RELATING  TO 547 See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom . Where a See also:

• SHIP

ship is a See also:

• BRITISH

British ship, but not registered in the See also:

• UNITED

United Kingdom, the provisions of See also:

• PART

Part II. apply as follows: The provisions relating to the See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping and See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen in the United Kingdom and to volunteering into the See also:

• NAVY

navy apply in every See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . The provisions relating to lists of the See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew and to the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of deceased seamen and apprentices apply where the crew are discharged or the final See also:

• PORT

port of destination of the ship is in the United Kingdom . All the provisions apply where the ship is employed in trading or going between any port in the United Kingdom and any port not situate in the British See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession or See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country in which the ship is registered . The provisions relating to the rights of seamen in respect of See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages, to the shipping and discharge of seamen in ports abroad, to leaving seamen abroad, and the See also:

• RELIEF

relief of seamen in See also:

• DISTRESS

distress in ports abroad, to the provisions, See also:

• HEALTH

health, and See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of seamen, to the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of seamen to make complaints, to the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of seamen from See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition, and to discipline, apply in every case except where the ship is within the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the British possession in which the ship is registered . Fishermen.—The regulations respecting fishermen are contained chiefly in the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea See also:

• FISHERIES

Fisheries Acts 1868 and 1883, and in the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

Merchant Shipping See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act 1894, part iv . The Sea Fisheries Act of 1868 constituted a registry of fishing-boats, and that of 1883 gave See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of enforcing the provisions of the acts to sea See also:

• FISHERY (LAW OF)

fishery See also:

• OFFICERS

officers . The Merchant Shipping (Fishing-Boats) Act 1883 was passed in consequence of the occurrence of some cases of barbarous treatment of boys by the skippers of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Sea trawlers . It is now incorporated in the act of 1894 . This act provides, inter alia, that indentures of See also:

• APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. apprendre, to learn)

apprenticeship are to be in a certain See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form and entered into before a See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent of a See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, that no boy under thirteen is to be employed in sea-fishery, that agreements with seamen on a fishing-See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat are to contain the same particulars as those with merchant seamen, that See also:

• RUNNING

running agreements may be made in the case of See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short voyages, that reports of the names of the crew are to be sent to a superintendent of a mercantile marine office, and that accounts of wages and certificates of discharge are to be given to seamen . No fishing-boat is to go to sea without a duly certified skipper . See also:

• PRO

Pro-See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision is also made for See also:

• SPECIAL

special reports of cases of See also:

• DEATH

death, injury, See also:

• ILL

ill-treatment or See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment of any of the crew, and for inquiry into the cause of such death, &c .

Disputes between skippers or owners and seamen are to be determined at See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request of any of the parties concerned by a superintendent . Fishermen are exempt from Trinity See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House dues . There are numerous See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police provisions contained in various acts of See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament dealing with the See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of fishery regulations . These provisions act as an indirect protection to honest fishermen in their employment . The rights of British fishermen in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters and foreign fishermen in British waters are in many cases regulated by treaty, generally confirmed in the United Kingdom by act of parliament . A royal fund for widows and orphans of fishermen has been formed, the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the fund being part of the profits of'the Fisheries See also:

• EXHIBITION

Exhibition held in See also:

• LONDON

London in 1883 . Special provisions as to fishermen in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland are contained in s . 389 of the act of 1894 and s . 83 of the act of 1906 . See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and Colonies.—In India and in most British colonies there are See also:

• LAWS

laws affecting merchant seamen . In some cases such legislation is identical with the imperial act, but in most there are See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of more or less importance, and the colonial statutes should be consulted . United States.—The See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the United States is in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general accordance with that of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England .

