See also:

• RECENT

RECENT See also:

• SCHOOLS

SCHOOLS OF  See also:

• PAINTING

PAINTING See also:

• BRITISH

British . At the beginning of the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century British See also:

• ART

art was held to be in a vigorous and authoritative position . During the years immediately preceding it had been developing with regularity and had displayed a vitality which seemed to be full of promise . It was supported by a large See also:

• ARRAY (from the O. Fr. areyer, Med. Lat. arredare, to get ready)

array of capable workers; it had gained the widest recognition from the public; and it was curiously See also:

• FREE

free from those See also:

• INTERNAL

internal conflicts which diminish the strength of an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal for popular appreciation . There were then few See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp divergences or subdivisions of an important See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . The leadership of the Royal See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy was generally conceded, and its relations with the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of outside artists were little wanting in cordiality . One of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief reasons for this understanding was that at this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time an almost unprecedented approval was enjoyed by nearly all classes of painters . Picture-See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting had become a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, and even the youngest workers received encouragement directly they gave See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of a reasonable See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of capacity . The demand was equal to the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply; and though the number of men who were adopting the See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic profession was rapidly increasing, there seemed little danger of over-See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production . Pictorial art had established upon all sorts of See also:

• PEOPLE

people a hold too strong, as it seemed, to be affected by See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of fashion . All pointed in the direction of a permanent prosperity . Subsequent events provided a curious commentary on the anticipations which were reasonable enough in 1875 .

That See also:

• YEAR

year is now seen to have beep, not the beginning of an era of unexampled success for British pictorial art, but rather the culminating point of preceding activity . During the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period which has succeeded we have witnessed a rapid decline in thepopular See also:

• INTEREST

interest in picture-painting and a marked alteration in the conditions under which artists have had to See also:

• WORK

work . In the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the former sympathy between the public and the producers, there See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up something which almost approached indifference to their best and sincerest efforts . Simultaneously there See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed a See also:

• GREAT

great amount of internal dissension and of antagonism between different sections of the art community . As an effect of these two causes, a new set of circumstances came into existence, and the aspect of the British school under-went a See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical change . Many art workers found other ways of using their. energies . The slackening of the popular demand inclined them to experiment, and to test forms of practice which formerly were not accorded serious See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, and it led to the formation of detached hostile See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of artists always ready to contend over details of technical See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure . Restlessness became the dominant characteristic of the British school, along with some intolerance of the popular lack of sympathy . The first sign of the coming change appeared very soon after 1875 . The right of the Royal Academy to define and See also:

• DIRECT

direct the policy of the British school was disputed in 1877, when the Grosvenor See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

Gallery was started " with the Grosvenor intention of giving See also:

• SPECIAL

special advantages of See also:

• EXHIBITION

exhibition Gauery to artists of established reputation, some of whom Academy. have previously been imperfectly known to the public." This exhibition gallery was designed not so much as a See also:

• RIVAL

rival to the Academy, as to provide a place where could be collected the See also:

• WORKS

works of those men who did not care to make their appeal to the public through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of a large and heterogeneous exhibition . As a rallying place for the few unusual painters, See also:

• STANDING

standing apart from their See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows in conviction and method, it had See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for existence; and that it was not regarded at See also:

• BURLINGTON

Burlington See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House as a rival was proved by the fact that among the contributors to the first exhibition were included See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

Grant, the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

President of the Royal Academy, and such artists as See also:

• LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON, BARON (183o–1896)
• LEIGHTON, ROBERT (161x—1684)

Leighton, See also:

• MILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT (1829-1896)

Millais, G . F .

See also:

• WATTS, ALARIC ALEXANDER (1797-1864)
• WATTS, GEORGE FREDERICK (1817-1904)
• WATTS, ISAAC (1674-1748)

Watts, See also:

• ALMA

Alma-Tadema, G . D . See also:

• LESLIE
• LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722)
• LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794–1859)
• LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855–1892)
• LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832)
• LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882)

Leslie and E . J . See also:

• POYNTER, SIR EDWARD JOHN, BART

Poynter, who were at the time Academicians or Associates . With them, however, appeared such men as Burne-See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, See also:

• HOLMAN, JAMES (1786–1857)

Holman See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

Hunt, See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter See also:

• CRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; O. Ger. Kraen; cognate, as also the Lat. grus, and consequently the Fr. grue and Span. grulla, with the Gr. dpavos)
• CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900)
• CRANE, WALTER (1845– )
• CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )

Crane, W . B . See also:

• RICHMOND
• RICHMOND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• RICHMOND, LEGH (1772-1827)
• RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (1842– )

Richmond and J . McN . See also:

• WHISTLER, JAMES ABBOTT

Whistler, who had not heretofore obtained the publicity to which they were entitled by the exceptional quality and intention of their work . There was doubtless some See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion that the Academy was not keeping See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch with the more important art movements, for shortly after the opening of the Grosvenor Gallery there began that attack upon the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official art leaders which has been one of the most noteworthy incidents in See also:

• RECENT

recent art See also:

• HISTORY

history in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . The initial See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of this conflict ended about 1886, when the vehemence of the attack had been weakened, partly by the withdrawal of some of the more prominent " outsiders," who had meanwhile been elected into the Academy, and partly by the formation of smaller See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, which afforded the more " advanced " of the younger men the opportt'tnities which they desired for the exposition of their views .

In a modified See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, however, the antagonism between the Academy and the outsiders has continued . The various protesting art association continues to work in most matters independently of one another, with the See also:

• COMMON

common belief that the dominant See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Burlington House is not exercised entirely as it should be for the promotion of the best interests of British art, and that it maintains tradition as against the development of See also:

• INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. individualis, that which is not divided, an individual)

individualism and a " new See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style." The agitation in all branches of art effort was not entirely without result even inside Burlington House . Some of the older See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic views were modified, and changes seriously discussed, which formerly would have been rejected as opposed to all the traditions of the society . Its calmness under attack, and its ostentatious disregard of the demands made upon it by the younger and more strenuous outsiders, have veiled a great See also:

• DEAL

deal of shrewd observation of passing events . It may be said that the Academy has known when to break up an organization in which it recognized a possible source of danger, by selecting the ablest leaders of the opposition to fill vacancies in its own ranks; it has given places on its walls to the works of those reformers who were not unwilling to be represented in the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual exhibitions; and it has, without seeming to yield to clamour, responded perceptibly to the pressure of professional See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . In so doing, though it has not checked the progress of the changing fashion by which the popular liking for pictorial art has been diverted into other channels, it has kept its hold upon the public, and has not to any appreciable extent weakened its position of authority . It is doubtful whether a more definite participation by the Academy in the controversies of the period would have been of Changed any use as a means of prolonging the former good Conditions relations between artists and the collectors of works of British of art . The change is the result of something more Arr. than the failure of one art society to fulfil its entire See also:

• MISSION

mission . The steady falling off in the demand for See also:

• MODERN

modern pictures has been due to a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of causes which have been powerful enough to alter nearly all the conditions under which British painters have to work . For example, the older collectors, who had for some years anterior to 1875 bought up eagerly most of the more important canvases which came within their reach, could find no more See also:

• ROOM

room in their galleries for further additions; again, artists, with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of profiting to the utmost by the keenness of the competition among the buyers, had forced up their prices to the highest limits . But the most active of all causes was that the younger See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of collectors did not show the same inclination that had swayed their predecessors to limit their attention to modern pictorial art . They turned more and more from pictures to other forms of artistic effort .

They built themselves houses in which the possibility of See also:

• HANGING

hanging large canvases was not contemplated, and they began to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call upon the craftsman and the decorator to supply them with what was necessary for the adornment of their homes . At first this modification in the popular See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste was scarcely perceptible, but with every successive year it became more marked in its effect . Latterly more See also:

• MONEY

money has been spent by one class of collectors upon pictures than was available even in the best of the times which have passed away; but this lavish See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure has been devoted not to the acquisition of works by modern men, but to the See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase of examples of the old masters . Herein may often be recognized the wish to become possessed of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects which have a fictitious value in consequence of their rarity, or which are " See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound investments." Evidence of the existence of this spirit among collectors is seen in the prevailing eagerness to acquire works which inadequately represent some famous See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, or are even ascribed to him on grounds not always credible . The productions of See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor men, such as See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• MORLAND, GEORGE (1763-1804)

Morland, who had never been ranked among the masters, have received an amount of attention quite out of proportion to what merits they possess, if only they can be proved to be scarce examples, or historically notorious . All this implies in the creed of the art See also:

• PATRON

patron a change which has necessarily reacted on living painters and on the conditions of their art production . These, then, are the conclusions to which we are led by a comparison of the movements which affected the British school See also:

• PORTRAITURE

Portraiture. between 1875 and the beginning of the loth century . To a wide appreciation of all types of pictorial art succeeded a grudging and careless estimate of the value of the bulk of artistic endeavour . Only a few branches of production are still encouraged by anything approaching an efficient demand . Portraiture is the mainstay of the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the figure painters; it has never lost its popularity, and may be said to have maintained satisfactorily its hold upon all classes of society, for the See also:

• DESIRE

desire to possess See also:

• PERSONAL

personal records is very general and is See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of any art fashion . It has persisted through all the changes of view which have been increasingly active in recent years . Episodical art, illustrating sentimental Episodical motives or incidents with some touch of dramatic Art. See also:

• ACTION

action, has remained popular, because it has some degree of See also:

• LITERARY

literary interest; but imaginative works and pictures which have been produced chiefly as expressions of anoriginal regard for nature, or of some unusual conviction as to technical details, have found comparatively few admirers .

The designers, however, and the workers in the decorative arts have found opportunities which formerly were denied to them . They have had more See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for the display Art rat1'e of their ingenuity and more inducement to exercise their See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of invention . A vigorous and influential school of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design developed which promised to evolve work of originality and excellence . British designers gained a See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing abroad, and earned emphatic approval in countries where a sound decorative tradition had been maintained for centuries . The one dominant influence, that of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which in the 'fifties was altering the whole complexion of British art, had begun to wane See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in Wane of the 'seventies, and it was rapidly being replaced Pre-by another scarcely less distinctive . The younger Rj m and generation of artists had wearied, even before 1875, Rise of of the pre-Raphaelite precision, and were impatient See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French of the restrictions imposed upon their freedom of Influence. technical expression by a method of practice which required laborious application and unquestioning obedience to a rather formal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of regulations . They yearned for greater freedom and boldness, and for a better See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of asserting their individual capacities . So they gave way to a strong reaction against the creed of their immediate predecessors, and cut themselves deliberately adrift . With the craving of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young artists for new forms of technique came also the idea that the " old-master traditions " were opposed to the exact See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of nature, and were based too much upon See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention to be adapted for the needs of men who believed that See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism was the one thing See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth aiming at in picture-production . So See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris instead of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome became the educational centre . There was to British students, dissatisfied with the See also:

• HALF

half-hearted and imperfect systems of teaching with which they were tantalized at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, a peculiarly exhilarating See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere in the French studios—an amount of See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm and a love of art for its own See also:

• SAKE

sake without parallel elsewhere . They saw in. operation principles which led by the right sequence of stages to sure and certaifi results .

In these circumstances they allowed their sympathies with French methods to become rather exaggerated, and were somewhat reckless in their See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of both the good and See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad qualities of so attractive a school . At first the results of this breaking away from all the older educational customs were not wholly satisfactory . British students came back from See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France better craftsmen, stronger and sounder draughtsmen, more skilful manipulators, and with an infinitely more correct appreciation of refinements of See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone-management than they had ever possessed before; but they brought back also a disproportionate amount of French manner-ism and a number of affectations which sat awkwardly upon them . In the first flush of their See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion they went further than was See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise or necessary, for they changed their motives as well as their methods . The quietness of subject and reserve of manner which had been hitherto eminently characteristic of the British school were abandoned for See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• SENSATIONALISM

sensationalism and exaggeration of effect . An affectation of extreme vivacity, a liking for theatrical suggestion, even an inclination towards coarse presentation of unpleasant incidents from modern See also:

• LIFE

life —all of which could be found in the paintings of the French artists who were then recognized as leaders—must be noted as importations from the Paris studios . They were the source of a distinct degeneration in the artistic taste, and they introduced into British pictorial practice certain unnatural tendencies . Scarcely less evident was the depreciation in the instinctive See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour-sense of British painters, which was brought about by the adoption of the French See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of regarding strict accuracy of tone-relation as the one important thing to aim at . Before this there had been a preference for See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and sumptuous harmonies and for See also:

• CHROMATIC (Gr. xpcoµaruc6s, coloured, from xpwµa, colour)

chromatic effects which were rather compromises with, than exact renderings of, nature; but, as the foreign influence grew more active, these pleasant adaptations, inspired - BRITISH] by a sensuous love of colour for its own sake, were abandoned for more scientific statements . The colder and cruder tone-studies of the modern Frenchman became the See also:

• MODELS

models upon which the younger artists based themselves, and the See also:

• STANDARDS

standards against which they measured their own success . " Actuality " was gained, but much of the See also:

• POETRY

poetry, the delicacy, and the subtle See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm which had distinguished British colourists were lost . For some while there was a danger that the art of Great Britain might become hybrid, with the French See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain predomi-Danger of nating .

So many students had succumbed to the the French See also:

• FASCINATION (from Lat. fascinare, to bewitch, probably connected with the Or. f3ao-Kaiveev, to speak ill of, to bewitch)

fascination of a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of training which seemed to Influence, supply them with a perfect equipment on all points, that they were inclined to despise not only the educational methods of their own See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, but also the inherent characteristics of British taste . The result was that the exhibitions were full of pictures which presented See also:

• ENGLISH

English people and English landscape in a purely arbitrary and artificial manner, strictly in accordance with a French convention which was out of sympathy with British instincts, and indeed, with British facts . Ultimately a discreet See also:

• MIDDLE

middle course was found between the extreme application of the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of the French art See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools and the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative irresponsibility in technical matters which had so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long existed in the British Isles . In the careers of men like See also:

• STANHOPE, EARLS
• STANHOPE, LADY HESTER LUCY (1776-1839)

Stanhope See also:

• FORBES
• FORBES, ALEXANDER PENROSE (1817-1875)
• FORBES, ARCHIBALD (1838-1900)
• FORBES, DAVID (1828--1876)
• FORBES, DUNCAN
• FORBES, EDWARD (1815—1854)
• FORBES, JAMES DAVID (1809—1868)
• FORBES, SIR JOHN (1787—1861)

Forbes, H . S . See also:

• TUKE

Tuke, See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank Bramley, and other prominent members of the school, many illustrations are provided of the way in which this readjustment has been effected . Their pictures, if taken in a sufficiently long sequence, summarize instructively the course of the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement which became active about 1875 . They prove how valuable the interposition of France has been in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of artistic See also:

• EDUCATION

education, and how much Englishmen have improved in their understanding of the technique of painting . One noteworthy outcome of the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of common sense over fanaticism must be mentioned . Now that the exact weakening relation which French teaching should See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear to British of the thought has been adjusted, an inclination to revive French the more typical of the forms of pictorial expression Influence. which have had their See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue in the past is becoming increasingly evident . Picturesque domesticity is taking the place of theatrical sensation, the desire to select and represent what is more than ordinarily beautiful is ousting the former preference for what was brutal and ugly, the effort to please is once again stronger than the intention t4 surprise or See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock the art See also:

• LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868)

lover . Even the Pre-Raphaelite theories and practices are being reconstructed, and quite a considerable See also:

• GROUP

group of young artists has sprung up who are avowed believers in the ?rmciples which were advocated so strenuously in 185o .

To French intervention can be ascribed the rise and progress of several movements which have had results of more than Groups See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary moment . There was a few years ago much within the banding together of men who believed strongly in British the importance of asserting plainly their belief in School . 499 See also:

• FUNCTION

function of the painter . Necessarily, in such a gathering there were several notable personalities who may fairly be reckoned among the best of English modern masters . Perhaps the most conspicuous of the groups was the gathering of painters who established themselves in the Cornish See also:

• VILLAGE

village of See also:

• NEWLYN

Newlyn (q.v.) . This group—" The Newlyn School," as The Newlyn it was called—was afterwards much modified, and School . many of its most cherished beliefs were considerably altered . In its beginning it was essentially French in atmosphere, and advocated not only strict adherence to realism in choice and treatment of subject, but also the subordination of colour to tone-gradation, and the observance of certain technical details, such as the exclusive use of See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat brushes and the laying on of See also:

• PIGMENTS (Lat. pigmentum, from pingere, to paint)

pigments in square touches . The See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony was formed, as it were, in stages; and as the school is to be reckoned in the future history of the British school, the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in which the adherents arrived may here be set on See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record . See also:

• EDWIN, AEDUINI
• EDWIN, JOHN (1749–1790)

Edwin See also:

• HARRIS, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (1746–1829)
• HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780)
• HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908)
• HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719)
• HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW
• HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906)
• HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909)

Harris came first, and was joined by Walter See also:

• LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT (1834-1906)

Langley . Then, in the following order, came See also:

• RALPH (d. 1122)

Ralph Todd, L . Suthers,,Fred See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall, Frank Bramley and T .

C . Gotch, and See also:

• PERCY (FAMILY)
• PERCY, SIR HENRY
• PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811)
• PERCY, THOMAS (c. 156o-16os)

Percy See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

Craft and Stanhope Forbes together . H . Detmold and Chevallier Tayler next arrived; then See also:

• MISS

Miss See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth See also:

• ARMSTRONG, ARCHIBALD (d. 1672)
• ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1709-1779)
• ARMSTRONG, JOHN (1758—1843)
• ARMSTRONG, SAMUEL CHAPMAN (1839—1893)
• ARMSTRONG, WILLIAM GEORGE ARMSTRONG, BARON (1810—1900)

Armstrong (Mrs Stanhope Forbes), F . Bourdillon, W . See also:

• FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1394-c. 1476)
• FORTESCUE, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607)

Fortescue and See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman Garstin . Ayerst See also:

• INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850)
• INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907)

Ingram, H . S . Tuke, H . See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin and F . Millard were later visitors . Stanhope Forbes (b .

