the total quantity of chicory yielded every See also:

• YEAR

year through-out the empire; the principal centres for its manufacture in Prussia are Magdeburg, Berlin and Breslau . Livestock.—The provirtce of East Prussia, with the principal government See also:

• STUD

stud of Trakehnen, is the headquarters of See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-rearing, and contains the greatest number of horses both relatively and absolutely . The horses bred there are generally suitable for the lighter See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• WORK

work only, and are in great See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request for military purposes .

Horses of a stouter type are bred in Schleswig-Holstein and on the Rhine, but heavy See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught horses have to be imported from See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, Holland, Belgium and Denmark . The best See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle are reared in the maritime provinces, whence, as from the marshy lowlands of Hanover, they are exported in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . In the See also:

• MATTER

matter of freights the government renders material assistance to the Prussian farmer . As the state owns the railways, it carries agricultural produce, especially such as is destined for ex-See also:

• PORT

port, at lower preferential rates . Forests.—Prussia contains a greater proportion of woodland (23 %) than any other large country in the south or west of Europe (France 17%, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy 12 %, Great Britain 3%), though not so large a proportion as Russia, Austria and some of the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor German states . The most extensive forests are in East and West Prussia, Silesia, and Brandenburg, where coniferous trees prevail, and in the Rhenish and See also:

• HESSIAN

Hessian districts, where oaks and beeches are the most prominent growths . The north-west is almost entirely destitute of See also:

• TIMBER

timber, and See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat is there used universally as See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel . Thegovernment forests cover about 6,000,000 acres, or upwards of one-fourth of the whole, and are admirably managed, bringing in an annual See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue of 1; millions See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling . The state also controls the management of forests in private See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession, and exerts itself to secure the planting of See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste lands . Viticulture.—The principal See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine-growing districts of Prussia are the Rheingau and the Rhine provinces, though wine is also produced in Silesia, Westphalia and a few other districts . The valleys of the See also:

• NAHE

Nahe, See also:

• SAAR

Saar, Moselle and See also:

• AHR

Ahr all produce excellent wine . The Prussian state owns several vineyards in the Rhine district .

German See also:

• VINE

vine-growers have suffered, in common with vine-growers in other countries of Europe, from the Oidium tuckeri and the See also:

• PHYLLOXERA (Gr. 4suXXov, leaf, and Erlpbs, dry)

Phylloxera, and the government has spent large sums of See also:

• MONEY

money in endeavouring to See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest the ravages caused . See also:

• FISHERIES

Fisheries.—The fisheries on the Baltic Sea and its haffs, and on the North Sea, are important . In the former the take consists mainly of See also:

• HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE

herrings, flat See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon, See also:

• MACKEREL

mackerel and eels, while the chief See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of the latter are See also:

• COD

cod and oysters . Inland See also:

• FISHERY (LAW OF)

fishery has been encouraged by the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of numerous piscicultural establishments and by the enactment of See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close-time See also:

• LAWS

laws . See also:

• CARP

Carp, See also:

• PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. 7rEpKo; the last word is connected with 2repev6r, dark-coloured, spotted)
• PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod used for measurement)

perch, See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike and salmon, the last-named especially in the Rhine, are the principal varieties; See also:

• STURGEON (Acipenser)

sturgeon are taken in the Elbe and Oder, and the lakes of East Prussia swarm with See also:

• BREAM (Abramis)

bream and lampreys . See also:

• GAME

Game of various kinds abounds in different parts of Prussia, and the lakes are frequented by large flocks of waterfowl . Mining and See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

Metal See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—Prussia is the largest producer of coal, See also:

• ZINC

zinc, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead and See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper amongst the states of the German Empire, though in respect of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron she comes second to Alsace-Lorraine . Of the aggregate German output of coal Prussia supplies over 93 %, viz. the huge total of 101,966,158 tons, valued at £43,912,500 in 1900, as compared with some 47,000,000 tons in 1882, representing an increase of about 117%, and of this the province of Westphalia produces the largest quantity . Next comes the Rhine province, that is, the Saar, Aachen, Dusseldorf and Roer coal-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields; then Silesia . An extremely important role is played in the coal See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of Prussia by the Rhenish-Westphalian Coal See also:

• SYNDICATE

Syndicate, which has its headquarters at See also:

• ESSEN

Essen, and which from the bulk of its output (about 40 % of the total German output) has succeeded in regulating the production and See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of the coalfields generally . Out of a total output of See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite for the entire German Empire of 40,498,019 tons in 1900, Prussia yielded no less than 84 %, or a total of 34,007,542 tons, valued at £4,012,900, showing an annual increase of over 24 million tons and of 31 millions sterling since 1882 . Almost all the zinc produced in Germany comes out of the Silesian mines .