The law relating to seamen in the navy will be found in the articles for the government of the navy (Revised Statutes, s . 1624) . Legislation in the interests of merchant seamen See also:

• DATES

dates from 1790 . A See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the crew must be delivered to a See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector of customs . The shipping articles are the same as those in use in the United Kingdom . For vessels in the See also:

• COASTING

coasting See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade they are, with certain exceptions, to be in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing or in See also:

• PRINT

print . They must in the case of foreign-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound See also:

• SHIPS

ships be signed before a shipping See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner appointed by the See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court or a collector of customs, or (if entered into abroad) a consular officer, where practicable, and must be acknowledged by his See also:

• SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signature, signare, to sign, signum, mark, token, sign)

signature in a prescribed form . One-third of a See also:

• SEAMAN, OWEN (1861– )

seaman's wages earned up to that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time is due at every port where the ship unlades and delivers her See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo before the voyage is ended . They must be fully paid in See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold or its See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent within twenty days of the discharge of the cargo . Advance notes can be made only in favour of the seaman himself or his wife or See also:

• MOTHER

mother . There is a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary remedy for wages before a See also:

• DISTRICT

district court, a See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice of the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, or a commissioner of a district court . A shipping Some only of the provisions of the acts apply to ships belonging to the general lighthouse authorities and See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure yachts .

But, with these exceptions, the whole of British Part II . (Masters and Seamen) applies, unless the ships not See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract or subject-See also:

• MATTER

matter requires a different applica- registered tion, to all sea-going ships registered in the United In the U.K . commissioner may act as arbitrator by written consent of the parties . Seaworthiness is an implied See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the See also:

• HIRING (from O. Eng. hyrian, a word common to many Teutonic languages cf. Ger. heuern, Dutch huren, &c.)

hiring . There may be an examination of the ship on the complaint of the See also:

• MATE (a corruption of make, from O. Eng. gemaca, a " comrade ")
• MATE, or PARAGUAY TEA

mate and a See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the crew . The expenses of an unnecessary investigation are a See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge upon the wages of those who complain . A seaman may not leave his ship without the consent of the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master . For foreign-bound voyages a See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine-See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest and antiscorbutics must be carried, also 6o gallons of See also:

• WATER

water, too lb of salted See also:

• MEAT

meat, and See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo lb of wholesome See also:

• BREAD

bread for every See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person on See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board, and for every' seaman at least one suit of woollen clothing, and See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel for the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire of the seaman's See also:

• ROOM

room . An See also:

• ASSESSMENT, (from Lat. assessare, to sit beside, to judge)

assessment of See also:

• FORTY

forty cents per See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month per seaman is levied on every See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel arriving from a foreign port and on every registered coasting vessel in aid of the fund for the relief of sick, and disabled seamen . In the navy a See also:

• DEDUCTION (from Lat. deducere, to take or lead from or out of, derive)

deduction of twenty cents per month from each See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's pay is made for the same purpose . The offences and punishments are similar to those in the United Kingdom . There is also the additional offence of wearing a sheath See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife on ship-board .

As in England, consuls are required to provide for the passage See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of destitute seamen (see Revised Statutes, §§ 4554-4591) . A seamen's fund was constituted by the act of the 16th of See also:

• JULY

July 1798, amended by subsequent legislation . See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental See also:

• EUROPEAN

European Countries.—The commercial codes contain provisions of a more or less detailed See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . For See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France see § 250-272; See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, §§ 343-380; See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands, §§ 394-452; See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• WENDT, HANS HINRICH (1853— )

Wendt, Maritime Legislation (1888) . These enactments are in general accordance with British legislation . In Germany the law goes a little further than in the United Kingdom in enacting that copies of the part of the law affecting him must be handed to each seaman on his engagement at a seamen's office . SEA-POWER . This See also:

• TERM

term is used to indicate two distinct, though cognate, things . The See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity of these two and the indiscriminate manner in which the term has been !fMtory applied to each have tended to obscure its real signifi- offhe cance . The obscurity has been deepened by the term . frequency with which the term has been confounded with the old phrase, " See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

Sovereignty of the sea," and the still current expression, " Command of the sea " (vide SEA, COMMAND oF) . A discussion—etymological, or even archaeological in character—of the term must be undertaken as an introduction to the explanation of its now generally accepted meaning .