1857) was trained at the See also:

• LAMBETH

Lambeth School and at the Royal Academy, and afterwards in See also:

• BONNAT

Bonnat's studio in Paris . His best known pictures are " A See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

Sale on a Cornish See also:

• BEACH

Beach " (1885), " Soldiers .and Sailors " (1891), " See also:

• FORGING

Forging the See also:

• ANCHOR (from the Greek ayrcvpa, which Vossius considers is from 6yi17 , a crook or hook)

Anchor " (1892), and " The Smithy " (1895) . He was elected A.R.A. in 1892, and became full Member in 1910 . Frank Bramley (b . 1867) studied art in the See also:

• LINCOLN
• LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865)
• LINCOLN, EARLS OF

Lincoln School of Art and at See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp . He gained much popularity by his pictures, " A Hopeless See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

Dawn " (1888), " For of such is the See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom of See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

Heaven " (1891), and " After the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

Storm " (1896), and was elected an See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

Associate in 1894 . Of See also:

• LATE

late years he had made a very definite departure from the technical methods which he followed in his earlier period . T . C . Gotch (b . 1854) had a varied art training, for he worked at the See also:

• SLADE, FELIX (170o-1868)

Slade School, then at Antwerp, and finally in Paris under See also:

• JEAN

Jean See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul See also:

• LAURENS, HENRY (1724–1792)

Laurens . He did not long remain faithful to the Newlyn creed, but diverged about 1890 into a kind of decorative symbolism, and for some years devoted himself entirely to pictures of this type .

The other men who must be ranked as supporters of the school adhered closely enough to the principles which were exemplified in the works of the leaders of the movement . They were faithful realists, sincere observers of the facts of the life with which they were brought in contact, and quite See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest in their efforts to paint what they saw, without modification or idealization . Another group which received its See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration directly from France was the Impressionist school (see See also:

• IMPRESSIONISM

IMPRESSIONISM) . This group never had any distinct organization like that of The imthe French Societe See also:

• DES

des Impressionistes, but among the pressionist members of it there was a general agreement on points Schoa of procedure . They based themselves, more or less, upon prominent French artists like See also:

• MANET, EDOUARD (1832-1883)

Manet, See also:

• RENOIR, FIRMIN AUGUSTE (1841– )

Renoir, See also:

• PISSARRO, CAMILLE (1831–1903)

Pissarro, and See also:

• CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687)

Claude See also:

• MONET, CLAUDE (184o- )

Monet, and owed not a little to the example of J . A . M'N . Whistler, whose own art may be said to be in a great measure a product of Paris . One of the fundamental principles of their practice was the subdivision of colour masses into their component parts, and the rendering of gradated tints by the juxtaposition of touches of pure colour upon the See also:

• CANVAS

canvas, rather than by attempting to match them by previously mixing them on the See also:

• PALETTE (the Fr. diminutive of pale, spade, blade of an oar, from Lat. Pala, spade, baker's shovel or peel; cf. pandere, to spread)

palette . In pictures so painted greater luminosity and more subtlety of aerial effects can be obtained . The works of the British Impressionists have been seen mostly in the exhibitions of the New English Art See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club . This society was founded in 1885 by a number The New of young artists who wished for facilities for exhibition wish which they See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt were denied to them in the other Art Club. galleries .

It See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew the greater number of its earlier supporters from the men who had been trained in foreign schools, and a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the contributors to its exhibitions includes the names of many of the best known of the younger painters . It was the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-place of numerous groups which advocated one or other of the new See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds, for among its members or exhibitors have been P . See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson See also:

• STEER, PAUL WILSON (186o– )

Steer, Fred See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown, J . S . See also:

• SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (1856– )

Sargent (q.v.), See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon J . Solomon, Stanhope Forbes, T . C . Gotch, Frank Bramley, See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur Hacker, Francis Bate, See also:

• MOFFAT
• MOFFAT, ROBERT (1795-1883)

Moffat Lindner, J . L . Henry, W . W . See also:

• RUSSELL (FAMILY)
• RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
• RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
• RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
• RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
• RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
• RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
• RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
• RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
• RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )

Russell, See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson, Arthur Tomson, Henry Tonks, C .

W . See also:

• FURSE, CHARLES WELLINGTON (1868-1904)

Furse, R . See also:

• ANNING, MARY (1799—1847)

Anning See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell, Walter See also:

• OSBORNE

Osborne, Laurence See also:

• HOUSMAN, LAURENCE (1867– )

Housman, J . J . See also:

• SHANNON
• SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (1865- )
• SHANNON, JAMES JEBUSA (1862- )

Shannon, W . L . Wyllie, H . S . Tuke, See also:

• MAURICE (1521–1553)
• MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539–602)
• MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286)
• MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872)

Maurice Greiffenhagen, G . P . Jacomb See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

Hood, See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred See also:

• PARSONS
• PARSONS (or PERSONS), ROBERT (1546-161o)
• PARSONS, THEOPHILUS (1750-1813)

Parsons, Alfred See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, J . See also:

• BUXTON
• BUXTON, JEDEDIAH (1707–1772)
• BUXTON, SIR THOMAS POWELL (1786-1845)

Buxton See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

Knight, C .

H . Shannon, See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

Fisher, Walter Sickert, W . See also:

• STRANG, WILLIAM (1859- )

Strang, Frank See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

Short, See also:

• EDWARD

Edward Stott, See also:

• MORTIMER (Family)

Mortimer Menpes, Alfred See also:

• HARTLEY, DAVID (1705–1757)
• HARTLEY, JONATHAN SCOTT (1845– )
• HARTLEY, SIR CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1825– )

Hartley, See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William Stott, J . R . See also:

• REID, ROBERT (1862– )
• REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- )
• REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (184o-19o8)
• REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858)
• REID, THOMAS (1710-1796)
• REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883)
• REID, WHITELAW (1837- )

Reid, Mouat Loudan, T . B . See also:

• KENNINGTON

Kennington, H . Muhrman, A . D . Peppercorn, George See also:

• CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- )

Clausen and J . A . M'N .

Whistler, and a number of the Scottish artists, like J . See also:

• LAVERY, JOHN (18J7– )

Lavery, J . See also:

• GUTHRIE
• GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859– )
• GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873)
• GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856- )

Guthrie, George Henry, See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• PATERSON
• PATERSON, ROBERT (1715-1801)
• PATERSON, WILLIAM (1658-1719)

Paterson, A . See also:

• ROCHE, SIR BOYLE, BART

Roche, E . A . See also:

• WALTON, BRIAN (1600-1661)
• WALTON, IZAAK (1593-1683)

Walton, J . E . See also:

• CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY (183o–Igor)

Christie and E . A . Hornel . A number of the men who have been more or less actively identified with it have been elected members of the Royal Academy, so that it may fairly claim to have exercised a definite influence upon the tendencies of modern art . It has certainly the doctrines to which they had been converted abroad; and as a consequence of this desire for an offensive and defensive association, many detached groups were formed within the boundaries of the British school .

Each of these groups had some See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar tenet, and each one had a small See also:

• ORBIT (from Lat. orbita, a track, orbis, a wheel)

orbit of its own in which it revolved, without concerning itself overmuch about what might be going on outside . Roughly, there were three classes into which the more thoughtful British artists could then be divided . One included those men who were in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main French in sympathy and manner; another consisted of those who were not insensible to the value of the foreign training, but yet did not wish to surrender entirely their faith in the British tradition; and the third, and smallest, was made up of a few individuals who were independent of all assistance from without, and had sufficient force of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character to ignore what was going on in the art See also:

• WORLD

world . In this third class there was practically no common point of view: each See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose his own direction and followed it as he thought best, and each one was prepared to stand or fall by the opinion which he had formed as to the true done much to prove the extent of the foreign influence upon the British school . In its wider sense the Impressionist school may be said to include now all those students of nature who strive for the See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of broad effects rather than See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute details, who look at the subject before them largely and comprehensively, and ignore all minor matters which would be likely to interfere with the simplicity of the pictorial rendering . To it can be assigned a number of artists who have never adopted, or have definitely abandoned, the prismatic See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of colour advocated by the French Impressionists . These men were headed by J . A . M'N . Whistler (q.v.), See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in See also:

• AMERICA

America in 1834, and trained in Paris under See also:

• GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL (1806-1874)

Gleyre . His pictures have always been remarkable for their beauty of colour combination, and for their sensitive management of subtleties of tone . They gained for the artist a place among the chief modern executants, and have attracted to him a See also:

• HOST

host of followers .

Other notable painters who have places in the school are Mark Fisher, an See also:

• AMERICAN

American landscape painter who studied for a while in Gleyre's studio, one of the ablest interpreters in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England of effects of See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-See also:

• LIGHT

light and breezy atmosphere; A . D . Peppercorn, a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil of See also:

• GEROME, JEAN LEON (1824-1904)

Gerome, who makes landscape a medium for the expression of a dignified sense of design and a carefully simplified appreciation of contrasts of tone; and P . Wilson Steer, an artist who began as a follower of Monet, and based upon his training in the Ecole des See also:

• BEAUX, CECILIA (1863– )

Beaux Arts a style of his own, which he displays effectively in both landscapes and figure pictures . The See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Society of Sculptors, Painters, and Gravers, inaugurated in 1898,.although not by its nature confined to British The Inter- art and artists, who compose little more than half of nheon a the electorate, has its home in See also:

• LONDON

London . It succeeds in Society. its See also:

• OBJECT

object of setting before the British public the most modern and See also:

• ECCENTRIC (from Gr. F,c, out of, and Kivrpov, centre)

eccentric expressions of the art of the chief See also:

• EUROPEAN

European countries . Its exhibitions are striking and the contributions for the most See also:

• PART

part serious and interesting; but while the freedom of the artist is insisted on it is doubtful if the more exagaerated displays by rebellious painters and sculptors have had much influence on the native school . The presidents have been J . A . M'N . Whistler and Auguste See also:

• RODIN, AUGUSTE (184o— )

Rodin, and the See also:

• VICE

vice-presidents See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Lavery and William Strang: these personalities, considered along with their views and their vigour, sufficiently indicate the spirit and the politics of the society . Generally speaking, the very large class of artists who See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell only to a limited extent under the spell of French teaching includes Figure most of the figure and landscape men and practically Painters. the whole of the portrait painters .

In all sections of figure painting individual workers in improved technical methods have appeared, but most of them have gradually-lost their distinguishing peculiarities of manner, and have year by year assimilated themselves more closely to their less advanced brethren . The See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section in which their energetic propagandism has been most effective is certainly that of imaginative See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . A definite mark has been made there by men like S . J . Solomon (b . 1860; A.R.A . 1896; R.A . 1906),, trained at the Royal Academy, the See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich Academy and the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris, and widely known by such pictures as " See also:

• SAMSON (1135-1211)
• SAMSON (cf. Heb. shemesh, " sun ")
• SAMSON, JOSEPH ISIDORE (1793-1871)

Samson " (1887), " The See also:

• JUDGMENT

Judgment of Paris ' (1890) and the " See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

Birth of Love " (1895) ; and Arthur Hacker (b . 1858; A.R.A . 1894; R.A . 1910), educated at the Academy and in Bonnat's studio, and the painter of a considerable See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of semi-See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and symbolical canvases . They exercised a considerable influence upon their contemporaries, and introduced some new elements into the later practice of the school .

At the same time admirably effective work has been done in this section and others by many painters who have kept much more closely in touch with the older type of aesthetic belief, and have not associated themselves openly with any of the newer movements . Among the more prominent of these figure painters there are, or have been, some excellent craftsmen, whose contributions to the record of native British art can be accepted as full of permanent interest . In the school of historical incident good work was done by Sir John See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

Gilbert (1817–1897; R.A . 1876), a robust and ingenious illustrator of romantic motives, with a never-failing capacity for picturesque invention; John See also:

• PETTIE, JOHN (1839-1893)

Pettie (1839–1893; R.A . 1873), a See also:

• FINE

fine colourist and a See also:

• CLEVER

clever manipulator, whose scenes from the life of past centuries were full of rare vitality; P . H . See also:

• CALDERON, RODRIGO (d. 1621), COUNT OF OLIVA AND MARQUES DE LAS SIETE IGLESIAS

Calderon (1833–1898; R.A . 1867), a graceful and sincere artist not wanting in originality; and H . Stacy Marks (1829–1898; R.A . 1879), who treated See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval motives with a touch of real See also:

• HUMOUR (Latin humor)

humour . Besides these, there are Sir J . D .

See also:

• LINTON, ELIZA LYNN (1822-1898)
• LINTON, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1897)

Linton (b . 1840), who has produced noteworthy compositions in oil and See also:

• WATER

water See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours; Frank Dicksee (b . 1853; A.R.A . 1881; R.A . 1891), who has gained wide popularity by pictures in which See also:

• ROMANCE

romance and sentiment are combined in equal proportions; A . C . See also:

• GOW, NIEL (1727-1807)

Gow (b . 1848; R.A . 1881), whose " See also:

• CROMWELL, HENRY (1628-1674)
• CROMWELL, OLIVER (1599-1658)
• CROMWELL, RICHARD (1626–1712)
• CROMWELL, THOMAS, EARL OF

Cromwell at See also:

• DUNBAR, GEORGE (1774—1851)
• DUNBAR, PAUL LAURENCE (1872–1906)
• DUNBAR, WILLIAM (c. 1460-c. 1520)

Dunbar " (1886), ' See also:

• FLIGHT

Flight of James II. after the See also:

• BATTLE

Battle of the See also:

• BOYNE

Boyne " (1888), and " See also:

• CROSSING

Crossing the Bidassoa " (1896) may be noted as typical examples of his performance; J . See also:

• SEYMOUR
• SEYMOUR, HORATIO (1810-1886)
• SEYMOUR, or ST MAUR
• SEYMOUR, THOMAS

Seymour See also:

• LUCAS, CHARLES (1713–1771)
• LUCAS, JOHN SEYMOUR (1849– )
• LUCAS, SIR CHARLES (d. 1648)

Lucas (b . 1849; A.R.A . 1886; R.A .

1898), trained at the Royal Academy Schools, and a brilliant painter of what may be called the by-See also:

• PLAY

play of history; W . Dendy See also:

• SADLER (or SADLEIR), SIR RALPH (1507-1587)
• SADLER, MICHAEL THOMAS (1780-1835)

Sadler (b . 1854), trained partly in London and partly at See also:

• DUSSELDORF

Dusseldorf, and well known by his quaintly humorous renderingsof the lighter See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of life in the olden times; G . H . See also:

• BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY (1834-1905)

Boughton (born in England, but educated first in America and afterwards in Paris; A.R.A . 1879; R.A . 1896), a specialist in paintings of old and modern Dutch subjects; the Hon . John See also:

• COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732)
• COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726)
• COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789–1883)

Collier (b . 1850), trained at the Slade School, at Munich, and in Paris, and a capable painter both of the nude figure and of See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume; and Edwin A . See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

Abbey, an American (b . 1852), educated at the See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts . Abbey came to England in 1876 with a great reputation as an illustrator, and did not begin to exhibit oil pictures until 1890; he was elected an Academician in 1898 .

Then there are to be noted classicists like See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord Leighton, Sir L . Alma-Tadema, and Sir E . J . Poynter's students of the East like See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick Goodall (b . 1822; A.R.A . 1853; R.A . 1863; d . 1904), and idealists like Sir W . B . Richmond, K.C.B.; R.A . 1895 —all of whom have done much to uphold the reputation of the British school for strength of accomplishment and variety of See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive . The painters of sentiment have in the main adhered closely to the tradition which has been handed down through successive generations .

Among these may be noted See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone Painters of (b . 1840), elected an Academician in 1887, an See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Sentiment. artist whose dainty fancies are See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to students of modern art . His pictures nearly all appeared in the exhibitions of the Royal Academy . Another popular artist is G . D . Leslie (b . 1835), elected an Associate in 1868 and an Academician in 1876, who has been responsible for a number of domestic old-world subject-pictures remarkable for freshness of treatment and delicacy of feeling . The list may also be held to include Henry See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

Woods (b . 1846; A.R.A . 1882; R.A . 1893), and since 1877 a painter of scenes from Venetian life; R . W .

See also:

• MACBETH

Macbeth (b . 1848; A.R.A . 1883; R.A . 1903), whose elegant treatment of rustic subjects displays a very attractive individuality . Among the painters of sentiment should also be included Sir See also:

• LUKE
• LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

Luke See also:

• FILDES, SIR LUKE (1844— )

Fildes . (b . 1844), educated at the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• KENSINGTON

Kensington and Royal Academy Schools, elected an Academician in 1887, the painter of such famous pictures as " The Casual See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward " (1874), " The Widower " (1876), " The Return of the Penitent " (1879), and " The See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

Doctor " (1892) ; and Sir See also:

• HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727)

Hubert von Herkomer, C.V.O . (b . 1849; A.R.A . 1879; R.A . 1890; knighted 1907), famous not only by his many memorable can-vases and by his extraordinary versatility in the arts, but also as a teacher and a See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader in a number of educational movements . Not many military pictures of high merit have been produced during the period .

The artists, indeed, who occupy themselves with this class of art are not numerous, and they Military mostly devote their energies to illustrative pictures Mi painting. rather than to large canvases . See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

Lady See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler (nee Elizabeth See also:

• THOMPSON
• THOMPSON, FRANCIS (1860-1907)
• THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894)
• THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, BART
• THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894)
• THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONNET (1783-1869)
• THOMPSON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (18ro–1886)

Thompson), whose " See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

Roll Call," exhibited in 1874, brought her instant popularity, continued to paint subjects of the same type, among which " Quatre See also:

• BRAS

Bras " (1875), " The See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

Defence of Rorke's See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

Drift " (1881), " The See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

Camel See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

Corps " (1891) and " The Dawn of See also:

• WATERLOO

Waterloo " (1895) are perhaps the most worthy of record . Ernest Crofts (b . 1847; A.R.A . 1878; R.A . 1896), trained in London and Dusseldorf, has taken a prominent position by such pictures as " See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon at Ligny " (1875), " Napoleon leaving See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow " (1887), The See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

Capture of a French See also:

• BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battles, to beat)

Battery by the 53rd See also:

• REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct)

Regiment at Waterloo " (1896), and by many similar representations of historical battles . Occasional pictures have come also from A . C . Gow, R . Caton Woodville, W . B . Wollen, J .