The chief iron-producing regions are the Rhine province, Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau and Silesia . But in the production of lead and See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese Prussia enjoys almost an unchallenged See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly . Salt is See also:

• MINED

mined principally in the province of Saxony (See also:

• STASSFURT

Stassfurt, See also:

• ASCHERSLEBEN

Aschersleben, Erfurt, Halle, See also:

• MERSEBURG

Merseburg, See also:

• SANGERHAUSEN

Sangerhausen), the See also:

• KALI (black)

kali salts near Magdeburg and See also:

• GLAUBER, JOHANN RUDOLF (1604-1668)

Glauber salts in the Rhine province and Hesse-Nassau . Iron is worked principally in the districts of See also:

• ARNSBERG

Arnsberg, Dusseldorf, See also:

• OPPELN (Polish, Oppolie)

Oppeln in Silesia, Treves and Coblenz, and zinc for the most part near Oppeln in Silesia; lead and See also:

• SILVER

silver near Aachen, Oppeln and See also:

• WIESBADEN

Wiesbaden, and sulphuric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid in all the mining districts, as well as near See also:

• POTSDAM

Potsdam, Breslau, Magdeburg and Merseburg . Petroleum is extracted to a limited extent at a couple of places in the province of Hanover . Down to 1899, in which year the monopoly was bought out by the Prussian government, 150 to 250 tons of See also:

• AMBER

amber were mined in East Prussia . A little is also collected on the coast near See also:

• PILLAU

Pillau . See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

Industrial Development.—During the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century Prussia See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into a great manufacturing country . Among the causes which have been mainly instrumental in fostering the industrial development in Prussia are the fostering care of the government (at once energetic, comprehensive and watchful), co-operation and organization, which has been immensely facilitated by the habits of . prompt obedience and order learnt in the course of the military training; the generally high intellectual level and technical and See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic skill of the workmen, due in part to the enforcement of See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound elementary See also:

• EDUCATION

education and in part to the excellent technical high See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools,.trades " continuation schools," and hosts of special schools in which the arts and crafts are thoroughly and systematically taught; the use made of scientific discoveries and the power of taking See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of scientific progress generally; the See also:

• NATIONAL

national aptitude for giving conscientious See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to minutiae, and for thoroughness and mastery of detail; the extensive employment of commercial travellers, having command of See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, in all parts of the See also:

• WORLD

world; and an See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest See also:

• DESIRE

desire to find out and meet the wants and tastes of customers . Moreover, the social and economic conditions of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people have been in their favour . See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

Wages have on the whole been lower than, for example, in England, though since 1896 they have shown a strong upward tendency, and the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of comfort, and even in many cases the standard of living, has been lower . Litigation, too, is more expeditious and less costly .

But the Prussian manufacturer has derived no small measure of advantage from the fact that he came into the field somewhat later than his See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign rivals . He has been enabled to utilize their experience, to profit from their drawbacks, faults and deficiencies, and to make a clean start in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of this valuable acquired knowledge . His interests have also been materially promoted by the commercial and fiscal policies of his government . The chief industrial districts are, of course, those which yield coal, with, in addition, the great cities—Berlin, Magdeburg, Hanover, Breslau, See also:

• GORLITZ

Gorlitz, Stettin, Essen, Dortmund, See also:

• ELBERFELD

Elberfeld-See also:

• BARMEN

Barmen, Dusseldorf, Cologne, See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-Chapelle, See also:

• CREFELD, or KREFELD

Crefeld, Halle, Hanover, Frankfort-on-Main, See also:

• SAARBRUCKEN

Saarbrucken, HSchst, See also:

• SOLINGEN

Solingen, See also:

• REMSCHEID

Remscheid, See also:

• HAGEN
• HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (178o-1856)

Hagen, Konigsberg, Danzig and many others . The iron and metal industries, especially the making of machinery, See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

electrical plant, See also:

• TRAMWAY

tramway plant, and the production of articles in wrought copper and See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass, See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank in the forefront . In these branches Berlin, and more lately its suburbs, as well as Magdeburg and Cologne, have played an active role, though the old centres of the metallurgical and iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel industries in the Rhine province and Westphalia have also See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded in an extraordinary degree . The growth of the chemical industries, which are essentially a German speciality, must also be mentioned in the front rank . The branches in which this supremacy stands unrivalled are those which produce See also:

• ANILINE, PHENYLADIINE, or AMINOBENZENE, (C6H5NH2)

aniline dyes, artificial See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo, illuminants (See also:

• ACETYLENE

acetylene See also:

• GAS

gas, Welsbach mantles, &c.), See also:

• EXPLOSIVES

explosives, various chemical salts, pharmaceutical preparations, See also:

• CELLULOSE

cellulose, glycerine, artificial (chemical) See also:

• MANURES

manures, and per-fumes.' A third See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of industry in which German See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius has won triumphs of the highest kind is See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

shipbuilding . Constitution.—The See also:

• PRESENT