It is one of those See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound words in which a See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic and a Latin (or See also:

• ROMANCE

Romance) See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element are combined, and which are easily formed and become widely current when the sea is concerned . Of such are " sea-See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast," " sea-forces " (the " See also:

• LAND

land- and sea-forces " used to be a See also:

• COMMON

common designation of what we now See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the " See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

Army and Navy "); " sea-service," " sea-See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent " and " sea-officer " (now superseded by " See also:

• NAVAL

naval officer ") . The term in one form is as old as the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . See also:

• EDWARD

Edward III., in See also:

• COMMEMORATION

commemoration of the naval victory of See also:

• SLUYS, BATTLE OF

Sluys, coined gold " nobles " which See also:

• BORE

bore on one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side his effigy " crowned, See also:

• STANDING

standing in a large ship, holding in one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand a See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword and in the other a See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield." An See also:

• ANONYMOUS

anonymous poet, who wrote in the reign of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VI., says of this See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin: " For four things our See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble showeth to me, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King, ship and sword, and power of the sea." Even in its See also:

• PRESENT

present form the term is not of very See also:

• RECENT

recent date . See also:

• GROTE, GEORGE (1794–1871)

Grote (Hist. of See also:

• GREECE

Greece, v . 67, published in 1849, but with See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface dated 1848) speaks of " the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens from a land-power into a sea-power." In a lecture published in 1883, but probably delivered earlier, the See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• SIR

Sir J . R . See also:

• SEELEY
• SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT (1834–1895)

Seeley says that " See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce was swept out of the Mediterranean by the See also:

• BESOM (Old Eng. besema, a rod)

besom of the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish sea-power " (Expansion of England, p . 89) . The term also occurred in the 9th edition of this See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

Encyclopaedia, vol. xviii. p . 574, in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article " See also:

• PERSIA

PERSIA," where we are told that See also:

• THEMISTOCLES (c. 514-449 B.C.)

Themistocles was " the founder of the See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic sea-power." The sense in which the term is used differs in these extracts . In the first it means what we generally call a:" naval power "—that is to say, a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state having a considerable navy in contra-distinction to a " military power," a state with a considerable army but only a relatively small navy .

In this sense there are many old uses of the phrase . In the last two extracts it means all the elements of the naval strength of the state referred to; and this is the meaning that is now generally, and is likely to be exclusively, attached to the term owing to the brilliant way in which it has been elucidated by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain A . T . See also:

• MAHAN, ALFRED THAYER (1840- )

Mahan of the United States Navy . The See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double use of the term is common in See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, though in that See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language both parts of the compound now in use are Teutonic . One instance out of many may be cited from the historian Adolf Holm (Griechische Geschichte, See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1889) . He says (ii. p . 37) that Athens, being in possession of a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good naval port, could become "eine bedeutende Seemacht," i.e. an important naval power . He also says (ii. p . 91) that Gelon of See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse, besides a large army (Heer), had ' eine bedeutende Seemacht," meaning a considerable navy . The term, in the first of the two senses, is old in German, as appears from the following, extracted from Zedler's Grosses Universal See also:

• LEXICON

Lexicon, vol. See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi . (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig and See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle, 1743); " Seemachten, Seepotenzen; Latin, summae potestates maxi potentes." " Seepotenzen " is probably quite obsolete now .

It is interesting as showing that German no more abhors Teuto-Latin or Teuto-Romance compounds than See also:

• ENGLISH

English . We may See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, as a See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of the indeterminate meaning of the expression until his own See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-marking See also:

• WORKS

works had appeared, that Mahan himself in his earliest See also:

• BOOK

book, See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

Influence of Sea-power on See also:

• HISTORY

History (1890), used it in both senses . He says (p . 35), " The See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish Netherlands ceased to be a sea-power." He alludes (p . 42) to the development of a nation as a " sea-power," and (p . 43) to the inferiority of the Confederate States " as a sea-power." Also (p . 225) he remarks of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of the Spanish See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession that " before it England was one of the sea-powers, after it she was the sea-power without any second." In all these passages, as appears from the use of the indefinite article, what is meant is a 'naval power, or a state in possession of a strong navy . The other meaning of the term forms the general subject of Mahan's writings . In his earlier works Mahan writes " sea power " as two words; but in a published See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the 19th See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1897 he joins them with a hyphen, and defends this formation of the term and the sense in which he uses it . We may regard him as the virtual inventor of the term in its more diffused meaning, for—even if it had been employed by earlier writers in that sense—it is he beyond all question who has given it general currency . He has made it impossible for any one to treat of sea-power without frequent reference to his writings and conclusions . There is something more than See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the fact that the term in another language was used more than two thousand years ago .