P . See also:

• BEADLE

Beadle, John Charlton, and a few more men who are better known by their work in other directions . The number of artists who have devoted the greater part of their energies to portraiture has been steadily on the increase . Most of the men who have taken definite See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank amongportraiture. the figure painters have made reputations by their portraits also, but there are many others who have kept almost exclusively to this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of practice . Into the first See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division come such noted artists as Sir John Millais, Sir E . J . Poynter, G . F . Watts, Sir Luke Fildes, Sir Hubert von Herkomer, Sir L . Alma-Tadema, Sir W . B . Richmond, Seymour Lucas, the Hon .

John Collier, S . J . Solomon, Arthur Hacker, Sir W . Q . See also:

• ORCHARDSON, SIR WILLIAM QUILLER (1835-1910)

Orchardson, J . A . M'N . Whistler, Frank Dicksee, Stanhope Forbes, Frank Bramley, H . S . Tuke, T . C . Gotch, P .

W . Steer, John See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon and Frank See also:

• HOLL, FRANK (1845–1888)

Holl . In the second must be reckoned J . S . Sargent (A.R.A . 1894; R.A . 1897), an American See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen (b . 1856), a pupil of Carolus See also:

• DURAN
• DURAN, AGUSTIN (1789-1862)

Duran, who after 1885 was recognized as one of the most brilliant painters of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day; J . J . Shannon, also an American (b . 1862), trained at the South Kensington School, and elected an Associate in 1897, a graceful and accomplished artist, with a sound technical method and a delightful sense of style; A . S .

See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

Cope (b . 1857), trained in Paris, and elected an Associate in 1899, who carries on soundly the better traditions of the British school; James Sant (b . 1820), elected an Academician in 1870, a strong favourite of the public throughout a long career; W . W . Ouless (b . 1848; A.R.A . 1877; R.A . 1881), trained in the Royal Academy Schools, an industrious and prolific worker; H . T . See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells (b . 1828; A.R.A . 1866; R.A .

1870), trained in London and Paris, who produced a long series of portraits and portrait groups, and many miniatures; W . Llewellyn (b . 1860), educated at the South Kensington Schools and in See also:

• CORMON, FERNAND (1845– )

Cormon's studio in Paris, an able draughtsman and a thorough executant; C . W . Furse (q.v.), trained first in the Slade School under See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• LEGROS, ALPHONSE (1837– )

Legros and afterwards in Paris, whose early See also:

• DEATH

death removed a master of his art; and others like Walter Osborne, See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• JACK

Jack, Glyn Philpot and Gerald See also:

• KELLY, EDWARD (1854–188o)
• KELLY, HUGH (1739–1777)
• KELLY, MICHAEL (1762–1826)
• KELLY, SIR FITZROY (1796–1880)

Kelly . In the class of figure painters, who are individual in their work, and owe little or nothing to the suggestions of foreign teachers, a number of artists can be enumerated who have in common little besides a sincere desire to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express their personal conviction Individual in their own way . Among them are some of the Figure most distinguished of modern artists, who stand out Painters. as the unquestioned chiefs of the school . Sir John Millais occupies a place in this group by virtue of his admirable pictorial work, and with him are W . Holman Hunt, See also:

• DANTE

Dante See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel See also:

• ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA (1830-1894)
• ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (1828-1882)

Rossetti, G . F . Watts, Sir Edward Burne-Jones, See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert See also:

• MOORE, A
• MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841–1893)
• MOORE, EDWARD (1712–1757)
• MOORE, GEORGE (1853– )
• MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851– )
• MOORE, HENRY (1831–1895)
• MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802)
• MOORE, SIR JOHN (1761-1809)
• MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852)

Moore and See also:

• FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW
• FORD, JOHN (r586–c.1640)
• FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858)
• FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 158o)

Ford Madox Brown, each one of whom may be regarded as a leader . There are also J .

M . Strudwick (b . 1849), R . See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer Stanhope (d . 1908) and See also:

• EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706)

Evelyn de See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

Morgan, followers of Burne-Jones, and J . W . See also:

• WATERHOUSE, ALFRED (1830-1905)
• WATERHOUSE, JOHN WILLIAM (1847- )

Waterhouse (A.R.A . 1885; R.A . 1895), in many ways the most original and inspired of English imaginative painters; and, again, M . Greiffenhagen, F . See also:

• CAYLEY, ARTHUR (1821-1895)

Cayley See also:

• ROBINSON, EDWARD (1794–1863)
• ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1777–1867)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1575–1625)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1650-1723)
• ROBINSON, JOHN THOMAS ROMNEY (1792–1882)
• ROBINSON, MARY [" Perdita "] (1758–1800)
• ROBINSON, SIR JOHN BEVERLEY, BART
• ROBINSON, SIR JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1845– )
• ROBINSON, THEODORE (1852-1896)

Robinson and Mrs Swynnerton . Into this class come also the decorative painters, Walter Crane illustrator Decorative the producer pof rolific an extraordinaryaamount of l work in Painters. all branches of decoration; Frank See also:

• BRANGWYN, FRANK (1867– )

Brangwyn, whose pictures and designs are marked by fine qualities of See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution and by much sumptuousness of colour; and several others, like H .

J . See also:

• DRAPER
• DRAPER, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1882)

Draper, Harold See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

Speed, R . Anning Bell, Gerald Moira and G . Spencer See also:

• WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816)
• WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1557–1592)
• WATSON, WILLIAM (1858- )
• WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603)

Watson . As a branch of the decorative school, a small group of artists who have revived the practice of See also:

• TEMPERA (the Italian term), or DISTEMPER

tempera-painting must also be noted . It includes Mrs See also:

• ADRIAN
• ADRIAN, SAINT

Adrian See also:

• STOKES, SIR G
• STOKES, SIR GEORGE GABRIEL, BART
• STOKES, WHITLEY (1830-1909)

Stokes, J . D . See also:

• BATTEN
• BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (floruit 1626-1667)

Batten, J . E . Southall, Arthur Gaskin, and a few others with well-marked decorative tendencies . During recent years a movement has begun which apparently aims at the revival of Pre-Raphaelitism . It is headed by a few The New young artists, whose methods show a mingling Pre- together of the precision of the 19th–century Pre-Raphaelite Raphaelites and a kind of decorative formality .

The School. most influential of the artists concerned in the formation of this new school is J . Byam See also:

• SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD (1856– )
• SHAW, HENRY WHEELER (1818–1885)
• SHAW, LEMUEL (1781–1861)
• SHAW, RICHARD NORMAN (1831– )

Shaw (b . 1872), whose originality and quaintness of See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy give to his pictures a more than ordinary degree of persuasiveness . A strong colourist and an able draughtsman, he possesses in a high degree the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of imaginative expression, allied with humour that never degenerates into See also:

• FARCE

farce . His strongest preference is for symbolical subjects which embody some moral See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson . Other prominent members of the group are F . See also:

• CADOGAN, WILLIAM CADOGAN

Cadogan See also:

• COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800)
• COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER, 1ST EARL (c. 1665-1723)

Cowper (A.R.A . 1907) and Miss Eleanor Fortescue-Brickdale, who is in manner much like Byam Shaw, but yet does not sink her individuality in See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere imitative effort . The painters of landscapes and See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-pictures have for the most part been little affected by the unrest which has caused so many Landscape new departures in figure-work . A love of nature has Paintsca. always been one of the best British characteristics, and it has proved itself to be strong enough to keep those artists who seek their inspiration out of doors from falling to any great extent under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of particular technical fashions . Therefore there is in the school of " open-See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air " painting little evidence of any change in point of view, or of the growth of any modern feeling at variance with that by which masters of landscape were swayed a century or more ago . Impressionism has gained a few adherents, and the French See also:

• BARBIZON

Barbizon school—itself created in response to a suggestion from England—has reacted upon a section of the younger artists .

But, on the whole, in this branch of art the British school has gained in See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power and confidence, without surrendering that sturdy See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence which in the past produced such momentous results . The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any common convention, or of any set See also:

• PATTERN

pattern of landscape which would See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to uniformity of effort, has See also:

• LEFT

left the students of nature free to express themselves in a personal way . The most devout believers in the value of French training, and in the See also:

• INFALLIBILITY (Fr. infaillibilite and infallibilite, the latter now obsolete, Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed from faller, to make a mistake)

infallibility of the dogmas which emanate from the Paris studios, have not, except in rare instances, demanded any radical remodelling of the British landscape school on French lines, as See also:

• LOCAL

local conditions affecting the practice of this branch of art make impossible all drastic alterations . Most workers in the front rank can claim to be judged on individual merits, and not as members of a particular coterie . Still, it is convenient to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the members of the landscape school into such classes as realists, romanticists and subjective painters of landscape . Among the most notable of the first class are H . W . B . See also:

• DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550 ?-16o5)
• DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826—1910)
• DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- )
• DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900)
• DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- )
• DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865)
• DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808–1889)
• DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814–1845)

Davis (b . 1883; A.R.A . 1873; R.A . 1877), the painter of a long series of Realistic dainty scenes which suggest happily the charm of Landscape. rural England; See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter See also:

• GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831–1899)
• GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE
• GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851)
• GRAHAM, THOMAS (1805-1869)

Graham, elected an Academician in 1881, who has alternated for the greater part of his working life between Scottish moorland subjects, with See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle wandering on See also:

• BARE

bare hillsides and pictures of See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast scenery, with sea-gulls perched on dark rocks; See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray (b .

1849; A.R.A . 1891; R.A . 1905), an artist whose career has been marked by consistent effort to interpret nature's suggestions with dignity and intelligence; Sir Ernest A . See also:

• WATERLOW, SIR ERNEST ALBERT (1850- )

Waterlow (b . 1850; A.R.A . 1890; R.A . 1903), trained in the Royal Academy and afterwards President of the Royal Society of Painters in Water-Colours, a graceful painter, with a See also:

• TENDER

tender colour feeling and an excellent technical style; Yeend See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King (b . 1855), trained partly in England, and partly in Paris under Bonnat and Cormon, a sound craftsman who made a reputation by landscapes in which are introduced groups of figures on a fairly important See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale; Alfred Parsons (b . 1847), elected an Associate in 1897, who paints rich See also:

• RIVER

river scenery with careful regard for actuality and with much minuteness and exquisiteness of detail, especially in the rendering of See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers; and Frank Walton (b . 1840), who chooses, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, landscape motives which enable him to display unusual powers of accurate draughtsmanship . To the same class of realists belonged Vicat See also:

• COLE, SIR HENRY (1808–1882)
• COLE, THOMAS (1801–1848)
• COLE, TIMOTHY (1852– )
• COLE, VICAT (1833–1893)

Cole, R.A.; Birket See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

Foster, J . W .

Oakes, A.R.A.; See also:

• KEELEY, MARY ANNE (18o6–1899)

Keeley Halswelle, and perhaps Alfred W . Hunt, though in his See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case realism was tempered by a delicate poetic See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination . The romanticists and See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral painters have in many cases been perceptibly affected by the example of the Barbizon school, but they owe much to such famous Englishmen as See also:

• CECIL

Cecil See also:

• LAWSON, CECIL GORDON (1851—1882)
• LAWSON, SIR JOHN (d. 1665)
• LAWSON, SIR WILFRID

Lawson, Romantic John See also:

• LINNELL, JOHN (1792—1882)

Linnell (both of whom died in 1882), George and See also:

• MASON, FRANCIS (1799—1874)
• MASON, GEORGE (1725—1792)
• MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818–1872)
• MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871)
• MASON, JOHN (1586-1635)
• MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859)
• MASON, LOWELL (1792—1872)
• MASON, SIR JOHN (1503–1566)
• MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881)
• MASON, WILLIAM (1725—1797)

Mason (A.R.A . 1868; d . 1872) and Frederick See also:

• WALKER, FRANCIS AMASA (1840-1897)
• WALKER, FREDERICK (184o--1875)
• WALKER, GEORGE (c. 1618-169o)
• WALKER, HENRY OLIVER (1843— )
• WALKER, HORATIO (1858– )
• WALKER, JOHN (1732—1807)
• WALKER, OBADIAH (1616-1699)
• WALKER, ROBERT (d. c. 1658)
• WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (1801-1869)
• WALKER, SEARS COOK (1805—1853)
• WALKER, THOMAS (1784—1836)
• WALKER, WILLIAM (1824-1860)

Walker pastoral (A.R.A . 1871; d . 1875) . The most prominent later painters. member of the group is, perhaps, Sir Alfred East (b . 1849), trained first in the See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow School of Art and after-wards in Paris, elected an Associate in 1899, a painter endowed with an exceptional faculty for suggesting the poetry of nature and with an admirable sense of decorative arrangement; but there are, besides, Leslie Thomson (b . 1851), whose art is especially sound and sincere; J . Aumonier, a pastoral painter with very refined appreciation of subtleties of aerial colour; C . W .

Wyllie, a painter of delicate See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision and charm of presentation; J . S . See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, whose sombre landscapes are distinguished in design and impressive in their See also:

• DEPTH

depth of tone; R . W . See also:

• ALLAN, DAVID (1744–1796)
• ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810–1882)
• ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782–1850)

Allan (b . 1852), who uses a robust technical method with equal skill in landscapes and coast subjects; J . Buxton Knight (b . 1842; d . 1908), a vigorous manipulator, with a liking for rich harmonies and See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low tones; See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph Knight (b . 1838; d . 1909), whose well See also:

• DRAWN

drawn and broadly painted pictures in oil and water-colour have been for many years appreciated by lovers of unaffected nature; Lionel P . Smythe (A.R.A .

1898), a colourist who handles exquisitely the most delicate atmospheric effects and is unusually successful in his rendering of diffused daylight; J . W . See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North (A.R.A. in 1893), a painter of fanciful landscapes in which See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of form is subordinated to modulations of decorative colour; Claude See also:

• HAYES, RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD (1822–1893)

Hayes, who studied in the Royal Academy Schools, and carried on the tradition established by David See also:

• COX, DAVID (1783-1859)
• COX, JACOB DOLSON (1828-1900)
• COX, KENYON (1856– )
• COX, RICHARD (I3oo ?–1581)
• COX, SAMUEL (1826–1893)
• COX, SAMUEL HANSON (1793-1880)
• COX, SIR GEORGE WILLIAM (1827-1902)

Cox and his contemporaries; J . L . See also:

• PICKERING
• PICKERING, EDWARD CHARLES (1846- )
• PICKERING, TIMOTHY (174 1829)

Pickering, a lover of dramatic light-and-shade contrasts and a student of romantic See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain scenery; A . D . Peppercorn, who gives breadth and dignity with sombre colour and delicate gradation of tone; Adrian Stokes (b . 1854; A.R.A . 1910) and M . See also:

• RIDLEY, NICHOLAS (c. 1500-1555)

Ridley See also:

• CORBET, RICHARD (1582—1635)

Corbet (who died in 1902, only a few months after his See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election as an Associate of the Royal Academy), a classicist in landscape, in whose pictures can be perceived a definite reflection of the teaching of Professor See also:

• COSTA, GIOVANNI (1826–1903)
• COSTA, LORENZO (146o-r535)
• COSTA, SIR MICHAEL ANDREW AGNUS (1808-1884)

Costa, the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian master . There must also be noted, as leaders among the pastoral painters, George Clausen (b . 1852), trained first in the South Kensington School and afterwards in Paris under See also:

• BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM (1825-1905)

Bouguereau and See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert-See also:

• FLEURY [ABRAHAM JOSEPH BENARD] (1750-.1822)
• FLEURY, ANDRE HERCULE DE (1653-1743)
• FLEURY, CLAUDE (1640-1723)

Fleury, and elected an Associate in 1895 and R.A. in 1908, who began as a strict realist and afterwards developed into a rustic idealist; H .

H . La Thangue, trained in the Royal Academy Schools and in Paris, elected an Associate in 1898, an artist of amazing technical vigour and an uncompromising interpreter of rural subjects; Edward Stott (A.R.A . 1906), trained in Paris under Carolus Duran and See also:

• CABANEL, ALEXANDRE (1823-1889)

Cabanel, who paints delicately the more poetic aspects of the life of the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields; J . Arnesby Brown (b . 1866; A.R.A . 1903) ; See also:

• OLIVER, ISAAC (c. 1566--1617)
• OLIVER, PETER (1594-1648)

Oliver Hall, Albert See also:

• GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594–1665)
• GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857– )
• GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-168o)
• GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831– )

Goodwin, A . Friedenson and others . The painters of landscape subjectively considered, who conventionalize nature with the idea of giving to their pictures a kind of sentimental as distinguished from emotional sug- subjective gestion, are most strikingly represented by B . W . Landscape . Leader (b . 1831), trained in the See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

Worcester School of Design and in the Royal Academy Schools, and elected an Academician in 1898 .

He became a strong favourite of the public, and his academic and precise technical methods were widely admired by the many people who are not satisfied with unaffected transcriptions of natural scenes and of the See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion of nature . In marine painting no one has appeared to rival Henry Moore, perhaps the greatest student of See also:

• WAVE

wave-forms the world has seen; but good work has been done by the late Edwin Marine Hayes, an Irish painter, whose powers showed no sign Painting of failure up to his death in 1904, after some half- century of continuous labour; W . L . Wyllie (b . 1851; A.R.A . 1889; R.A . 1907), trained in the Royal Academy Schools, who paints sea and See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping with intelligent understanding; T . Somerscales, a self-taught artist, with an intimate knowledge of the ocean derived from long actual experience as a sailor; and especially C . See also:

• NAPIER
• NAPIER, JOHN (1550-1617)
• NAPIER, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860)
• NAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMES (1782-1853)
• NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860)

Napier Hemy (b . 1841; A.R.A . 1898; R.A . 1910), trained at the Antwerp Academy and in the studio of See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron See also:

• LEYS, HENDRIK, BARON (1815-1869)

Leys, a powerful manipulator, with a preference for the dramatic aspects of his subject .

J . C . See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

Hook (d . 1907), retained into old See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age the subtle qualities which made his pictures notable among the best productions of the British school . Mention must be made of John Brett (1830–1902; A.R.A . 1881), the one Pre-Raphaelite sea painter, and See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton Macallum (1841–1896), who painted rippling water in See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright sunlight with delightful delicacy and charm of manner . The school of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal painting is a small one, and includes only a few of marked ability . The chief members include Briton See also:

• RIVIERE, BRITON (1840- )

Riviere, (b . 1840; A.R.A . 1878; R.A . 1881), one of the most imaginative and inventive of living artists; J . M .

See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

Swan (1847–1910; A.R.A . 1894; R.A . 1905), trained first at Lambeth, and afterwards in Paris Anfma/ under GerSme and See also:

• FREMIET, EMMANUEL (1824- )

Fremiet, a skilful manipulator and a Painting. sensitive draughtsman, and especially remarkable for his intimate understanding of animal character, mainly of the felidae (see also See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

SCULPTURE) ; J.T . See also:

• NETTLESHIP, HENRY (1839-1893)
• NETTLESHIP, RICHARD LEWIS (1846-1892)

Nettleship (1841–1902), trained chiefly in the Slade School, whose studies of the greater beasts of See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey are admirably sincere and well painted; Miss See also:

• LUCY, RICHARD DE (d. 1179)

Lucy See also:

• KEMP, WILLIAM (fl. 1600)

Kemp-Welch (b . 1869), trained in the Herkomer School at Bushey, who paints horses with unusual power; and John Charlton (b . 1849), trained in the South Kensington School, also well known by his pictures of horses and See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs . There are local schools which claim attention because of the value of their contributions to the See also:

• AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect together)

aggregation of British art . Scottish The most active of these belong to the Scottish school, Schools. the centres of Glasgow, See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, and See also:

• ABERDEEN
• ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, 1ST EARL O (1637-1720)
• ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL

Aberdeen, which have produced some of the most distinguished British artists . The Royal Academy of London, indeed, with most of the other leading art societies, has been largely recruited from See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland . There have been added to its modern roll the names of W . Q . Orchardson .

Peter Graham, J . MacWhirter, J . Pettie, See also:

• ERSKINE, EBENEZER (1680-1754)
• ERSKINE, HENRY (1746-1817)
• ERSKINE, JOHN
• ERSKINE, JOHN (1721-1803)
• ERSKINE, RALPH (1685-1752)
• ERSKINE, THOMAS
• ERSKINE, THOMAS ERSKINE, 1ST BARON (1750-1823)

Erskine See also:

• NICHOL, JOHN (1833-1894)

Nichol, T . See also:

• FAED, THOMAS (1826-1900)

Faed, David Murray, See also:

• COLIN, ALEXANDRE (1526-1612)

Colin See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

Hunter, R . W . Macbeth, D . Farquharson, J . Farquharson, George Henry: all of them painters of well-established reputation; and there are many other well-known Scottish artists who have made London their headquarters, like Arthur See also:

• MELVILLE, ANDREW (1545-1622)
• MELVILLE, ARTHUR (1858-1904)
• MELVILLE, JAMES (1556-1614)
• MELVILLE, SIR JAMES (1535-1617)

Melville, a portrait and subject-painter and a masterly water-colourist; E . A . Walton, who is equally successful with portraits, landscapes, and decorative compositions; J . See also:

• COUTTS, THOMAS (1735-1822)

Coutts-Michie, who alternates between portraiture and landscapes of admirable quality; John Lorimer, who has exhibited a number of excellent subject-pictures and many fine portraits; T . Graham, an unaffected painter of sentiment, and a good colourist; Grosvenor See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas, known best by his freely handled and expressive landscapes; T .

See also:

• AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)

Austen Brown, who paints semi-decorative pastorals with unusual vigour of statement; John Lavery, who has taken rank amongst the best of recent portrait painters; and Robert See also:

• BROUGH, ROBERT (1872-1905)

Brough, another portrait painter of vigour, with a subtle sense of colour, whose early and tragic death cut short a promising career . The most notable of the men who remained in Scotland include See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander Roche, whose remarkable capacity has brought him many successes in portraiture, figure compositions, and decorative paintings on a large scale; W . Y . See also:

• MACGREGOR, JOHN [" Roc RoY "] (1825-1892)

MacGregor, a leader of the school of landscape painters, fine in style and a master of effect; D . Y . See also:

• CAMERON, JOHN (1579–1623)
• CAMERON, RICHARD (1648?–168o)
• CAMERON, SIMON (1799-1889)
• CAMERON, VERNEY LOVETT (1844–1894)

Cameron, an admirable oil-painter and a famous etcher; and Sir James Guthrie, P.R.S.A. well known for his excellent portraits; James Paterson, R . B . Nisbet and Robert See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

Noble, all landscape painters of marked originality and sound technical method; W . McTaggart (d . 1910), the brilliant impressionist; E . A . Hornet and W .

Hole, decorative painters who have produced many canvases remarkable for robust originality and rare breadth of treatment; W . Mouncey, a landscape painter who See also:

• UNITED

united the dignity of the Barbizon school with a typically Scottish freedom of expression; and Sir George Reid, ex-P.R.S.A., one of the ablest and most distinguished of portrait painters . The water-colour painters can fairly be said to have kept unchanged the essential qualities of their particular form of practice . Water- They have departed scarcely at all from the executive Colour. methods which have been recognized as correct for nearly a century, but they have amplified them and have adapted them to a greater range of accomplishment, developing, it may be added, the " blottesque " or the accidental manner suggestive of See also:

• SUMMARY

summary decision . Latterly water-colour painting has come to rival See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils in its application to all sorts of subjects; and it is used now with absolute freedom by a very large number of skilful artists . Many of the men who have done the best work in this medium are known as oil painters of the highest rank; and among living workers the same capacity to excel in either mode of expression is by no means uncommon . There have been in recent times such masters as Sir John Gilbert, Sir E . Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, A . W . Hunt, H . G . Hine, Henry Moore, Albert Moore, C .

E . See also:

• HOLLOWAY, THOMAS (1800-1883)

Holloway, and perhaps should be included E . M . Wimperis, whose water-colours are at least as worthy of admiration as their oil pictures . As water-colourists, much See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit is due to Sir E . J . Poynter for his landscapes, portraits, and figure drawings; Sir L . Alma-Tadema for his minutely detailed classic subjects; Sir J . D . Linton for his historical and romantic compositions; Sir E . A . Waterlow for his delicately expressive landscapes; Sir Hubert von Herkomer for his admirably handled figure subjects; George Clausen for pastorals charming in sentiment and distinguished by fine qualities of colour; J .

Aumonier, A . D . Peppercorn, J . S . Hill, J . W . North, Leslie Thomson, Frank Walton and R . W . Allan for landscapes of special excellence; E . J . See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory (d . 1909), and Cadogan Cowper, for figure compositions painted with amazing sureness of touch; Alfred Parsons for landscapes and See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower studies; j .

R . Reid, W . L . Wyllie, E . Hayes and C . N . Hemy for sea and coast pictures; R . W . Macbeth, Claude Hayes and Lionel Smythe for rustic scenes with figures in the open air; J . M . Swan for paintings of animals; and G . H .

Boughton for costume subjects and delicately poetic fancies . Besides, there is a long list of noteworthy painters whose reputations have been chiefly or entirely made by their successful management of water-colour, and into this list come Birket Foster, the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the old-fashioned school of dainty rusticity; Carl Haag, a wonderful manipulator, who occupied himself almost exclusively with Eastern subjects; Thomas Collier, A . W . Weedon, H . B . Brabazon, G . A . Fripp, P . J . Naftel, G . P . See also:

• BOYCE, WILLIAM (1710-1779)

Boyce, Albert Goodwin, R .

See also:

• THORNE

Thorne-See also:

• WAITE, MORRISON REMICK (1816–1888)

Waite, F . G . See also:

• COTMAN, JOHN SELL (1782-1842)

Cotman, Harry Hine, See also:

• CLARENCE, DUKES OF

Clarence Whaite and See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans, whose landscapes show thorough understanding of nature and distinctive individuality of method; Mrs See also:

• ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889)

Allingham, an artist of exquisite refinement, whose idealizations of country life have a more than ordinary degree of merit; See also:

• CLARA, SAINT (1194-1253)

Clara Montalba, an able painter of impressions of See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice; Kate See also:

• GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-1901)

Greenaway, unrivalled as an interpreter of the See also:

• GRACES, THE, (Gr. X&panes, Lat. Gratiae)

graces of See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child-hood, and endowed with the rarest originality; Mrs Stanhope Forbes, an accomplished executant of well-imagined romantic motives; and J . R . Weguelin, one of the most facile and expressive painters of fantastic figure subjects . By the aid of these artists, and many others of at least equal ability, such as J . Crawhall, J . See also:

• PATER, WALTER HORATIO (1839-1894)

Pater= son, R . Little, Edwin Alexander, Arthur Rackham and J . Walter See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, traditions worthy of all respect have been maintained sincerely and with intelligent discrimination; and to their efforts has been accorded a larger measure of popular support than is bestowed upon any other form of pictorial production . See Richard Muther, History of Modern Painting (Eng. ed., 895); R. de la Sizeranne, English Contemporary Art (Eng. ed., 1898) ; Ernest Chesneau, The English School of Painting (2nd Eng. ed., 1885) ; See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement and See also:

• HUTTON, CHARLES (1737-1823)
• HUTTON, JAMES (1726-1797)
• HUTTON, RICHARD HOLT (1826-1897)

Hutton, Artists of the 19th Century (See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston, U.S.A., 1885) ; David Martin and F . Newbery, The Glasgow School of Painting (1897) ; W .

D . McKay, R.S.A., The Scottish School of Painting (London, 1906) ; E . Pinnington, George Paul See also:

• CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1759-1834)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878)
• CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901)
• CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847)

Chalmers and the Art of his Time (1896); Gleeson See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White, The Master Painters of Britain (1897); E . T . See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

Cook, A Popular Handbook to the See also:

• NATIONAL

National Gallery, vol. ii . (1901) ; J . E . See also:

• HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894)

Hodgson, R.A., Fifty Years of British Art (1887) ; A . G . See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple, Painting in the See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen's Reign (1897) ; Cosmo See also:

• MONKHOUSE, WILLIAM COSMO (1840—1901)

Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (1899); G . R . See also:

• REDGRAVE, RICHARD (1804-1888)

Redgrave, 'History of Water-Colour Painting in England 1750–1889 (1889) .

Also the Transactions of the National Association for the See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

Advancement of Art (See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool, 1888; Edinburgh, 1889; and See also:

• BIRMINGHAM

Birmingham, 1890); the magazines devoted to the arts; and the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal reviews, such as " English Art in the Victorian Age " (Quarterly See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, See also:

• JANUARY

January 1898) . The Year's Art (1879–1910; ed . A . C . R . See also:

• CARTER, ELIZABETH (1717-1806)

Carter) is an invaluable annual publication fully and accurately chronicling the art institutions and art movements in Great Britain . ' (M . H . S.) FRANCE The period between 187o and the opening of the loth century was singularly important in the history of France, and consequently of her art . The internal life of the people developed on new lines with a vigour that left a deep mark on the outcome of See also:

• MENTAL

mental effort . Literature was foremost in this new movement . The novels of See also:

• BALZAC, HONORS DE (1790-1850)
• BALZAC, JEAN LOUIS GUEZ DE (1594-1654)

Balzac, See also:

• ZOLA, EMILE EDOUARD CHARLES ANTOINE (1840-1902)

Zola, See also:

• FLAUBERT, GUSTAVE (1821-1880)

Flaubert, the See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers de See also:

• GONCOURT, DE

Goncourt, See also:

• DAUDET, ALPHONSE (1840-1897)

Daudet, See also:

• GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy de See also:

• MAUPASSANT, HENRI RENE ALBERT GUY DE (1850-1893)

Maupassant and the plays of See also:

• ALEXANDRE, NOEL (NATALIS ALEXANDER) (1639-1724)

Alexandre See also:

• DUMAS, ALEXANDRE
• DUMAS, ALEXANDRE [" DUMAS FILS"] (1824-1895)
• DUMAS, GUILLAUME MATHIEU, COUNT (1753-1837)
• DUMAS, JEAN BAPTISTE ANDRE (1800-1884)

Dumas fils, filled as they are with the scientific spirit and social atmosphere of the time, opened the eyes of the young generation to appreciation of the visible beauty and the spiritual poetry of the world around them, and helped them to view it with more attentive eyes, more insight and more emotion .

The aim of art was also to emancipate itself, by the growing efforts of independent artists, from the See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery of tradition, and to devote itself to a more personal contemplation and knowledge of contemporary life under every aspect . Modern French art tends to become more and more the art of the people—a mixture of See also:

• NATURALISM

naturalism and poetry, deriving its inspiration, by preference, from the world of the working man; no longer appealing only to a restricted and more or less fastidious public, but, on the contrary, adapting its aesthetic or moral teaching to popular See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension . The whole past was not, of course, wiped out . The younger generation had to learn and profit by the lessons taught by their great precursors . To understand the true character of this recent development of French art it is needful, therefore, to glance at the past . We need not dwell on the individual authorities who constitute the official See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of the contemporary French school; these masters belong for the most part, by the date of their best work, to a former generation . Starting in many cases from very opposite points, but reconciled and united by time, they carried on, during the last quarter of the 19th century, with more or less distinction, the inevitable See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of their personal gifts . We still see the works of some of the staunch Romanticists: Jean Gigoux (d . 1892), Robert-Fleury (d . 1890), Jules See also:

• DUPRE, JULES (1812-1889)

Dupre (d . 1889), Lanni (d . 189o), Cabat (d .

1893) and See also:

• ISABEY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767–1855)

Isabey (d . 1886); and with these, though they did not follow quite the same road, may be named See also:

• FRANCAIS, ANTOINE, COUNT (1756-1836)

Francais (d . 1897) and See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles Jacque (d . 1894) . Next to them, See also:

• MEISSONIER, JEAN LOUIS ERNEST (1815–1891)
• MEISSONIER, JUSTE

Meissonier (d . 1891) crowded into the last twenty years of his life a mass of work which, for the most part, enhanced his fame; and See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

Rosa See also:

• BONHEUR [MARIE ROSALIE], ROSA (1822-1899)

Bonheur (d . 1899), working in retirement up to the age of seventy-seven, went on her accustomed way unmoved by See also:

• EXTERNAL

external changes . See also:

• HEBERT, EDMOND (s812-189o)
• HEBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794)

Hebert, See also:

• HARPIGNIES, HENRI (1819– )

Harpignies, See also:

• ZIEM, FELIX FRANCOIS GEORGE PHILIBERT (1821— )

Ziem and Paul See also:

• FLANDRIN, JEAN HIPPOLYTE (1809-1864)

Flandrin survived . Among the generation which grew up under the Second See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire we find men of great intelligence and distinction; some, like Alexandre Cabanel (1824-1889), by pictures of historical genre, in a somewhat insipid and conventional style, but more particularly by See also:

• FEMALE

female portraits, See also:

• FIRM

firm in flesh-painting and aristocratic in feeling; others, like Paul See also:

• BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-r Igo)
• BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES

Baudry (1828-1886, q.v.), whose large decorative works, with their pure and lofty elegance, secured him lasting fame, and whose allegorical compositions wele particularly remarkable; not less so his portraits, at first vivid, glowing and See also:

• GOLDEN

golden, but at the end of his life, under the influence of the new atmosphere, cooler in tone, but more eager, See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous and restless in feeling . See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon Ger8me (b . 1824, q.v.) was the originator, during the Second Empire, of the neo-See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek idea, an Orientalist and painter of historic genre, whose somewhat arid See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct for archaeological precision and finish developed to better ends in sculpture during later years . William Bouguereau (b .

1825, q.v.) painted symbolical and allegorical subjects in a sentimental style . Jules See also:

• LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH
• LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY (TANAQUILLUS FABER) (1615-1672)

Lefebvre (b . 1836) had a brilliant career as a portrait painter, combined, in his earlier years, with admirable studies of the nude . These were followed by See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

Constant (d . 1902), a clever painter of past ages in the East and of modern See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental life, who latterly directed his powers of vigorous and rapid brushwork to portrait-painting; Fernand Cormon, the inventive chronicler of primeval See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, and a solid and learned portrait painter; Aime Morot, a man of versatile gifts, a painter of portraits full of life and ease . These formed the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the Institut . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, we find a group who betray a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity with the realist party—rejecting, like them, tradition at second-hand, though returning for direct teaching to some of the great masters . Leon Bonnat (b . 1833), educated in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and preserving through a long series of official portraits an evident See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of the great realists of that nation; and again, under the same influence, Jean Paul Laurens (b . 1837), who has infused some return of vitality into historical painting by his clear and individual conceptions and realistic treatment . Jean Jacques See also:

• HENNER, JEAN JACQUES (1829-1905)

Henner (b . 1829, q.v.), standing even more apart, lived in a Correggiolike See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream of See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale nude forms in dim landscape scenery; his love of exquisite texture, and his unvarying sense of beauty, with his refined dilettantism, See also:

• LINK

link him on each side to the great groups of realists and idealists .

About the middle of the 19th century, after the vehement disputes between the partisans of See also:

• LINE

line and the votaries of colour, otherwise the Classic and the Romantic schools, when a younger generation was resting from these follies, exhausted, weary, devoid even of any fine technique, two groups slowly formed on the opposite sides of the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon—seers or dreamers, both protesting in different ways against the collapse of the French school, and against the alleged indifference and sceptical See also:

• ECLECTICISM (from Gr. fr)

eclecticism of the painters who were regarded as the leaders . This was a revolt from the academic and conservative tradition . One was the group of original and nature-loving painters, keen and devoted observers of men and things, the realists, made illustrious by the three great personalities of See also:

• COROT

Corot (q.v.), See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

Millet (q.v.) and See also:

• COURBET, GUSTAVE (1819-1877)

Courbet (q.v.), the real originators of French contemporary art . The other was the group of men of imagination, the idealists, who, in the pursuit of perfect beauty and an ideal moral See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard, reverted to the dissimilar visions of See also:

• DELACROIX, FERDINAND VICTOR EUGENE (1798-1863)

Delacroix and See also:

• INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (178o-1867)

Ingres, the ideals of See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm as opposed to See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony, of style versus passion, which See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore See also:

• CHASSERIAU, THEODORE (1819-1856)

Chasseriau had endeavoured to combine . See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

Round Puvis de Chavannes (q.v.) and Gustave See also:

• MOREAU, GUSTAVE (1826-1898)
• MOREAU, HEGESIPPE (18ro-1838)
• MOREAU, JEAN VICTOR MARIE (1763-1813)

Moreau (q.v.) we find a group of,artists who, in spite of the fascination exertedof their intelligence by the great works of the old masters, especially the early Florentines and Venetians, would not accept the old technique, but strove to record in splendid imagery the wonders of the spiritual life, or claimed, by studying contemporary individuals, to reveal the See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology of modern minds . Among them were Gustave See also:

• RICARD, LOUIS GUSTAVE (1823-1873)

Ricard (1821-1893), whose portraits, suggesting the mystical charm sometimes of Leonardo and sometimes of See also:

• REMBRANDT (1606-1669)

Rembrandt, are full of deep unuttered vitality; See also:

• ELIE

Elie See also:

• DELAUNAY, ELIE (1828-1891)
• DELAUNAY, LOUIS ARSENE (1826-1903)

Delaunay (1828-1891), serious and expressive in his heroic compositions, keen and striking in his portraits; See also:

• EUGENE

Eugene See also:

• FROMENTIN, EUGENE (1820-1876)

Fromentin (1820-1876), acute but subtle and silvery, a man of elegant mind, the writer of See also:

• LES

Les Maitres d'aulrefois, of See also:

• SAHEL

Sahel and of Le See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara, the discoverer--artistically—of See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria . And round the loud and showy individuality of Courbet—healthy, nevertheless, and inspiring—a group was gathered of men less judicious, but more stirring, more truculent, thoroughly original, but not less reverent to the old masters than they were defiant of contemporary authorities . They were even more ardent for a strong technique, but the masters who attracted them were the Dutch, the Flemish, the Venetians, who, like themselves, had aimed at recording the life of their day . Among these was See also:

• FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois Bonvin (1817-1887), who, following See also:

• GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849)

Granet, carried on the evolutian of a subdivision of genre, the study of domestic interiors . This Drolling, too, had done, early in the loth century, his predecessors in France being See also:

• CHARDIN, JEAN SIMEON (1699-1779)
• CHARDIN, SIR JOHN (1643-1713)

Chardin and Le Nain . This class of subjects has not 'merely absorbed all genre-painting, but has become a very important See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the presentment of modern life . Bonvin painted asylums, See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent-life, studios, laboratories and schools .

See also:

• ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (I220-1271)

Alphonse Legros (q.v.), painter, sculptor and etcher, who settled in London, was of the same school, though independent in his individuality, celebrating with his See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush and See also:

• ETCHING (Dutch, etsen, to eat)

etching-See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle the life of the poor and humble, and even of the vagabond and See also:

• BEGGAR

beggar . There were also See also:

• BRACQUEMOND, FELIX (1833— )

Bracquemond, the reviver of the craft of etching; Fantin-Latour, the painter of highly romantic Wagnerian dreams, figure compositions grouped after the Dutch manner, and flower-pieces not surpassed in his day . See also:

• RIBOT, ALEXANDRE FELIX JOSEPH (1842– )
• RIBOT, THEODULE (1823–1891)
• RIBOT, THEODULE ARMAND (1839- )

Ribot, again, and Vollon, daring and dashing in their handling of the brush; See also:

• GUILLAUME
• GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822-1905)

Guillaume Regamey, one of the few military painters gifted with the epic sense; and even Carolus Duran, who, after painting " Murdered " (in the See also:

• LILLE

Lille Museum), combined with the professional duties of an official teacher a brilliant career as a portrait painter . A later member of this group, attracted to it by student friendship in the little See also:

• DRAWING

drawing-school which under Lecoq de Boisbaudran competed in a modest way with the Ecole des Beaux Arts, was J . C . Cazin, well known afterwards as a pronounced idealist . Finally, there was Manet, a connecting link between the realists and the impressionists . These two radiant focuses of imagination and of observation respectively were to be seen still intact during the later period, as represented by the most energetic of the masters who upheld them . After the See also:

• CATASTROPHE (Gr. Karaurpoch, from KaraQrp4ecv, to over-turn)

catastrophe of 1870, French art appeared to be reawakened by the disasters of the country; and at the great exhibition in See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna in 1873 See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• ANDRASSY, JULIUS (GyuLA), COUNT (1823—1890)

Andrassy exclaimed to Leon Bonnat, " After such a terrible crisis you are up again, and victorious ! " Immense See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy prevailed in the studios, and money poured into France in consequence . The output irlcreased rapidly, and at the same time study became more strenuous, and ambition grew bolder and more manly . Renewed activity stirred in the public See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies, and a See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd of foreign students came to learn .

Two great facts give a characteristic See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp to this new revival of French art: I . In the class of imaginative painting, the renewed impulse towards monumental or decorative work . II . In the class of nature studies, the growth of landscape painting, which developed along two parallel lines—Impressionism; and III. the " Open-air " school . I . Decoration.—In decorative painting two men were the soul of the movement: Puvis de Chavannes and Philippe de Chennevieres Pointel . As we look back on the last years of the Second Empire we see decorative painting sunk in profound lethargy . After Delacroix, Chasseriau and Hippolyte Flandrin, and the completion of the great works in the Palais See also:

• BOURBON
• BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (149o-1527)

Bourbon, the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate House, the Cour des Comptes and a few churches—St Sulpice, St See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent de Paul and St Germain des Pres—no serious attempts had been made in this direction . Excepting in the Hotel de Ville, where Cabanel was winning his first laurels, and in the See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera House, a work that was progressing in silence, a few chapels only were decorated with paintings in the manner of easel pictures . But two famous exceptions led to a decorative revival: Puvis de Chavannes's splendid See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of decoration at Amens (all, with the exception of the last composition, which is dated 1882, executed without break between 1861 and 1867), and his work at See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles and at See also:

• POITIERS

Poitiers; Baudry, with his See also:

• CEILING (from a verb " to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. ciel, Lat. caelum, sky)

ceiling in the Opera House, begun in 1866 but not shown to the public till 1894 . There was also a movement for reviving French taste in the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial arts by following the example of systematic teaching set by some foreign countries, more particularly by England . Decorative painting felt the same impulse .

Philippe de Chennevieres, See also:

• CURATOR (Lat. for " one who takes care," curare, to take care of)

curator of the Luxembourg Gallery and directeur des Beaux Arts (from 1874 till 1899), determined to encourage it by setting up a great rivalry between the most distinguished painters, like that which had stimulated the zeal of the artists of the Italian See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance . Taking up the task already attempted by Chenavard under the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic of 1848, but abandoned in consequence of See also:

• POLITICAL

political changes, M. de Chennevieres commissioned a select number of artists to decorate the walls of the See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

Pantheon . The panels were to record certain events in the history of France, with due regard to the sacred character of the See also:

• BUILDING

building . Twelve of the most noted painters were named, with a liberal breadth of selection so as to include the most dissimilar styles: Millet and Meissonier, of whom one refused and the other did not carry out the work; Cabanel and Puvis de Chavannes . The last-named was the first to begin, in 1878, and he too was the painter who put the crowning end to this great work in 1898 . His pictures of the " Childhood of Ste See also:

• GENEVIEVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512)

Genevieve " (the patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of Paris), See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, full of feeling and of See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent charm, appropriate to a popular See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, with their See also:

• AIRY, SIR GEORGE BIDDELL (1801-1892)

airy Parisian landscape under a pallid See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky, made a deep impression . Thenceforward Puvis de Chavannes had a constantly growing influence over younger men . His magnificent work at See also:

• AMIENS

Amiens, " Ludus See also:

• PRO

pro Patria " (1881-1882), at See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons and at See also:

• ROUEN

Rouen, in the See also:

• SORBONNE

Sorbonne and the Hotel de Ville, for the Public Library at Boston, U.S.A., and on to his last composition, " The Old Age of Ste Genevieve," upheld to the end of the 19th century the sense of lofty purpose in decorative painting . Besides the Pantheon, which gave the first impetus to the movement, Philippe de Chennevieres found other buildings to be decorated: the Luxembourg, the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

Palace of the See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

Legion of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

Honour and that of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State . The paintings in the Palais de See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice, the Sorbonne, the Hotel de Ville, the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of See also:

• PHARMACY

Pharmacy, the Natural History Museum, the Opera Comique, and many more, bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to this See also:

• GRAND

grand revival of mural painting . Every kind of See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent was employed—historical painters, portrait painters, painters of See also:

• ALLEGORY (iXXos, other, and ayopeuav, to speak)

allegory, of fancy scenes, of real life and of landscape . Among the most important were: J .

P . Laurens and Benjamin Constant, Bonnat and Carolus Duran, Cormon and See also:

• HUMBERT, RANIERI CARLO EMANUELE GIOVANNI MARIA FERDINANDO EUGENIO, KING OF ITALY (1844-1900)

Humbert, Joseph See also:

• BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882)
• BLANC, MONT

Blanc and L . See also:

• OLIVIER, JUSTE DANIEL (1807-1876)

Olivier Merson, Roll and Gervex, See also:

• BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT (1849— )

Besnard and See also:

• CARRIERE, MORITZ (1817-1895)

Carriere, Harpignies and Pointelin, See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael See also:

• COLLIN
• COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON (1771-1811)

Collin and See also:

• HENRI

Henri Martin . II . Impressionism.—In 1874 common cause was made by a group of artists drawn together by sympathetic views and a craving for independence . Various in their tastes, they concentrated from every point of the See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass to protest, like their precursors the realists, against the narrow views of academic teaching . Some had romantic proclivities, as the Dutchman Jongkindt, who played an important part in See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding this group; others were followers of See also:

• DAUBIGNY, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1817–1878)

Daubigny, of Corot or of Millet; some came from the realistic party, whose influence and effort this new set was to carry on . Among these, Edouard Manet (1832—1883) holds a leading place; indeed, his influence, in spite of —or perhaps as a result of—much abuse, extended beyond his circle even so far as to affect academic teaching itself . He was first a pupil of See also:

• COUTURE, THOMAS (1815-1879)

Couture, and then, after Courbot, his real masters were the Spaniards—Velasquez, El See also:

• GRECO, EL

Greco and See also:

• GOYA

Goya—all of whomhe closely studied at the beginning of his career; but he soon felt the influence of Millet and of Corot . With a keen power of observation, he refined and lightened his style, striving for a subtle rendering of the exact relations of tone and values in light and atmosphere . With him, forming the original group, as represented by the Caillebotte collection in the Luxembourg, we find some landscape painters: Claude Monet, the painter of pure• daylight, and the artist who by the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of one of his pictures, " An Impression," gave rise to the designation accepted by the group; Camille Pissarro, who at one time carried to an extreme the principle of dotting with pure tints, known as poinlillisme, or dotwork; See also:

• SISLEY, ALFRED (1840-1899)

Sisley, Cezanne and others . Among those who by preference studied the human figure were Edgard See also:

• DEGAS, HILAIRE GERMAIN EDGARD (1834- )

Degas (q.v.) and Auguste Renoir .

After long and violent antagonism, such as had already greeted the earlier innovators, these painters, in spite of many protests, were officially recognized both at the Luxembourg and at the great Exhibition of 1900 . Their aims have been various, some painting Man and some Nature . In the former case they claim to have gone back to the principle of the greatest artists and tried to record the life of their own time . Manet, Degas and Renoir have shown us aspects of See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city or vulgar life which had been left to genre-painting or See also:

• CARICATURE (Ital. caricatura, i.e. "ritratto ridicolo," from caricare, to load, to charge; Fr. charge)

caricature, but which they have represented with the charm of pathos, or with the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter See also:

• IRONY (Gr. dipaweLa, from eipwv, one who says less than he means, eiepees, to speak)

irony of their own See also:

• MOOD

mood, frank transcripts of life with a feeling for style . For those who painted the scenery of nature there was an even wider See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field . They brought to their work a new visual sense, released from the clinging memories of past art; they endeavoured to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the transient effects of moving life, changing under the subtlest and most fugitive effects of light and atmosphere, and the play of what may be called the elements of See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion—See also:

• SUNSHINE

sunshine, air and clouds—caring less for the exact transcript of motionless objects, which had hitherto been almost exclusively studied, such as the See also:

• SOIL

soil, trees and rocks, the inanimate features of the landscape . They introduced a fresh lightness of See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key, which had been too subservient to the relations of values; they discovered for their ends a new class of subjects essentially modern: towns, streets, railway stations, factories, See also:

• COAL

coal-mines, ironworks and See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke, which they represent with an intelligent See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese art, taking new and audacious points of view, constantly varying the position of their horizon . This is indeed the very See also:

• ACME (Gr. 6.Kµii, point)

acme of naturalism, the last possible stage of modern landscape, covering the whole field of observation, doubling back to the starting-point of imagination . Notwithstanding—or because of—the outcry, of these views, peculiarities and tendencies soon penetrated schools and studios . Three artists in particular became conspicuous among the most individual and most independent See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits: Besnard, who had taken the Grand Prix de Rome, and carried to the highest See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch his inexhaustible and charming fancy in studies of the figure under the most unexpected play of light; Carriere, a pupil of Cabanel, who sought and found in mysterious gloom the softened spirit of the humble, the warm caress of motherhood; and Raffaelli, a pupil of Gerome, who brought to light the unrecognized picturesqueness of the lowest depths of humanity . enamoured of rustic life, he absorbed at an early stage, though not without hesitation, the love of atmospheric effects characteristic of Corot and of Manet . In his open-air heads and rural scenes he is seen as a conscientious nature worshipper, accurate and sincere, and, like Millet, imbued with a touch of See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

mysticism which becomes even more evident in his immediate pupils .

Round him there arose a little See also:

• GALAXY

galaxy of painters, some more faithful to tradition, some followers of the best innovators, who firmly tread this path of light and modern life . These are Butin, Duez and See also:

• RENOUF, SIR PETER LE PAGE (1822-1897)

Renouf, Roll and Gervex, Dagnan-Bouveret, Friant, Adolphe and See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor Binet and many more . Immediately after the Exhibition of 1889 an event took place which was not without effect on the progress of French art . This was the See also:

• SCHISM

schism in the See also:

• SALON

Salon . The audacious work of the Societe Nationale des Beaux Arts, which left anything that the Impressionists could do far behind, had accustomed the eyes of the public to the most daring attempts, while the numerous contributions of foreigners, especially from the north, where art aimed solely at a direct presentment of daily life, was a fresh encouragement to the study of modern conditions and of the See also:

• LOWER

lower classes . But, at the same time, the encroachment on space at the Exhibition (where no limit of number was imposed) by mere studies, hastened the reaction against the extravagances of the degenerate followers of Courbet, Manet and Bastien-Lepage . Remonstrances arose against their perverse and narrow-minded devotion to " truth," or rather to minute exactitude, their pedantry and affectation of documentation; sometimes derived from some old colourists who had not renounced their former ideal, sometimes from younger men impelled unconsciously by literature, which had as usual pre-ceded art in the revolt . The protest was seen, too, in a modified treatment of landscape, which took on the warmer colours of sunset, and in a choice of religious subjects, such as a See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon, or a funeral, or a ceremonial See also:

• BENEDICTION (Lat. benedictio, from benedicere, to bless)

benediction, and generally of more human and more pathetic scenes . Bastien-Lepage, like his great precursor Millet, See also:

• BORE

bore within him the germs of a reaction against the movement he had helped to promote . Dagnan-Bouveret, who began by painting " Sitting for a Photograph " (now at Lyons) and " An See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

Accident," after painting " Le See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

Pain benit," ended with " The Pilgrims to See also:

• EMMAUS

Emmaus " and " The Last Supper." Friant, again, produced scenes of woe, " All See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

Saints' Day " and " Grief "; and their younger successors, Henri Royer, See also:

• ADLER, FELIX (r851- )

Adler, Duvent and others, who adhered to this tradition, accommodated it to a more modern ideal, with more vivid colouring and more dramatic composition . Still, this normal development could have no perceptible effect in modifying the purpose of painting . More was needed .

A strong craving for imaginative work was very generally felt, and was revealing itself not merely in France but in See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, Scotland, America and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . This tendency ere long resulted in groups forming round certain well-known figures . Thus a group of refined dreamers, of poetic dilettanti and harmonious colourists, assembled under the leading of Henri Martin (a See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange but attractive visionary, a pupil of Jean Paul Laurens and direct See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir to Puvis de Chavannes, from whom he had much sound teaching) and of Aman-Jean, who had appeared at the same time, starting, but with more reserve, in the same direction . Some of this younger group affected no specific aim; the others, the larger number, leant towards contemporary life, which they endeavoured to depict, especially its aspirations and—according to the modern expression now in France of common usage—its " state of soul " typified by See also:

• MELODY (Gr. ,ueXw3ia, a choral song, from name, tune, and gi6i, song)

melody of line and the eloquent See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of harmonies . Among them should be named, as exhibitors in the salons and in the great Exhibition of 1900, Ernest See also:

• LAURENT, FRANCOIS (1810–1887)

Laurent, Ridel and Hippolyte See also:

• FOURNIER
• FOURNIER, PIERRE SIMON (1712-1768)

Fournier, M. and Mme H . Duhem, Le Sidaner, Paul Steck, &c . On the other hand, a second group had formed of sturdy and fervent naturalistic painters, in some ways resembling the school of 1855 of which mention has been made; young and bold, sometimes over-bold, enthusiastic and emotional, and See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent on giving expression to the life of their own day, especially among the people, not merelyrecording its exterior aspects but epitomizing its meaning by broad and strong synthetical compositions . At their head stood See also:

• COTTET, CHARLES (1863– )

Cottet, who combined in himself the romantic See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire and the feeling for orchestrated colour of Delacroix with the incisive realism and bold handling of Courbet; next, and very near to him, but more See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective in his treatment, Lucien See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon, a manly painter and rich colourist . Both by preference painted heroic or pathetic scenes from the life of See also:

• BRETON, BRITTON
• BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE

Breton mariners . After them came Rene Menard, a more lyrical artist, whose classical themes and landscape carried us back to Poussin and Dauchez, Prinet, Wery, &c . Foreign influences had meanwhile proved stimulating to the new tendencies in art . Sympathy with the populace derived added impulse from the works of the Belgian painters Constantin See also:

• MEUNIER, CONSTANTIN (1831-1905)

Meunier, Leon See also:

• FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898)

Frederic and Struys; a taste for strong and expressive colouring was diffused by certain American artists, pupils of Whistler, and yet more by a busy group of young Scotsmen favourably welcomed in Paris .

But the most unforeseen result of this reactionary movement was a sudden reversion to tradition . The cry of the realists of every shade had been for " Nature ! " The newcomers raised the opposition cry of " The Old Masters ! " And in their name a protest was made against the narrowness of the documentary school of art, a demand for some loftier scheme of conventionality, and for a See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller expression of life, with its complex aspirations and visions . The spirit of English Pre-Raphaelitism made its way in France by the medium of See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations from the English poets See also:

• SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1797-1851)
• SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822)

Shelley, Rossetti and See also:

• SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES (1837–1909)

Swinburne, and the work of their followers Stephane See also:

• MALLARME
• MALLARME, FRANCOIS RENE AUGUSTE (1755-i835)

Mallarme and Le See also:

• SAX, ANTOINE JOSEPH

Sax Peladan; it gave rise to a little artificial impetus, which was furthered by the simultaneous but transient rage for the works of Burne-Jones, which were exhibited with his consent in some of the salons, and by the importation of William See also:

• MORRIS
• MORRIS [MORRISON], CLARA (1849– )
• MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR (1752–1816)
• MORRIS, JOHN (1810-1886)
• MORRIS, RICHARD (1833–1894)
• MORRIS, ROBERT (1734–1806)
• MORRIS, SIR LEWIS (1833–1907)
• MORRIS, WILLIAM (1834-1896)

Morris's principles of decoration . The outcome was a few small groups of symbolists, the most famous being that of the See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

Rose 4u Croix, organized by Le Sar Peladan; then there was Henri Martin, and the little coterie of exhibitors attracted by a dealer, the late M. le Bare de Bouttiville, in which Cottet was for a short time entangled . But few interesting names are to be identified: Dulac (d . 1899), who became known chiefly for his mystical lithographs in colour; Maurice See also:

• DENIS (DIoNysms), SAINT
• DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800)

Denis and Bonnard, whose decorative compositions, with their refined and harmonious colouring, are not devoid of charm; Vuillard, &c . But it was in the school and studio of Gustave Moreau (1826-1898, q.v.) that the fire of See also:

• IDEALISM (from Gr. i5Ea, archetype or model, through been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency Fr. idealisme)

idealism burned most hotly . This exceptional man and rare painter, locked up in his solitude, endeavoured, by a thorough and intelligent assimilation of all the traditions of the past, to find and create for himself a new See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue—rich, nervous, eloquent, strong and resplendent—in which to give utterance to the loftiest dreams that haunt the modern soul . He revived every old myth and rejuvenated every See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol, to represent in wonderful imagery all the serene magnificence and all the terrible struggles of the moral side of man, which he had explored to its lowest depths and most heroic heights in man and woman, in poetry and in death . Being appointed, towards the end of his life, to a professorship in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, he regarded his duties as a real apostleship, and his teaching soon spread from his lecture-room and studio to those of the other masters .

His own work, though hardly known to his pupils at the time, at first influenced their style; but, especially after his death, they were quickly disgusted with their own detestable See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of subjects on which the master had set the stamp of his great individuality; they deserted the fabulous world of the Greek See also:

• OLYMPUS

Olympus and the wonderful gardens of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, to devote them to a passionate expression of modern life . Desvallieres, indeed, remained conspicuous in his original manner; Sabatte, Maxence, Beronneau, Besson and many more happily worked out their way on other lines . In trying to draw up the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance-See also:

• SHEET

sheet of French art at the beginning of the loth century, it were vain to try to enter its work under the old-world headings of History, Genre, Portraits, Landscape . All the streams had burst their channels, all the currents mingled . Historical painting, reinstated for a time by Puvis de Chavannes and J . P . Laurens, in which Benjamin Constant and Cormon also distinguished themselves, had but a few adherents who tried to maintain its dignity, either in combination with landscape, like M . Tattegrain, or with the ineffectual aid of See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology, like M . Rochegrosse . At certain times, especially just after 1870, the memory of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war gave birth to a special genre of military subjects, under the distinguished guidance of Meissonier (q.v.), and the peculiar talents of Alphonse de See also:

• NEUVILLE, ALPHONSE MARIE DE (1836-1885)

Neuville (q.v.), of See also:

• DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE

Detaille (q.v.) and Protais . This phase of contemporary history being exhausted, gave way to pictures of military manceuvres, or colonial See also:

• WARS

wars and incidents in recent history; it latterly went through a revival under a demand for subjects from the Empire and the Revolution, in consequence of the publication of many See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs of those times . Side by side with " history," religious art formerly flourished greatly; indeed, next to See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology, it was always dear to the Academy .

Apart from the subjects set for academical competitions, there was only one little revival of any interest in this kind . This was a sort of neo-evangelical offshoot, akin to the literature and stress of religious discussion; and its leader, a man of feeling rather than conviction, was J . C . Cazin (d . 1901) . Like Puvis de Chavannes, and under the influence of Corot and Millet, of See also:

• HOBBEMA, MEYNDERT (c. 1638-1709)

Hobbema, and yet more of Rembrandt, he attempted to renew the vitality of history and legend by the added charm of landscape and the introduction of more human, more living and more modern, elements into the figures and accessories . Following him, a little group developed this movement to extravagance . The recognized leader at the beginning of the zoth century was Dagnan-Bouveret . Through mythology and allegory we are brought back to real life . No one now thinks in France of seeking any pretext for displaying the nude beauty of woman . Henner, perhaps, and Fantin-Latour, were the last -to cherish a belief in See also:

• VENUS

Venus and See also:

• ARTEMIS

Artemis, in naiads and See also:

• NYMPHS

nymphs . Painters go direct to the point nowadays; when they paint the nude, it is apart from abstract fancies, and under realistic aspects .

They are content with the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model . It is the living female . The whole motor force of the time lies in the expression, under various aspects, of real life . This it is which has given such a soaring flight to the two most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive forms of the study of life, landscape and portraiture . Portraits have in fact adopted every style that can possibly be imagined: homely or fashionable, singly or in groups, by the fire or out of doors, in some familiar attitude and the surroundings of daily life, analytically precise, or synthetically broad, a literal transcript or a bold See also:

• EPITOME
• EPITOME (Gr. lircroui, from isrLTEµveW, to cut short)

epitome of facts . As to landscape, no class of painting has been busier, more alive or more productive . It has overflowed into every other channel of art, giving them new spirit and a new life . It has led the See also:

• VAN

van in every struggle and won every victory . Never was See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army more numerous or more various than that of the landscape painters, nor more independent . All the traditions find representatives among them, from Paul Flandrin to Rene Menard . Naturalists, impressionists, open-air painters, learned in analysis or potent in invention . We need only name Harpignies, broadly decorative; Pointelin, thoughtful and austere; and Cazin, See also:

• GRAVE

grave and tender, to give a general idea of the strength of the school .

Every quarter of the See also:

• LAND

land has its painters: the north and the south, See also:

• PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza)

Provence and See also:

• AUVERGNE

Auvergne, See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany, dear to the young generation of colourists, the East, Algeria, See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis—all contribute to form a French school of landscape, very living and daring, of which, as successors of Fromentin and Guillaumet, must be named Dinet, See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius Perret, Paul Leroy and Girardot . But it is more especially in the association of man and nature, in painting simple folk and their struggle for life amid their natural surroundings or by their homely See also:

• HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense of " floor ")

hearth, in the glorification of humble toil, that the latest French art finds its most characteristic ideal life . (L . BE.) BELGIUM Belgium fills a great place in the See also:

• REALM

realm of art; and while its painters show a preference for simple subjects, their techniqueis broad, rich and sound, the outcome of a fine tradition . Since 1855 international critics have been struck by the unity of effect produced by the works of the Belgian school, as expressed more especially by similarities of handling and colour . For the things which distinguish all Belgian painters, even in their most unpictorial divagations, are a strong sense of contrast or harmony of colouring, a free, bold style of brushwork, and a preference for rich and solid painting . It is the tradition of the old Flemish school . It would be more correct, indeed, to say traditions; for the modifications of each tendency, inevitably reviving when the success of another has exhausted itself, constantly show a reversion either to the domestic " Primitives " (or, as we might say, Pre-Raphaelites) of the See also:

• BRUGES (Flemish Brugge, a name signifying the bridge or place of bridges)

Bruges school, or to the " decorative " painters of the later time at Antwerp, and no See also:

• VENEER

veneer of modern taste will ever succeed in masking this traditional perennial groundwork . In this way the prevailing authority of the French painter See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis David may be accounted for; as acknowledged at See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels at the beginning of the 19th century, it was a reaction in antagonism to the heavy and flabby work of the late Antwerp school, an unconscious reversion perhaps to the finish and minuteness of the early painters of Bruges . Indeed, in France, Ingres, himself David's most devoted See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple, was reproached with trying to revive the See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic art of Jean de Bruges . Then, when David's followers produced only See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold and feeble work, See also:

• WAPPERS, EGIDE CHARLES GUSTAVE, BARON (1803-1874)

Wappers arose to restore the methods of another tradition, for which he secured a conspicuous triumph . Classical tinsel made way, indeed, for romantic tinsel .

The new art was as conventional as the old, but it had the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of being adaptable to the taste for show and splendour which characterizes the nation, and it also admitted the presentment of certain historical personages who survived in the memory of the people . The inevitable reaction from this theatrical art, with its affectation of noble sentiments, was to brutal realism . Baron Henri Leys (q.v.) initiated it, and the crudity of his style gave rise to a belief in a systematic purpose of supplanting the Latin tradition by Germanic sentimentality . Leys's archaic realism was transformed at Brussels into a realism of observation and modern thought, in the painting of Charles de Groux . The influence of Leys on this artist was merely superficial; for though he, too, affected painful subjects, it was because they appealed to his compassion . The principle represented by de Groux was destined to See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer the school in a better way; at the same time, from another side the authority of Courbet, the French realist, who had been for some time in Brussels, and that of the great landscape painters of the See also:

• FONTAINEBLEAU

Fontainebleau school, had suggested to artists a more attentive study of nature and a remarkable reversion in technique to bolder and firmer handling . At this time, among other remarkable men, Alfred See also:

• STEVENS,
• STEVENS, A
• STEVENS, ALFRED (1818-1875)
• STEVENS, ALFRED (1828-1906)
• STEVENS, HENRY (1819—1886)

Stevens appeared on the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene, the finished artist of whom Camille See also:

• LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844– )
• LEMONNIER, PIERRE CHARLES (1715—1799)

Lemonnier truly said that he was " of the See also:

• RACE

race of great painters, and, like them, careful of finish "—that in him " the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, the hand and the See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain all co-operated for the mysterious elaboration " of impasto, colour and See also:

• CHIAROSCURO (from the Ital. chiaro, Iight or brightness, and oscuro, darkness or shade)

chiaroscuro, and " the least touch was an operation of the mind." A brief period ensued during which the greater number of Belgian artists were carried away by the material charms of brushwork and paint . The striving after brilliant efforts of colour which had characterized the painters of the last generation then gave way to a devout study of values; and at the same time it is to be noted that in Belgium, as in France, landscape painters were the first to discover the possibility of giving new life to the interpretation of nature by simplicity and sincerity of expression . They tried to render their exact sensations; and we saw, as has been said, " an increasingly predominant See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation of instinctive feeling in all classes of painting." Artists took an impartial interest in all they saw, and the endeavour to paint well eliminated the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of expressing a high ideal; they now sought only to utter in a work of art the impression made on them by an external fact; and, too often, the strength of the effort degenerated into brutality . These new influences, which, in spite of the conservative school, had by degrees modified the aspect of Belgian art in BELGIUM] general, led to the formation at Brussels of an association under the name of the Free Society of Fine Arts . This group of painters had a marked influence on the development of the school, and hand in hand with the pupils of See also:

• PORTAELS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1818-1895)

Portaels—a teacher of sober methods, caring more for sound practice than for theories—it encouraged not merely the expression of deep and domestic feeling which we find in the works of Leys and de Groux, but also the endeavour to paint nature in the broad light of open air . The example of the Free Society found imitators; various artistic groups were formed to organize exhibitions where new works could be seen and studied irrespective of the influence of dealers, or of the conservatism of the authorities which was increasingly conspicuous in the official galleries; till what had at first been regarded as a mere audacious and fantastic demonstration assumed the dignity of respectable effort .

The " Cercle des Vingt " (" The Twenty Club ") also exerted a marked influence . By introducing into its exhibitions works by the greatest foreign artists it released Belgian art from the uniformity which some too patriotic theorists would See also:

• FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANCOIS (1778–1837)

fain have imposed . The famous " principle of individuality in art " was asserted there in a really remarkable manner, for side by side with the experiments of painters bent on producing certain effects of light hung the works of men who clung to literary or abstract subjects . Other groups, again, were formed on the same lines; but then came the inevitable reaction from these elaborations of quivering light and subtle expression, pushed, as it seemed, to an extreme . The youngest generation of Brussels painters, in .revolt against the See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights and ultra-refinements of their immediate predecessors, seem to take See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure in a return to gums and See also:

• BITUMEN

bitumen, and to seek the violent effects so dear to the romantic painters of a past time . Brussels is the real centre of art in Belgium . Antwerp, the home of See also:

• RUBENS, PETER PAUL (1577-164o)

Rubens, is resting on the memory of past glories, after vainly trying to uphold the ideal formerly held in honour by Flemish painters . And yet, so great is the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of this See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient reputation, that Antwerp even now attracts artists from every land, and more especially the dealers who go thither to buy pictures as a common form of merchandise . At See also:

• GHENT (Flem. Gent, Fr. Gand)

Ghent the wonderful energy of the authorities who get up the triennial exhibitions makes these the most interesting provincial shows of their kind; other towns, as See also:

• LIEGE
• LIEGE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Lilltich)

Liege, Tournay, See also:

• NAMUR
• NAMUR (Flemish, Namen)

Namur, See also:

• MONS (Flemish Bergen)

Mons and See also:

• SPA

Spa also have periodical exhibitions . From 183o, in the early days of the Belgian school of painting, we may observe a tendency to seek for the fullest qualities of colour, with delicate gradations of light and shade . In this Wappers led the way . At a time when his teachers in the Antwerp Academy would recognize nothing but the heavy brown tones of old paintings, he was already representing the transparent shadows of natural daylight .

But heroic and sentimental romanticism was already making way for the serious expression of domestic and popular feeling, and thenceforward the prominence assumed by genre, and yet more by landscape, led to a deeper and more direct study of the various aspects of nature . At the same time a special sense of colour was the leading characteristic of the artists of the time, and it was truly said that " the ambition to be a fine painter was stronger than the desire for scrupulous exactitude." Artists evidently aimed, in the first place, at a solid impasto and glowing colour; an under-tone, ruddy and golden, gleamed through the paler and more real hues of the over-painting . In this way we may certainly recognize the influence of the French colourists of Courbet's time; just as we may trace the influence of the See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey tone prevalent in Manet's day in the effort to paint with more simple truth and fewer tricks of See also:

• RECIPE

recipe, which became evident when the " Free Society was founded at Brussels, and the pupils from Portaels's studio came to the front . Among the artists who were then working the following must be named (with their best works in the Brussels Gallery): Alfred Stevens (q.v.), an incomparably charming painter, characterized by exquisite harmony of colour and marvellous dexterity with the brush . In the Brussels Gallery are his " The Lady in See also:

• PINK

Pink," " The Studio," " The Widow," " A Painter and his Model," and " The Lady-See also:

• BIRD

Bird." Joseph Stevens, his See also:

• BROTHER

brother, a master-painter of dogs, broad in his draughtsmanship, and painting in strong touches of colour, is represented by " The See also:

• DOG

Dog-See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

Market," " Brussels—See also:

• MORNING

Morning," " A Dog before a See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

Mirror "; Henri de See also:

• BRAEKELEER, HENRI JEAN AUGUSTIN DE (184o-1888)

Braekeleer, the See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew and pupil of Leys, a fine painter of interiors, in warm and golden tones, by " The Geographer," " A See also:

• FARM

Farm—Interior," " A See also:

• SHOP

Shop "; Lievin de Winne, a portrait painter, sober in style and refined in execution, by " See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold I., King of the Belgians "; Florent See also:

• WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823–1905)
• WILLEMS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1793-'t846)

Willems, archaic and elegant, by " The See also:

• WEDDING

Wedding See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

Dress "; 507 Eugene Smits, a refined colourist, always working with the thought of Venice in his mind, by " The Procession of the Seasons "; Louis See also:

• DUBOIS
• DUBOIS, FRANCOIS CLEMENT THEODORE (1837– )
• DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656–1723)
• DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848)
• DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905)
• DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-c. 1312)

Dubois, a powerful colourist with a full brush, striving to resemble Courbet, by " Storks," " Fish "; Alfred Verwee, a fine animal painter, with special love for a sheeny silkiness of texture, by " The See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

Estuary of the See also:

• SCHELDT (Fr. Escaut, Flem. Schelde)

Scheldt," " The See also:

• FAIR

Fair Land of See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders," " A See also:

• ZEELAND (or ZEALAND)

Zeeland Team "; Alfred See also:

• VERHAEREN, EMILE (1855– )

Verhaeren, a pupil of L . Dubois, by some " Interiors "; FeIicien See also:

• ROPS

Rops, an ertist, precise in drawing, sensual and incisive, by " A Parisienne extraordina7 • See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix ter See also:

• LINDEN

Linden, a restless, refined nature, always trying new subtleties of the brush and palette-See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife, by " Captives." Amongst other painters may be named Camille van See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

Camp, Gustave de Jonghe, See also:

• FRANZ, ROBERT (1815-1892)

Franz Verhas, and his brother See also:

• JAN

Jan Verhas, the painter of the popular " School Feast " in the Brussels Gallery; and Jan van Beers, the clever painter of female coquettishness, represented by pictures in the Antwerp Gallery . As landscape painters, the chief are: Hippolyte Boulenger, a refined draughtsman and a delicate colourist, represented in the Brussels Gallery by " View of See also:

• DINANT

Dinant," " The See also:

• AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to)

Avenue of Old Hornbeams at See also:

• TERVUEREN

Tervueren," " The See also:

• MEUSE
• MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas)

Meuse at Hastiere "; Alfred de Knyff, noble and elegant, by " The See also:

• MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

Marl See also:

• PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

Pit," " A See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

Heath—Campine " ; Joseph Coosemans, by " A See also:

• MARSH (O. F. mersc, for merisc, a place full of "meres" or pools; cf. Ger. Meer, sea, Lat. mare)
• MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258)
• MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882)
• MARSH, HERBERT (1757–1839)
• MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713)
• MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899)

Marsh—Campine "; Jules Montigny, by " Wet See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

Weather "; Alph . Asselbergs, by " A Marsh—Campine." There are also See also:

• XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE (1506-1552)

Xavier and Cesar de See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

Cock, painters in light See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

gay tones of colour; Gustave Den Duyts, a lover of See also:

• MELANCHOLY (Gr. µe)tayXotia, from µEtas, black, and Xotii, bile)

melancholy See also:

• TWILIGHT

twilight, represented in the same gallery by "A See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

Winter Evening"; Mme See also:

• MARIE

Marie Collart, a seeker after the more melancholy and concentrated impressions of nature, by " The Old See also:

• ORCHARD (O. Eng. ort-geard, later orceard; a combination apparently of Lat. hortus, garden, and " yard " or " Barth ")

Orchard "; and Baron Jules Gcethals . Of the Antwerp school, Francois Lamoriniere, archaic and minute, has in the Brussels Gallery his " View from Edeghem," and there is also Theodore Verstraete, sentimental, or frenzied . As marine painters: Paul Jean See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

Clays, who delights in vivid effects of colour, is represented at Brussels by " The Antwerp Roadstead," " See also:

• CALM

Calm on the Scheldt "; Louis Artan, who prefers dark and powerful effects, by " The North Sea," besides Robert Mols, A . See also:

• BOUVIER, JOHN (1787—1851)

Bouvier, and Lemayeur . As painters of See also:

• TOWN

town scenery may be named F .

Stroobant, a draughtsman rather than a painter, who is represented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Grande Place at Brussels," and J . B . Van More, a colourist chiefly, by " The See also:

• CATHEDRAL

Cathedral at Belem." The flower painter, Jean Robie, has in the Brussels Gallery " Flowers and See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

Fruit." Jean Portaels, the painter of " A See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

Box at the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

Theatre," at See also:

• BUDAPEST

Budapest, is represented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Daughter of See also:

• SION [Ger. Sitten]

Sion Insulted "; Emile See also:

• WAUTERS, EMILE (1848– )

Wauters, a master of free and solid brushwork, equally skilled in portraiture, historical composition and decorative portrait painting, by " The Madness of See also:

• HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764–1844)
• HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885)

Hugo van der Goes "; Edouard Agneessens, a genuine painter, with breadth of vision and facile execution, by portraits; See also:

• ANDRE, JOHN (1751-178o)

Andre Hennebicq, a painter of historical subjects, by " Labourers in the Campagna, Rome "; Isidore Verheyden, a landscapist and portrait painter, by " Woodcutters "; Eugene Verdyen and Emile See also:

• CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT (1792-1845)

Charlet should be mentioned, and the landscape painter Henri van der Hecht, whose " On the See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

Sand-hills " is in the Brussels Gallery . The principal landscape painters of what is known as the " neutral tint " school (l'Ecole du grit) are: Theodore Baron, faithful to the sterner features of Belgian scenery, represented in the Brussels Gallery by " A Winter Scene—Condroz "; Adrien Joseph Heymans, a careful student of singular effects of light, by " See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

Spring-time "; Jacques Rosseels, a painter of the cheerful brightness of the Flemish country, by " A Heath," besides Isidore Meyers and Florent Crabeels . Some figure painters who may be added to this group are: Charles Hermans, whose picture " Dawn " (Brussels Gallery), exhibited in 1875, betrays the ascendancy of the principles upheld by the Free Society of Fine Arts; Jean de la Hoese, who has since made portraits his special line; Emile Sacre; Leon Philippet, represented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Murdered Man "; and Jan Stobbaerts, a masterly painter, powerful but coarse, by " A Farm—Interior." Three more artists were destined to greater fame: Constantin Meunier, a highly respected artist, equally a painter and a sculptor, known as the Millet of the Flemish workman, who has depicted with noble feeling his admiration and pity for one contemporary state of the human race, and who is represented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Peasants' War "; Xavier Mellery, who tries to express in works of high artistic merit the inner life of men and things, and personifications of thought, by " A Drawing "; and Alexandre Struys, a strong and clever painter, expressing his sympathy with poverty and misfortune in works of remarkable ability . Besides these, Charles See also:

• VERLAT, MICHEL MARIE CHARLES (1824-189o)

Verlat, a powerful and skilled artist, painted a vast variety of subjects; his teaching was influential in the Antwerp Academy . In the Brussels Gallery he is represented by " See also:

• GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678)

Godfrey de See also:

• BOUILLON

Bouillon at the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

Siege of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem," " A See also:

• FLOCK

Flock of See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep attacked by an See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

Eagle"; Alfred Cluysenaar, whose aim is to produce decorative work on an enormous scale, by " See also:

• CANOSSA

Canossa "; Albrecht de See also:

• VRIENDT, JULIAEN JOSEPH DE (1842– )

Vriendt, by " See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

Homage done to Charles V. as a Child "; Juliaan de Vriendt, by " A See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas See also:

• CAROL (O. Fr. carole)

Carol "; Victor Lagye, by 508 " The See also:

• WITCH

Witch." Franz Vinck, Wilhelm Geets, Karl Ooms, and P. van der Ouderaa, endeavour to perpetuate, while softening down, the style of historical painting so definitely formulated by Leys . Finally, Joseph Stallaert, a painter of classical subjects, is represented in the Brussels Gallery by " The Death of See also:

• DIDO, or ELISSA

Dido." Eugene Devaux, a remarkable draughtsman, should also be named . Works by all those artists were to be seen in the Historical Exhibition of Belgian Art at Brussels, 1880 . Camille Lemonnier, in his History of the Fine Arts in Belgium, discussed this Exhibition very fully, pointing out three distinct periods in the history of the century . The first, romantic, literary and artificial, extended from 183o till nearly 185o; the second was a period of transition, domestic in feeling, gradually developing to realism in the course of about twenty years; the third began in the 'seventies, a time of careful study, especially in landscape . This was followed by the beginning of a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth period, characterized by a freer sense of light and atmosphere .

Apart from the exclusive tendency, inevitable under bureaucratic See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, the mere arrangement on an antiquated See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of the great academic salons was unsuited to the display of works intended to represent individual feeling or peculiarities of pictorial treatment . Hence it was that a great many painters came to prefer smaller and more eclectic shows, leading to the fashion, which still persists, of exhibitions by clubs or associations . The Fine Arts Club at Brussels had long since afforded opportunities for showing the pictures of the Societe Libre, founded in 1868, which were condemned by the authorities as tending to " revolutionize " art . After this, two associations of young painters were formed at Brussels with a view to organizing their own exhibitions . The " Chrysatide" Club was founded in 1895, and the " Essor " (the " Soaring ") Club in 1876 . In 1882, however, the Essor obtained leave to open their exhibition in a room in the Palais des Beaux Arts at Brussels . This tolerance was all the more appreciated by the younger party because a new departure was in course of development, again a modification in the effort to represent light in painting . The " neutral tint " school had given way to the school of " whiteness "; a luminous effect was to be sought by a free use of brilliant colour with a very full brush . But ere long this method proved unsatisfactory, and attention was now turned towards a "sincerer and acuter See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception of local values." ; and again the influence of certain French painters was brougt to bear—those of the group headed by C . Monet, preparing for that of the French painter G . Seurat, the first who carried into practice the systematic decomposition of colour by the See also:

• PROCESS

process known as pointillisme (the intimate juxtaposition of dots of colour) . In 1884, in consequence of a division in the Essor Club, the " XX Club was founded, who, though thus limiting their number, reserved the right of " issuing yearly invitations, and thus testifying the sympathy they felt with the most independent artists of Belgium and with those foreign painters with whom they had the most pronounced affinity." For ten years the exhibitions of the " XX," whose careful and artistic arrangements were in themselves admirable, were the fount in Belgium of discussions on art .

The limit of its existence to ten years was determined when the club was formed; but as it was desirable that the principle of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty in art should still be held in honour, M . See also:

• OCTAVE (from Lat. octavus, eighth, octo, eight)

Octave Maus, the secretary of the " XX " Club, organized the exhibitions of the Libre esthetique in and since 1894 . Other clubs had been formed in Brussels: the Fine Art Society in 1891 and the " Furrow " (le Sillon) in 1893 . In 1894 another See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach in the Essor Club, which, growing very weak, was soon to disappear—as the " Art See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union " and the Voorwaerts Club had done—led to the formation of the Society " for Art " (pour fart) ; and in 1896 a party of that club established a salon of idealist art which favoured an exaggeration of the intellectual tendency already begun in the exhibitions of the " XX." Subsequently, in the exhibitions of the Sillon and of the Labeur Clubs (founded in 1898) a reaction set in, in favour of heavy brown tones and ponderous composition . At Antwerp the influence of the local societies—the " Als Ik Kan," the Independent Art Club, and the " XIII "—was less sensibly felt ; it was, however, enough to confirm certain waverers in the direction of purely disinterested effort . It would be impossible to classify into definite groups those painters whose first distinctive See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance was subsequent to the Historical Exhibition in 1880 . Only an approximate grouping can be attempted by assigning each to the association in whose exhibitions he made the best display of what he aimed at expressing . Thus it was chiefly in the rooms of the Essor Club that works were shown by the following: L . Frederic, a remarkable painter, combining wonderful facility of execution with a sincerely simple sentiment of homely pathos, represented at the Brussels Gallery by " See also:

• CHALK

Chalk Sellers "; E . Hoeterickx, a painter of crowds in the streets and parks; F . Seghers, a pleasing colourist, who had made flower-painting his speciality; two animal painters, F. van Leemputten, " Return from Work " (Brussels Gallery), and E. van See also:

• DAMME

Damme-Sylva, as well as the marine painter, A . Marcette .

The landscape painters include J. de Greet, almost brutal in style, " The See also:

• POOL

Pool at See also:

• ROUGE (" red," from Lat. rubeus)

Rouge-Cioltre " (Brussels Gallery), C . Wolles, and Hamesse . L . Houyoux, F . See also:

• HALKETT, HUGH, FREIHERR VON (1783-1863)

Halkett, L . Herbo are known for their portraits . And there are E. van Gelder, J . See also:

• MAYNE, JASPER (1604-1672)

Mayne, A . Crespin, a learned decorative painter and E . Duyck, a graceful draughtsman, " A Dream " (Brussels Gallery) . As[See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

HOLLAND designers may be named A . Heins, a clever illustrator, and A .

Lynen, of a thoroughly Brussels type, keenly observant and satirical . At the exhibitions of the " XX " were pictures by the following: Fernand See also:

• KHNOPFF, FERNAND EDMOND JEAN MARIE (1858– )

Khnopff (" Memories," a See also:

• PASTEL

pastel, in Brussels Gallery), an admirer of the refined domesticity of English contemporary art, and of mystical art, as represented by Gustave Moreau; H. van der Velde, a well-known exponent of the new methods in applied art; J . Ensor, a whimsical nature, loving strange combinations of colour and inconsequent fancies (Brussels Gallery: " The See also:

• LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

Lamp Man ") ; Th. van Rysselberghe, a clever painter, especially in the technique of dot painting (pointillisme) ; W . Schlobach, a remarkable colourist of uncertain tendencies; Henry de Groux, son of Ch. de Groux, a seer of visions represented in violent tones and workman-See also:

• SHIP

ship ; G . Vogels, a painter of thaw and See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain; G. van Strydoneck, R . Wytsman, J . Delvin, F . Charlet, Mlle A . Boch, all of whom have striven to bring light into their pictures; W . See also:

• FINCH
• FINCH (Ger. Fink, Lat. Fringilla)

Finch and G . Lemmen . To the triennial salons, to the exhibitions of the " Artistic " clubs, to the House of Art (Maison d'art), at Brussels, and to the various Antwerp clubs, the following have contributed: F .

Courtens, Rosseels's brilliant pupil, an astonishing painter with a heavy impasto (Brussels Gallery: " Coming out of See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church ") ; J. de See also:

• LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453)

Lalaing, full of lofty aims, but showing in his painting the qualities of a sculptor (Brussels Gallery: " A Prehistoric Hunter ") ; E . Claus, a lover of bright colour, and a genuine landscape painter (Brussels Gallery: " A Flock on the Road ") ; A . Baertsoen, who delights in the quiet corners of old Flemish towns; H . Evenepoel, a fine artist whose premature death deprived the Belgian school of a highly distinguished See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality (Brussels Gallery : " Child at Play ") ; G . Vanaise, a painter of huge historical subjects; Ch . Mertens, a refined artist; E . Motte, an interesting painter with a love of archaic methods (Brussels Gallery: " A Girl's Head ") ; A . Leveque, an accomplished draughtsman with a distinctive touch; L . Wolles, an admirable draughtsman; J . Leempoels, elaborate and minute; H . Richir, a portrait painter; J. van den See also:

• EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN (1621-1694)

Eeckhout, a clever pupil of Verheyden; J . Rosier, a skilful follower of Verlat; L .

Abry, a painter of military subjects; E . Carpentier, E . Vanhove, Luyten and Desmeth . Essentially of the Antwerp School are F. van Kuyck, P . Verhaert, de Jans, and Brunin of Ghent, Ch . Doudelet, C . Montald and van Biesbroeck . There is a group of artists at Liege whose sincerity and high technical qualities have been recognized : A . See also:

• DONNAY, CHARLES MAURICE (1859– )

Donnay, A . Rassenfosse, E . Berchmans, F . Marechal, Dewitte .

Of lady painters: Mmes E . Beernaert, L . Heger and J . Wytsman paint landscape; Mmes B . Art, A . Ronner, G . Meunier and M . De Bievre paint flowers . Mmes A. d'Anethan, See also:

• LAMBERT [alias NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538)
• LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809)
• LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c 1486-153o)
• LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728–1777)
• LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694)

Lambert de See also:

• ROTHSCHILD

Rothschild, M . Philippson, H . See also:

• CALAIS

Calais and M . A .

Marcotte paint figures and portraits . The chief exhibitors at the Societe pour fart have been A . Ciamberlani, a painter of large decorative compositions in subdued tones; H . Ottevaere, a painter of See also:

• NIGHT

night or twilight landscapes; O . Coppens, R . See also:

• JANSSENS (or JANSENS) VAN NUYSSEN, ABRAHAM (1567–1632)
• JANSSENS (or JANSENS), VICTOR HONORIUS (1664–1739)

Janssens and A . Hannotiau, who study old houses, deserted churches and dead cities; F . Baes, an excellent pupil of Frederic Fabry, O. and J . Dierickx, painters of decorative figures; H . Meunier, an ingeniously decorative draughtsman; J . Delville, founder of the salons of idealist art . Leading exhibitors at the Voorwaerts Club have been E .

Laermans, a strange artist, as it were a See also:

• DAUMIER, HONORE (1808-1879)

Daumier with anchylose See also:

• JOINTS

joints, but a colourist (Brussels Gallery: " A Flemish See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

Peasant ") V . Gilsoul, a clever pupil of Courtens (Brussels Gallery: " The See also:

• KENNEL

Kennel "); J. du Jardin, the writer of L'Art flamand, an important See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical work illustrated by J . Middeleer . Contributors to the exhibitions of the Sillon Club comprise G . M . Stevens, P . Verdussen, P . Matthieu, J . Gouweloos, Bastien, Blieck, Wagemans and Smeers ; and V . See also:

• MIGNOT, CLAUDINE FRANCOISE [commonly called MARIE] (c. 1617-1711)

Mignot, ingenious in designing posters . At the exhibitions of water-colours have been seen the works of Huberti, F . Binge, V .

Uytterschaut, Stacquet and H . Cassiers, who work with light washes or a clever use of See also:

• BODY

body colour; Hagemans, who paints with broad washes; Delaunois, the painter of mysterious interiors; Th . Lybaert, minute in his brushwork; M . See also:

• ROMBERG, WILHELM (1652-1715)

Romberg and Titz, correct draughtsmen . Since 1870 several important works of decorative painting in public buildings have been carried out in Belgium . Guffens, Swerts and Pauwels have succumbed to the influences of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German art, often cold and stiff ; A. and J . Devriendt, V . Lagye, W . Geets and Van der Ouderaa have followed more or less in the footsteps of Leys . J . Stallaert has cleverly revived a classic style . Emile Wauters and A .

Hennebicq have adopted the traditions of Historical Painting; and so too have L . See also:

• GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887)

Gallait, A . Cluysenaar, J. de Lalaing and A . Bourland, though with a more decorative sense of conception and treatment . But of all these works, certainly the most remark-able in its artistic and intelligent fitness is that of M . Delbeke, in the market-hall at See also:

• YPRES (Flemish Yperen)

Ypres . See Camille Lemonnier, Histoire des arts en Belgique; A . J . Wauters, La Peinture flamande; J. du Jardin, L'Art flamand . (F . K.*) HOLLAND The entire Impressionist movement of the end of the 19th century failed to exercise the slightest influence upon the Dutch . They are only modern in so far as they again resort to the See also:

• CLASSICS

classics of their Fatherland .

For a whole generation Josef Israels was at the head of Dutch art . Born in 1827 at See also:

• GRONINGEN

Groningen, the son of a money-changer, he walked every day in his early years, with a See also:

• LINEN

linen money-bag under his See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm, to the great banking house of Mesdag, a son of which became later the famous marine painter . During his student days in See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam he lived in the See also:

• GHETTO

Ghetto, in the house of a poor but orthodox Jewish See also:

• FAMILY

family . He hungered in Paris, and was derided as a See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew in the See also:

• DELAROCHE, HIPPOLYTE

Delaroche school there . Such were the experiences of life that formed his character . In Zantvoort, the little fishing village close to See also:

• HAARLEM

Haarlem, he made a similar See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery to that which Millet had already made at Barbizon . In the solitude of the remote village he discovered that not only in the pages of history, but also in everyday life, there are tragedies . Having at first only painted historical subjects, he now began to depict the hard struggle of the seafaring man, and the joys and griefs of the poor . He commenced the long series of pictures that for See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years and more occupied the place of honour in all Dutch exhibitions . They do not contain a See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story that can be rendered into words; they only tell the See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale of everyday life . Old See also:

• WOMEN

women, with rough, toil-worn hands and good-natured wrinkled faces, sit comfortably at the See also:

• STOVE

stove . Weatherbeaten See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen See also:

• WADE (or WAAD), SIR WILLIAM (1546-1623)
• WADE, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1800-1878)
• WADE, GEORGE (1673-1748)
• WADE, SIR THOMAS FRANCIS (1818-1895)
• WADE, THOMAS (18o5-1875)

wade through the water, splashed by the waves as they See also:

• DRAG (from the Old Eng. dragan, to draw; the word preserves the g which phonetically developed into w)

drag along the heavy anchors .

A peasant child learns how to walk by the aid of a little See also:

• CART (A.S. crcet, Gaelic cairt; connected with " car ")

cart . Again, the dawning light falls softly upon a peaceful deathbed, on which an old woman has just breathed her last . A sad and resigned melancholy characterizes and pervades all his works . His toilers do not stand up straight; they are broken, without hope, and humble, and accomplish their appointed task without pleasure and without interest . He paints human beings upon whom the oppressions of centuries are resting; eyes that neither gaze on the See also:

• PRESENT

present nor into the future, but back on to the long, painful past . A Jew, bearing the Ghetto yet in his bosom, is talking to us; and in his painting of the lowly and oppressed he recounts the story of his own youth and the history of his own race . The younger painters have divided Israels' subjects among them . Each has his own little field, which he tills and cultivates with See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and good sense; and paints one picture, to be repeated again and again during his lifetime . Christoph Birschop, born in See also:

• FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND

Friesland, settled as an artist in the land of his birth, where the national costumes are so picturesque, with golden chains, See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace caps and See also:

• SILVER

silver embroidered bodices . As in de Hoogh's pictures, the golden light streams through the window upon the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor, upon deep See also:

• CRIMSON

crimson table-covers; and upon a few silent human beings, whose lives are passed in dreamy monotony . Gerk Henkes paints the fogs of the canals, with boats gliding peacefully along . Albert Neuhuys selects simple family scenes, in cosy rooms with the sunlight peeping stealthily through the windows .

Adolf Cortz, a pupil of Israels, loves the pale vapour of autumn, grey-See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green plains and dusty country roads, with silvery thistles and pale yellow flowers . The landscape painters, also, have more in common with the old Dutch classic masters than with the Parisian Impressionists . There, on the hill, Rembrandt's See also:

• WINDMILL

windmill slowly flaps its wings; there See also:

• POTTER, ALONZO (1800-1865)
• POTTER, HENRY CODMAN (1835–1908)
• POTTER, J
• POTTER, JOHN (c. 1674-1747)
• POTTER, PAUL (1625—1654)
• POTTER, PHILIP CIPRIANI HAMBLEY (1792—1871)

Potter's cows ruminate solemnly as they See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie on the grass . There are no coruscation and dazzling brightness, only the grey-brownish mellowness that Van See also:

• GOYEN, JAN JOSEPHSZOON VAN (1596-1656)

Goyen affected . Anton See also:

• MAUVE, ANTON (1838–1888)

Mauve, See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob See also:

• MARIS, JACOB (1837-1899)

Maris and Willem Maris (d . 1910), are the best known landscape men . Others are Mesdag, de Haas, Apol, Klinkenberg, Bastert, Blommers, de See also:

• KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871)

Kock, Bosboom, Ten Kate, du See also:

• CHATTEL (for derivation see CATTLE)

Chattel, Ter See also:

• MEULEN, ANTONY FRANCIS VAN DER (1634–1690)

Meulen, Sande-Bakhuyzen . They all paint Dutch coast scenery, Dutch fields, and Dutch cattle, in excellent keeping with the old-master school, and with phlegmatic repose . A few of the younger masters introduced a certain amount of movement into this distinguished, though somewhat somniferous, excellence . Breitner and Isaak Israels seem to belong rather to See also:

• ALA

Ala See also:

• NET

net's school than to that of Holland . The " suburb " pictures of W . Tholen, the flat landscapes bathed in light by Paul Joseph Gabriel, and Jan Veth's and Havermann's impressionistic portraits prove that, even among the Dutch, there are artists who experiment .

Jan Toorop has even attainedthe proud distinction of being the enfant terrible of modern exhibitions, and his works appear to belong rather to the art of the old Assyrians than to the 19th century . But those who will endeavour to enter into their artistic spirit will soon discover that Toorop is deserving of more than a mere shrug of the See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder; they will find that he is a great painter, who independently pursues original aims . At the present time all See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of art is determined by the "line." All caprices and whims of the " line " are now ridden as much to death, and with the same enthusiasm, as were formerly those of light." Toorop occupies one of the first places among those whose only aim consists in allowing the " line " to talk and make See also:

• MUSIC

music . His astonishing power of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical expression may be noted . With what simple means, for example, he renders in his picture of the " See also:

• SPHINX (Gr. Q¢lyyea', to draw tight, squeeze)

Sphinx " all phases of hysterical desire; in that of " The Three Brides " nunlike resignation, chaste devotion and unbridled voluptuousness . If his mastery over gesture, the glance of the eye, be remarked—how each feature, each movement of the hand and head, each raising and closing of the eyelid, exactly expresses what it is intended to express—Toorop's pictures will no more be scoffed at than those of See also:

• GIOTTO

Giotto, but he will be recognized as one of the greatest masters of the " line " that the 19th century produced . See Max Rooses, Dutch Painters of the Nineteenth Century (Eng. ed., London, 1898-1901) . (R . MR.) GERMANY The German school of painting, like that of France, entered on a new phase after the Franco-German War of 1870 . An empire had been built up of the agglomeration of See also:

• SEPARATE

separate states . Germany needed no longer to gaze back admiringly at older and greater epochs . The historical painter became neglected .

Not the heroic deeds of the past, but the political glories of the new empire were to be immortalized . This transition is particularly noticeable in the work of Adolf von See also:

• MENZEL, ADOLPH FRIEDRICH ERDMANN VON (1815-1905)
• MENZEL, WOLFGANG (1798-1873)

Menzel . At the time of political stagnation he had recorded on his canvas the glories of See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia in the past . Now that the present had achieved an importance of its own, he painted "The See also:

• CORONATION (Lat. corona, crown)

Coronation of King William at See also:

• KONIGSBERG (Polish Krolewiec)

Konigsberg" and "King William's Departure for the Army "; and ultimately he became the painter of popular subjects . The See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

motley throng in the streets had a special fascination for him, and he loved to draw the crowd pushing its eager way to listen to a See also:

• BAND

band on the See also:

• PROMENADE

promenade, in the market, at the doors of a theatre, or the windows of a cafe . He discovered the poetry of the builder's yard and the workshop . In the " Moderne Cyklopen " (See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-works), painted in 1876, he left a monumental mark in the history of German art; for in this picture he depicts a simple incident in daily life, without any See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at genre; and this was indeed the characteristic of his work for the next few years . Humorous See also:

• ANECDOTE (from av-, privative, and isSLSwµu, to give out or publish)

anecdote, as represented by Knaus (b . 1829), Vautier (1829-'898), Defregger (b . 1835) and Griitzner (b . 1846), found little See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance . Serious representations of modern life were required; resort was made to all the expedients of the great painters, and the 'seventies were years of artistic study for Germany .

Every great colourist in the past was thoroughly studied and his secrets discovered . In Germany, Wilhelm Leibl (b . 1844), holds the same prominent place that Courbet does in France . Leibl, like Courbet, (q.v.), showed that the task of painting is not to narrate, but to depict by the most convincing means at its disposal . He even went farther than Courbet in close See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

scrutiny of nature . With loving See also:

• PATIENCE

patience he strove to translate into colour everything that his keen eye observed: he studied nature with the devotion of the medieval artist . No feeling, strictly speaking, is discernible in his work . His greatest pictures are only of quiet life, with human accessories, and his painful accuracy divests his pictures of poetry . But when he first appeared, he was necessary . His painting of " Three Peasant Women in Church " is a grand documentary work of that period, whose first aim was to conquer the picturesque . Leibl taught artists to study detail, to master the secrets of flower, See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf and stalk . A great number of pupils were encouraged by him to gain such a thorough mastery of every detail of technique as to be enabled to paint pictures that were thoroughly good in workman-ship, irrespective of genre or anecdote .

Among these, W . Trubner (b . 1851) stands pre-eminently as a painter . His works during the 'seventies are among the best painting done at Munich during that period; they are full and rich in colour, broad and bold in their treatment of the subject . A contemporary of his was See also:

• BRUNO (BRUN, BRUNS) OF QUERFURT, SAINT (c. 975-1009)
• BRUNO, GIORDANO (c. 1548-1600)
• BRUNO, or BRUN (925–965)
• BRUNO, SAINT

Bruno Piglhein (b . 1848), a German See also:

• CHAPLIN, HENRY (1841– )

Chaplin in this Courbet group, not heavy and matter-of-fact, but bold and witty . He revived the art of pastel painting and pointed the way to a new style in panoramic and decorative painting, whilst infusing beauty and See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace into all his works . The movement in applied arts which began at this time is also important . The revival of the German Empire led to a renaissance in German taste . The " old German dwelling-rooms," which now became the fashion, could only be hung with pictures in keeping with the style of the old masters, and this entailed a closer study and imitation of their works than had hitherto been customary . Wilhelm See also:

• DIEZ
• DIEZ, FRIEDRICH CHRISTIAN (1794–1876)

Diez (b . 1839) at the head of the group, was as well acquainted with the See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch from Diirer and See also:

• HOLBEIN, HANS

Holbein to See also:

• OSTADE

Ostade and Rembrandt as any art historian .

In Harburger (b . 1846) Adrian See also:

• BROUWER, or BRAUWES, ADRIAN (1608-1640)

Brouwer lived once more; and in Lofftz (b . 1845) Quintin See also:

• MATSYS (MASSYS or METZYS), QUINTIN (1466-1530)

Matsys . Claus See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer (b . 1846) imitated all the artistic tricks of Pieter de See also:

• HOOCH, PIETER DE (1629-?1678)

Hooch and Van der See also:

• NEER, VAN DER

Neer of See also:

• DELFT

Delft . Holbein's costume studies were at first models for Fritz See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August See also:

• KAULBACH, WILHELM VON (1805-1874)

Kaulbach (b . 1850) . Later, he extended his studies to See also:

• DOLCI, CARLO, or CARLINO (,616—,686)

Dolci and Van Dyck, to See also:

• WATTEAU, ANTOINE (1684-1721)

Watteau and See also:

• GAINSBOROUGH
• GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788)

Gainsborough . Adolf Lier (1827–1882) applied the beauty of tone beloved by the old masters to landscape, Von See also:

• LENBACH, FRANZ VON (1836-1904)

Lenbach's works show the See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith of old-master talent in Germany . He had educated himself as a copyist of classical masterpieces, and passed through a schooling in the study of old masters such as none of his contemporaries had enjoyed . The copies which, as a young man, he made for Count See also:

• SCHACK, ADOLF FRIEDRICH, GRAF VON (1815-1894)

Schack in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and Spain are among the best the brush has ever accomplished . See also:

• TITIAN
• TITIAN (c. 1477-1576)

Titian and Rubens, See also:

• VELAZQUEZ, DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE SILVA Y (1599-166o)

Velazquez and See also:

• GIORGIONE
• GIORGIONE (1477-1510)

Giorgione, were imitated by him with equal success .

In like manner he gave to his own works their distinguished old-master charm . More than all other painters of historical subjects, Lenbach enjoys the distinction of having been the historian of his epoch . He gave the great men of the era of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor William I. the form in which they will live in German history, and beauty of colour is blended in all these pictures with their brilliant evidence of thought . The aspirations of a whole generation to restore the technique of the old masters found their realization in Lenbach . Such was the position of things when there was imported from France the desire to paint light and sun . It was argued that the views which the old masters held concerning colour were in glaring See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction to what the eye actually saw . The old masters, it was said, paid particular attention to the conditions of light and shade under which they did their work . The golden character of the Italian Renaissance was traceable to the old cathedrals lighted by stained-See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass windows . The light and shade of the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands were in keeping with the light and See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of the artists' studios lighted by little panes, and due partly to the fact that their pictures were intended to hang in dreamy, brown panelled See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers . But was this golden or brown light suitable for the 19th century ? Were we not illogical, when for the sake of reproducing the tones of the old masters, we darkened our studios and. shut out the daylight by coloured glass windows and heavy curtains ? Was not light one of the greatest acquisitions of recent times ?

When the Dutch painted the world used only little panes of glass . Now the daylight streamed into our rooms through great white sheets of crystal . When our grandfathers lived there were only candles and oil lamps . Now we had See also:

• GAS

gas and electric light . Instead of imitating the old masters, let us paint the colouristic charms that were unknown to them . Let us do honour to the new marvels of colour . With such arguments as were advanced in France, did artists in Germany adopt the plein-air and abandon older methods; and a development like that which took place in France afterthe days of Manet ensued in Germany also . Daylight, which had so long been kept down, was now to be reproduced as clear and bright . After the art of painting strong effects full of day-light had been grappled with, other and more difficult problems of light effects were attempted . After the full See also:

• BLAZE (A.-S. blaese, a torch)

blaze of sunshine had been successfully reproduced, such effects as the haze of early morning, the sultry vaporous atmosphere of the See also:

• THUNDER

thunder-storm, the mysterious night, the See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue-grey dawn, the delicate colours of variegated See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese lanterns, the scintillation of gas and lamplight, and the dreamy twilight in the interior were dealt with . Max See also:

• LIEBERMANN, MAX (1849– )

Liebermann (b . 1849) was the first to join the new departure .

In Paris he had learnt technique . Holland, the country of fogs, inspired him with the love for atmospheric effects, and its scenes of simple life provided him with many subjects . Perhaps the " Net Menders " in the See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg Kunsthalle is most typical of Liebermann's art . Frank Skarbina (b . 1849), who was the second to join the new movement in See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, proceeded to studies of twilight and artificial light effects . Hans Herrman (b . 1858), who settled himself on quays and ports; Hugo Volgel, who endeavoured to utilize scenes from contemporary life for decorative pictures; and the two landscape painters, See also:

• LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816—1895)
• LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865)

Ludwig Dettmann (b . 1865) and See also:

• WALTHER, BERNHARD (1430-15o4)

Walther Leistikow (b . 1865), are other representatives of modern Berlin, art . Carlsruhe, in the 'eighties, produced some modern pictures of great merit, when Gustav Schonleber (b . 1851) and Herrmann Baisch (b . 1846) showed daintily conceived pictures of Dut::h landscapes .

In later years Count Leopold See also:

• KALCKREUTH (or KALKREUTH), FRIEDRICH ADOLF, COUNT VON (1737—1818)
• KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, COUNT VON (1855— )

Kalckreuth (b . 1855), whose powerfully conceived representations of peasant life belong to the best productions of German realism, and Victor Weishaupt (b . 1848), the animal painter, removed thence to See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart, the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence also of See also:

• OTTO

Otto Reiniger (b . 1863), a landscape painter of great originality . At See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden we find Gotthard Kuehl (b . 1850), long domiciled in Paris, who was one of the first to accept Manet's teaching . In North Germany, Worpswede became a German Barbizon; Ende (b . 1860), Vogeler, and Vinnen (b . 1863) also worked there . In See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar, two landscape painters of great refinement must be mentioned—Theodor See also:

• HAGEN
• HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (178o-1856)

Hagen (b . 1842) and See also:

• GLEICHEN

Gleichen-Russwurm (b . 1866) .

As far back as the 'seventies they rendered ploughed fields, hills enveloped in thin vapour at sunrise, waving fields of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, and See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple trees in full See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom trembling in the rays of the evening glow with a delicate understanding of natural effects . But Munich still remains the headquarters of German art, which is there the first of all interests and pervades all circles . Almost all those who are working in other German towns receive in that city their inspirations and have indeed remained its citizens in heart . The international exhibitions have given a great European tone and impulse to creative work . Among the elders, Albert von See also:

• KELLER, ALBERT (1845- )
• KELLER, GOTTFRIED (1819-1890)
• KELLER, HELEN ADAMS (188o- )

Keller (b . 1841) has perhaps the greatest originality . He is one of those who practised the art of the brush as long ago as the 'seventies, and painted, not for the sake of historical subjects or for genre, but for the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole love of his art . He painted everything, never restricted himself to any fixed See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme, and never became trivial . He is perhaps in Germany the only painter of female portraits who has caught in his pictures a little of the charm that betrays itself in the expression and movements of the modern woman . In the works of Freiherr von Habermann (b . 1849) this refinement of sentiment, as expressed in colour, is combined with a still more decided shade of eccentricity . Already in his " Child of Sorrow," which hangs in the National Gallery at Berlin, he struck that painful chord that always remained his favourite .

However different the subjects he has painted, a morbid See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note pervades them all . In Heinrich Ziigel (b . 1850), the Munich school possesses an animal painter who rivals the great Frenchmen in original power . Ludwig See also:

• DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens)

Dill (b . 1848), whom one must still count as " Dachauer," in spite of his See also:

• MIGRATION

migration to Carlsruhe, had for some time past been famous as a painter of Venice, the lagoons and See also:

• CHIOGGIA

Chioggia, when the impressionist movement became for him the starting-point of a new development . He strove for still brighter light, tried to realize the most subtle shades of colour, and raised himself from a painter of natural impressions to free and poetical lyricism . Arthur Langhammer (b . 1855), Ludwig Herterich, See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo Samberger (b . 1851), Hans von See also:

• BARTELS, HANS VON (1856– )

Bartels (b . 1856), Wilhelm Keller-Reutlinger (b . 1854), Beno See also:

• BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822)
• BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796—1846)

Becker, Louis See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth (b . 1858), Max Slevogt, are others that may be mentioned among the later Munich artists .

Fritz von See also:

• UHDE, FRITZ KARL HERMANN VON (1848– )

Uhde (b . 1848) occupies a peculiar position as being the first to apply the principles of naturalism to religious art . Immediately before him, Eduard von Gebhardt (b . 1838) had gone back to the angular style of the old See also:

• NORTHERN

northern masters, that of See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger van der See also:

• WEYDEN, ROGIER VAN DER

Weyden and Albert Diirer, believing he could draw the old Biblical events closer to present times by See also:

• RELATING