Before Mahan no historian—not Apprectaeven one of those who specially devoted themselves to See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion of the narration of naval occurrences—had evinced a sea-power more correct appreciation of the general principles of by the naval warfare than See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides . He alludes several ancients. times to the importance of getting command of the sea . See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain would have been saved some disasters and been less often in peril had British writers—taken as guides by the public—possessed the same grasp of the true principles of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence as Thucydides exhibited . One passage in his history is See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth quoting . Brief as it is, it shows that on, the subject of sea-power he was a predecessor of Mahan . In a speech in favour of prosecuting the war, which he puts in the mouth of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles, these words occur: of µiv yap mix EEovaiv aXX v avriXal3eiv ZeµaXei, 'hµlV SE EQTi y?J IroMo) sal iv vilrot Kai Ka"' '"preipov' piya yap Tb T%ts BaXauorls Kpa'See also:

• ROS, or DE
• ROS, SIR RICHARD (b. 1429)

ros . The last part of this See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract, though often translated " command of the sea," or " dominion of the sea," really has the wider meaning of sea-power, the " power of the sea " of the old English poet above quoted . This wider meaning should be attached to certain passages in See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus' (iii . 122 in two places; v . 83), which have been generally interpreted " commanding the sea," or by the mere titular and honorific " having the dominion of the sea." One editor of Herodotus, Ch . F . See also:

• BAEHR, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FELIX (1798–1872)

Baehr, did, however, see exactly what was meant, for, with reference to the allusion to See also:

• POLYCRATES

Polycrates, he says, classe maximum' valuit .

This is perhaps as exact a See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of sea-power as could be given in a See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence . It is, however, impossible to give a definition which would be at the same time succinct and satisfactory . To say that " sea-power " means the sum See also:

• TOTAL

total of the various elements can only be that go to make up the naval strength of a state would explained be in reality to beg the question . Mahan See also:

• LAYS

lays down lashed-the " See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal conditions affecting the sea-power of"' nations," but he does not See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to give a concise definition of it . Yet no one who has studied his works will find it difficult to understand what it indicates . Our present task is, within the necessarily restricted limits of an article in an encyclopaedia, to put readers in possession of the means of doing this . The best, indeed—as Mahan has shown us—the only effective way of attaining this See also:

• OBJECT

object is to treat the matter historically . What-ever date we may agree to assign to the formation of the term itself, the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea—as we have seen—is as old as history . It is not intended to give a condensed history of sea-power, but rather an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the idea and what it contains, illustrating this analysis with examples from history See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient and See also:

• MODERN

modern . It is important to know that it is not something which originated in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 17th century, and having seriously affected history in the 18th, ceased to have See also:

• WEIGHT

weight till Captain Mahan appeared to comment on it in the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the loth . With a few masterly touches Mahan, in his brief allusion to the second Punic war, has illustrated its importance in the struggle between See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome and See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage . What has to be shown is that the principles which he has laid down in that case, and in cases much more modern, are true and have been true always and everywhere .

Until this is perceived there is much history. which cannot be understood, and yet it is essential to the welfare of Great Britain as a maritime power that she should understand it thoroughly . Her failure to understand it has more than once brought her, if not to the See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

verge of destruction, at any See also:

• RATE

rate within a short distance of serious disaster . The high antiquity of decisive naval See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns is among the most interesting features of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international conflicts . Nothwith- standing the much greater frequency of land See also:

• WARS

wars, the course of history has been profoundly changed more often by contests on the water . That this has not sea-power. received the See also:

• NOTICE

notice it deserved is true, and Mahan tells us why . " Historians generally, " he says, " have been unfamiliar with the conditions of the sea, having as to it neither special interest nor special knowledge; and the profound determining influence of maritime strength on great issues has consequently been overlooked . " Moralizing on that which might have been is admittedly a sterile See also:

• PROCESS

process; but it is some- times necessary to point, if only by way of See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration, to a possible alternative . As in modern times the See also:

• FATE

fate of India and the fate of North See also:

• AMERICA

America were determined by sea-power, so also at a very remote epoch sea-power decided whether or not Hellenic colonization was to take See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root in, and Hellenic culture to dominate, central and See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Italy as it dominated See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Italy, where traces of it are extant to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . A moment's See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration will enable us to see how different the history of the See also:

• WORLD

world would have been had a Hellenized See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city grown and prospered on the Seven Hills . Before the Tarquins were driven out of Rome a Phocaean See also:

• FLEET

fleet was encountered (537 B.C.) off See also:

• CORSICA (Fr. Corse)

Corsica by a combined force of Etruscans and Phoenicians, and was so handled that the Phocaeans abandoned the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island and settled on the coast of Lucania (See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen, Hist . Rome, English trans. i . p .

153) . The enterprise of their navigators had built up for the Phoenician cities and their great off-shoot Carthage, a sea-power which enabled them to gain the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical sovereignty of the sea to the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia and See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily . The See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of these waters was the object of prolonged and memorable struggles, for on it— as the result showed—depended the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire of the world . From very remote times the consolidation and expansion, from within outwards, of great continental states have had serious conse- quences for mankind when they were accompanied by the acquisition of a coast-See also:

• LINE

line and the absorption of a maritime See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population . We shall find that the process loses none of its importance in recent years . " The ancient empires, " says the historian of Greece, See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

Ernst See also:

• CURTIUS, ERNST (1814-1896)
• CURTIUS, MARCUS

Curtius, " as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as no foreign elements had intruded into them, had an invincible horror of the water." When the condition, which Curtius notices in parentheses, arose the " horror " disappeared . There is something highly significant in the uniformity of the efforts of See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria, See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon and Persia to get possession of the maritime resources of See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia . Our own immediate posterity will perhaps have to reckon with the results of similar efforts in our own day . It is this which gives a living interest to even the very ancient history of sea-power, and makes the study of it of great practical importance to us now . We shall see, as we go on, how the phenomena connected with it reappear with striking regularity in successive periods . Looked at in this See also:

• LIGHT

light the great conflicts of former ages are full of useful, indeed necessary, instruction . In the first and greatest of the contests waged by the nations of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East against See also:

• EUROPE

Europe—the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian wars—sea-power was the governing See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor .

Until Persia had See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded to wars of the shores of the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant the European Greeks had the Creeks little to fear from the ambition of the great king . The and See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Egypt by See also:

• CAMBYSES (528-521)
• CAMBYSES (Pers. Kambujiya)

Cambyses had shown how Persians. formidable that ambition could be when supported by an efficient navy . With the aid of the naval forces of the Phoenician cities the Persian invasion of Greece was rendered comparatively easy . It was the naval contingents from Phoenicia which crushed the Ionian revolt . The expedition of Mardonius, and still more that of Datis and See also:

• ARTAPHERNES

Artaphernes, had indicated the danger threatening Greece when the master of a great army was likewise the master of a great navy . Their defeat at See also:

• MARATHON

Marathon was not likely to, and as a matter of fact did not, discourage the Persians from further attempts at aggression . As the advance of Cambyses into Egypt had been flanked by a fleet, so also was that of See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes into Greece . By the good See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune sometimes vouchsafed to a See also:

• PEOPLE

people, which, owing to its obstinate opposition to, or neglect of, a See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise policy, scarcely deserves it, there appeared at Athens an influential See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen who understood all that was meant by the term sea-power . Themistocles saw more clearly than any of his contemporaries that, to enable Athens to See also:

• PLAY

play a leading part in the Hellenic world, she needed above all things a strong navy . " He had already in his See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye the See also:

• BATTLE

battle-See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of the future." He See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt sure that the Persians would come back, and come with such forces that resistance in the open field would be out of the question . One See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of See also:

• ACTION

action remained—the sea . Persuaded by him the Athenians increased their navy, so that of the 271 vessels comprising the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek fleet at Artemisium, 147 had been provided by Athens, which also sent a large reinforcement after the first action .

Though no one has ever surpassed Themistocles in the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of correctly estimating the importance of sea-power, it was understood by Xerxes as clearly as by him that the issue of the war depended upon naval operations . The arrangements made under . the Persian monarch's direction, and his very See also:

• PERSONAL

personal movements, show that this was his view . He felt, and probably expressed the feeling, exactly as—in the war of See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence—See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington did in the words, " What-ever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the casting See also:

• VOTE

vote in the present contest." The decisive event was the naval action of See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis . To have made certain of success, the Persians should have first obtained a command of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean, as See also:

• COMPLETE

complete for all practical purposes as the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French and English had of the sea generally in the war against See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia of 1854-56 . The Persian sea-power was not equal to the task . The fleet of the great king was numerically stronger than that of the Greek See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies; but it has been proved many times that naval efficiency does not depend on numerical superiority alone . The choice sections of the Persian fleet were the contingents of the See also:

• IONIANS

Ionians and Phoenicians . The former were See also:

• HALF

half-hearted or disaffected; while the latter were, at best, not See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior in skill, experience, and valour to the Greek sailors . At Salamis Greece was saved not only from the ambition and vengeance of Xerxes, but also and for many centuries from oppression by an See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental conqueror . Persia did not succeed against the Greeks, not because she had no sea-power, but because her sea-power, artificially built up, was inferior to that which was a natural element of the vitality of her foes . See also:

• IONIA

Ionia was lost and Greece in the end enslaved, ,be-cause the quarrels of Greeks with Greeks led to the ruin of their naval states . The Peloponnesian was largely a naval war .

The confidence of the Athenians in their sea-power had a great See also:

• DEAL

deal to do with its outbreak . The immediate occasion of the hostilities, which in time involved so many states, was the oppor- nesien_ tunity offered by the conflict between See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth and war . Corcyra of increasing the sea-power of Athens . Hither- to the Athenian naval predominance had been virtually confined to the Aegean Sea . The Corcyraean See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

envoy, who pleaded for help at Athens, dwelt upon the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage to be derived by the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early manifestations of Athenians from See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with a naval state occupying an important situation " with respect to the western regions towards which the views of the Athenians had for some time been directed" (See also:

• THIRLWALL, CONNOP (1797-1875)

Thirlwall, Hist . Greece, iii . 96) . It was the "weapon of her sea-power," to adopt Mahan's phrase, that enabled Athens to maintain the great conflict in which she was engaged . Repeated invasions of her territory, the ravages of disease among her people and the rising disaffection of her allies had been more than made up for by her predominance on the water . The See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of the subsequent Syracusan expedition showed how vigorous Athens still was down to the interruption of the war by the peace of See also:

• NICIAS
• NICIAS (d. 414 B.C.)

Nicias . The great expedition just mentioned overtaxed her strength . Its failure brought about the ruin of the state .

It was held by contemporaries, and has been held in our own day, that the Athenian defeat at Syracuse was due to the omission of the government at home to keep the force in Sicily properly supplied and reinforced . This explanation of failure is given in all ages, and should always be suspected . The See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends of unsuccessful generals and admirals always offer it, being sure of the support of the See also:

• POLITICAL

political opponents of the ad-ministration . After the despatch of the supporting expedition under See also:

• DEMOSTHENES

Demosthenes and See also:

• EURYMEDON

Eurymedon no further great reinforcement, as Nicias admitted, was possible . The weakness of Athens was in the character of the men who swayed the popular assemblies and held high commands . A people which remembered the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of a Pericles, and yet allowed a See also:

• CLEON (d. 422 B.C.)

Cleon or an See also:

• ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404 B.c.)

Alcibiades to See also:

• DIRECT

direct its naval and military policy, courted defeat . Nicias, notwithstanding the possession of high qualities, lacked the supreme virtue of a See also:

• COMMANDER

commander—See also:

• FIRM

firm See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution . He dared not See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face the obloquy consequent on withdrawal from an enterprise on which the popular hopes had been fixed; and therefore he allowed a See also:

• REVERSE

reverse to be converted into an overwhelming disaster . " The complete ruin of Athens had appeared, both to her enemies and to herself, impending and irreparable . But so astonishing, so rapid and so energetic had been her rally, that (a See also:

• YEAR

year after Syracuse) she was found again carrying on a terrible struggle " (Grote, Hist . Greece, v. p . 354) .

Nevertheless her sea-power had indeed been ruined at Syracuse . Now she could wage war only " with impaired resources and on ~. purely defensive See also:

• SYSTEM

system." Even before Arginusae, it was seen that "superiority of nautical skill had passed to the Peloponnesians and their allies " (ibid . P . 503) . The great, occasionally interrupted, and prolonged contest between Rome and Carthage was a sustained effort on the part stmate of one to gain and of the other to keep the control of between the western Mediterranean . So completely had that Rome and control been exercised by Carthage, that she had Carthage. anticipated the Spanish commercial policy in America . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans were precluded by See also:

• TREATIES

treaties from trading with the Carthaginian territories in Hispania, See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN