THE See also:

• THE RENAISSANCE

RENAISSANCE  .—The " See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance " or " Renascence " is a See also:

• TERM

term used to indicate a well-known but indefinite space of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and a certain phase in the development of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe.' On the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand it denotes the transition from that See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• HISTORY

history which we See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages (q.v.) to that which we call See also:

• MODERN

modern . On the other hand it implies those changes in the intellectual and moral attitude of the Western nations by which the transition was characterized . If we insist upon the literal and etymological meaning of the word, the Renaissance was a re-See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth; and it is needful to inquire of what it was the re-birth . The See also:

• METAPHOR

metaphor of Renaissance may signify the entrance of the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European nations upon a fresh See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of vital See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, implying a See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller consciousness and a freer exercise of faculties than had belonged to the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval period . Or it may mean the resuscitation of simply intellectual activities, stimulated by the revival of See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique learning and its application to the arts and literatures of modern peoples . Upon our choice between these two interpretations of the word depend important See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in any treatment of the subject . The former has the disadvantage of making it difficult to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the Renaissance from other See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical phases—the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation, for example—with which it ought not to be confounded . The latter has the merit of assigning a specific name to a limited See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of events and See also:

• GROUP

group of facts, which can be distinguished for the purpose of See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis from other events and facts with which they are intimately but not indissolubly connected . In other words, the one See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of Renaissance makes it denote the whole See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change which came over Europe at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the middle ages . The other confines it to what was known by our ancestors as the Revival of Learning . Yet, when we concentrate See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention on the recovery of antique culture, we become aware that this was only one phenomenon or symptom of a far wider and more comprehensive alteration in the conditions of the European races . We find it needful to retain both terms, Renaissance and Revival of Learning, and ' For a somewhat different view of the parcelling out into such periods, see the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article MIDDLE AGES.to show the relations between the series of events and facts which they severally imply .

The Revival of Learning must be regarded as a See also:

• FUNCTION

function of that vital energy, an See also:

• ORGAN

organ of that See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution, which brought into existence the modern See also:

• WORLD

world, with its new conceptions of See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy and See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, its reawakened arts and sciences, its firmer grasp on the realities of human nature and the world, its manifold inventions and discoveries, its altered See also:

• POLITICAL

political systems, its expansive and progressive forces . Important as the Revival of Learning undoubtedly was, there are essential factors in the complex called the Renaissance with which it can but remotely be connected . When we analyse the whole group of phenomena which have to be considered, we perceive that some of the most essential have nothing or little to do with the recovery of the See also:

• CLASSICS

classics . These are, briefly speaking, the decay of those See also:

• GREAT

great fabrics, See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church and See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, which ruled the middle ages both as ideas and as realities; the development of nationalities and See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages; the enfeeblement of the feudal See also:

• SYSTEM

system throughout Europe; the invention and application of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, the mariner's See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass, See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder, and See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing; the exploration of continents beyond the ocean; and the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy . Europe in fact had been prepared for a thorough-going See also:

• METAMORPHOSIS

metamorphosis before that new ideal of human See also:

• LIFE

life and culture which the Revival of Learning brought to See also:

• LIGHT

light had been made See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest . It had recovered from the confusion consequent upon the See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROMAN

Roman empire . The See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic tribes had been Christianized, civilized and assimilated to the previously Latinized races over whom they exercised the authority of conquerors . See also:

• COMPARATIVE

Comparative tranquillity and material comfort had succeeded to discord and rough living . Modern nationalities, defined as separate factors in a See also:

• COMMON

common system, were ready to co-operate upon the basis of European federation . The ideas of universal See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy and of indivisible Christendom, incorporated in the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Church, had so far lost their hold that See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope was offered for the introduction of new theories both of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state and church which would have seemed visionary or impious to the medieval mind . It is therefore obvious that some term, wider than Revival of Learning, descriptive of the change which began to pass over Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries, has to be adopted . That of Renaissance, Rinascimento, or Renascence is sufficient for the purpose, though we have to guard against the tyranny of what is after all a metaphor .

We must not suffer it to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead us into See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric about the deadness and the darkness of the middle ages, or hamper our inquiry with preconceived assumptions that the re-birth in question was in any true sense a return to the irrecoverable See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan past . Nor must we imagine that there was any abrupt break with the middle ages . On the contrary, the Renaissance was rather the last stage of the middle ages, emerging from ecclesiastical and feudal despotism, developing what was See also:

• ORIGINAL

original in medieval ideas by the light of classic arts and letters, holding in itself the promise of the modern world . It was therefore a period and a See also:

• PROCESS

process of transition, See also:

• FUSION

fusion, preparation, tentative endeavour . And just at this point the real importance of the Revival of Learning may be indicated . That rediscovery of the classic past restored the confidence in their own faculties to men striving after spiritual freedom; revealed the continuity of history and the identity of human nature in spite of diverse See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds and different customs; held up for emulation See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master-See also:

• WORKS

works of literature, philosophy and See also:

• ART

art; provoked inquiry; encouraged See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism; shattered the narrow mental barriers imposed by medieval orthodoxy . See also:

• HUMANISM (from Lat. humanus, human, connected with holm)

Humanism, a word which will often recur in the ensuing paragraphs, denotes a specific See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias which the forces liberated in the Renaissance took from contact with the ancient world,—the particular See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form assumed by human self-esteem at that See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch,—the ideal of life and See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization evolved by the modern nations . It indicates the endeavour of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to reconstitute himself as a See also:

• FREE

free being, not as the See also:

• THRALL

thrall of theological despotism, and the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar assistance he derived in this effort from See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Roman literature, the litterae humaniores, letters leaning rather to the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of man than of divinity . In this article the Renaissance will be considered as implying a comprehensive See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the European See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect and will Method toward self-emancipation, toward reassertion of the of treat- natural rights of the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason and the senses, toward See also:

• MEAT

meat. the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of this See also:

• PLANET (Gr. ssXavirrns, a wanderer)

planet as a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of human occupation, and toward the formation of regulative theories both for states and individuals differing from those of medieval times . The Revival of Learning will be treated as a decisive See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in this process of evolution on a new See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan . To exclude the Reformation and the See also:

• COUNTER

Counter-Reformation wholly from the survey is impossible . These terms indicate moments in the whole process of modern history which were opposed, each to the other, and both to the Renaissance; and it is needful to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear in mind that they have, scientifically speaking, a quite separate existence .

Yet if the history of Europe in the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of our era came to be written with the brevity with which we write the history of Europe in the 6th century B.C., it would be difficult at the distance of time implied by that supposition to distinguish the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian movement of the Renaissance in its origin from the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German movement of the Reformation . Both would be seen to have a common starting-point in the reaction against See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long dominant ideas which were becoming obsolete, and also in the excitation of faculties which had during the same period been accumulating energy . The Renaissance, if we try to regard it. as a period, was essentially the transition from one historical stage to another . It cannot Chem- therefore be confined within strict See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological limits . ChCron There is one date, however, which may be remembered logical See also:

• MITE

mite. with See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage as the starting-point in time of the Re- naissance, after the departure from the middle ages had been definitely and consciously made by the Italians . This is the See also:

• YEAR

year 1453, when See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, chosen for his See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital by the first See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the hands of the Turk . One of the survivals of the old world, the See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of what had been the Eastern Empire, now passed suddenly away . Almost at the same date that visionary revival of the Western Empire, which had imposed for six centuries upon the See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination of medieval Europe, hampering See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and impeding the consolidation of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, ceased to reckon among political actualities; while its more robust See also:

• RIVAL

rival, the Roman Church, seemed likely to sink into the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty Italian principality . It was demonstrated by the destruction of the Eastern and the dotage of the Western Empire, and by the new papal policy which See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas V. inaugurated, that the old See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of society was about to be superseded . Nothing remained to check those centrifugal forces in state and church which substituted a See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

confederation of rival European See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers for the earlier ideal of universal monarchy, and separate religious constitutions for the previous See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic unity . At the same time the new learning introduced by the earlier humanists awakened free thought, encouraged curiosity, and prepared the best minds of Europe for speculative audacities from which the schoolmen would have shrunk, and which soon expressed themselves in acts of See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan importance . If we look a little forward to the years 1492-1500, we obtain a second date of great importance .

In these years the expedition of See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles VIII. to See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples opened Italy to See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French, See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish and German interference . The leading nations of Europe began to compete for the See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, and learned meanwhile that culture which the Italians had perfected . In these years the secularization of the papacy was carried to its final point by See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander VI., and the Reformation became inevitable . The same period was marked by the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of See also:

• AMERICA

America, the exploration of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian seas, and the consolidation of the Spanish See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality . It also witnessed the application of printing to the See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion of knowledge . Thus, speaking roughly, the See also:

• HALF

half-century between 1450 and 1 00 may be termed the culminating point of the Renaissance . The transition from the medieval to the modern order was now secured if not accomplished, and a See also:

• RUBICON

Rubicon had been crossed from which no retrogression to the past was possible . Looking yet a little farther, to the years 1527 and 1530, a third decisive date is reached . In the first of these years happened the See also:

• SACK

sack of Rome, in the second the pacification of Italy by Charles V. under a Spanish See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony . The See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of the Renaissance was now closed for the See also:

• LAND

land which gave it birth . The Reformation had taken See also:

• FIRM

firm hold on See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Europe . The Counter-Reformation was already imminent .

It must not be imagined that so great a change as that implied by the Renaissance was accomplished without premonitory precut. symptoms and previous endeavours . In the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main sors of we mean by it the recovery of freedom for the human the Re- spirit after a long period of bondage to oppressive neissance. ecclesiastical and political orthodoxy—a return to the liberal and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical conceptions of the world which the nations of antiquity had enjoyed, but upon a new and enlarged See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform . This being so, it was inevitable that the finally successful efforts after self-emancipation should have been anticipated from time to time by strivings within the ages that are known as dark and medieval . It is therefore See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• PRESENT

present inquiry to pass in See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review some of the claimants to be considered precursors of the Renaissance . First of all must be named the See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank in whose lifetime the dual conception of universal empire and universal church, divinely appointed, sacred and inviolable, began to See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control the order of European society . Charles the Great (See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne) See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent his forces to the plan of resuscitating the Roman empire at a moment when his own See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power made him'the arbiter of western Europe, when the papacy needed his See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance, and when the Eastern Empire had passed under the usurped regency of a See also:

• FEMALE

female . He modelled an empire, Roman in name but essentially, Teutonic, since it owed such substance as its fabric possessed to Frankish armies and the sinews of the German See also:

• PEOPLE

people . As a structure composed of See also:

• DIVERS

divers See also:

• ILL

ill-connected parts it fell to pieces at its builder's See also:

• DEATH

death, leaving little but the See also:

• INCUBUS (a Late Latin form of the classical incubo, a night-mare, from incubare, to lie upon, weigh down, brood)

incubus of a memory, the See also:

• FASCINATION (from Lat. fascinare, to bewitch, probably connected with the Or. f3ao-Kaiveev, to speak ill of, to bewitch)

fascination of a mighty name, to dominate the mind of medieval Europe . As an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, the empire See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew in visionary power, and remained one of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief obstacles in the way of both Italian and German See also:

• NATIONAL

national coherence . Real force was not in it, but rather in that counterpart to its unlimited pretensions, the church, which had evolved it from See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian See also:

• NIGHT

night, and which used her own more vital energies for undermining the rival of her creation . Charles the Great, having proclaimed himself successor of the Caesars, was obscurely ambitious of imitating the See also:

• AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841)

Augusti also in the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of letters . He caused a See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of humanistic See also:

• EDUCATION

education to be formulated, and gave employment at his See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court to rhetoricians, of whom See also:

• ALCUIN (Marmara)

Alcuin was the most considerable .

But very little came of the revival of learning which Charles is supposed to have encouraged; and the empire he restored was accepted by the medieval intellect in a crudely theological and vaguely mystical spirit . We should, however, here remember that the study of Roman See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, which was one important precursory symptom of the Renaissance, owed much to medieval respect for the empire as a divine institution . This, together with the municipal Italian intolerance of the Lombard and Frankish codes, kept alive the practice and revived the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of Latin See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence at an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early period . Philosophy had attempted to free itself from the trammels of theological orthodoxy in the See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy speculations of some schoolmen, notably of Scotus See also:

• ERIGENA, JOHANNES SCOTUS (c. 800-c. 877)

Erigena and See also:

• ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard . These innovators found, however, small support, and were defeated by Specula-opponents who used the same logical weapons with auth- ti" "d ority to back them . Nor were the rationalistic opinions See also:

• HERESY

heresy in of the Averroists without their value, though the church the middle condemned these deviators from her discipline as heretics. ages' Such medieval materialists, moreover, had but feeble hold upon the substance of real knowledge . Imperfect acquaintance with authors whom they studied in Latin See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations made by See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews from Arabic commentaries on Greek texts, together with almost See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of natural See also:

• LAWS

laws, condemned them to sterility . Like the other schiomachists of their epoch, they fought with phantoms in a visionary See also:

• REALM

realm . A similar See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment may be passed upon those Paulician, Albigensian, Paterine and Epicurean dissenters from the Catholic creed who opposed the phalanxes of orthodoxy with frail imaginative weapons, and alarmed established orders in the state by the audacity of their communistic opinions . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical science struggled into feeble life in the cells of See also:

• GERBERT, MARTIN (172o-1793)

Gerbert and See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon . But these men were accounted magicians by the vulgar; and, while the one eventually assumed the See also:

• TIARA (Gr. -papa)

tiara, the other was incarcerated in a See also:

• DUNGEON

dungeon . The See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools meanwhile resounded still to the interminable dispute upon abstractions .

Are only universals real, or has each name a corresponding entity ? From the midst of the See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans who had persecuted Roger Bacon because he presumed to know more than was consistent with human humility arose See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John of See also:

• PARMA

Parma, adopting and popularizing the mystic prophecy of See also:

• JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831—1907)

Joachim of See also:

• FLORA

Flora . The reign of the See also:

• FATHER

Father is past; the reign of the Son is passing; the reign of the Spirit is at hand . Such was the See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of the Eternal See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

Gospel, which, as an unconscious forecast of the Renaissance, has attracted retrospective students by its felicity of See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to their historical method . Yet we must remember that this bold See also:

• INTUITION (from Lat. intueri, to look at)

intuition of the See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot Joachim indicated a monastic reaction against the tyrannies and corruptions of the church, rather than a fertile philosophical conception . The See also:

• FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. frate, brother)

Fraticelli spiritualists, and similar sects who fed their imagination with his See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine, expired in the flames to which Fra Dolcino Longino and Margharita were consigned . To what extent the accusations of profligate morals brought against these reforming sectarians were justified remains doubtful; and the same uncertainty rests upon the alleged iniquities of the See also:

• TEMPLARS

Templars . It is only certain that at this epoch the fabric of Catholic faith was threatened with various forms of prophetic and See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

mysticism, symptomatic of a widespread See also:

• DESIRE

desire to grasp at something simpler, purer and less rigid than Latin See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology afforded . Devoid of criticism, devoid of See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound learning, devoid of a firm hold on the realities of life, these heresies passed away without solid results and were forgotten . We are too See also:

• APT

apt to take for granted that the men of the middle ages were immersed in meditations on the other world, and that their Natural- intellectual exercises were confined to abstractions of the ism in schools, hallucinations of the See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy, allegories, visions. medieval This See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption applies indeed in a broad sense to that life and period which was dominated by intolerant theology and literature . deprived of See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive knowledge . Yet there are abundant signs that the native human instincts, the natural human appetites, remained unaltered and alive beneath the crust of orthodoxy .

In the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of a See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope like See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface VIII. those ineradicable forces of the natural man assumed, if we may See also:

• TRUST

trust the depositions of ecclesiastics well acquainted with his life, a form of brutal atheistic cynicism . In the person of an emperor, See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick II., they emerged under the more agreeable garb of liberal culture and Epicurean See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism . Frederick dreamed of remodelling society upon a mundane type, which anticipated the large See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration and cosmopolitan enlightenment of the actual Renaissance . But his efforts were defeated by the unrelenting hostility of the church, and by the incapacity of his contemporaries to understand his aims . After being forced in his lifetime to submit to authority, he was consigned by See also:

• DANTE

Dante to See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

hell . Frederick's ideal of civilization was derived in a large measure from See also:

• PROVENCE (Provincia, Proenza)

Provence, where a beautiful culture had prematurely bloomed, filling See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Europe with the perfume of See also:

• POETRY

poetry and See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle living . Here, if anywhere, it seemed as though the ecclesiastical and 'feudal fetters of the middle ages might be broken, and humanity might enter on a new stage of joyous unimpeded evolution . This was, however, not to be . The church preached See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon de See also:

• MONTFORT
• MONTFORT, SIMON DE, EARL OF LEICESTER (d. 1265)

Montfort's crusade, and organized See also:

• DOMINIC, SAINT (1170-1221)

Dominic's See also:

• INQUISITION, THE (Lat. inquisitio, an inquiry)

Inquisition; what See also:

• QUINET, EDGAR (1803-1875)

Quinet calls the " Renaissance sociale See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par I'Amour " was extirpated by See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword, See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine and pestilence . Meanwhile the Provencal poets had See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed their modern See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language with incomparable richness and dexterity, creating forms of See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse and modes of emotional expression which determined the latest medieval phase of literature in Europe . The See also:

• NATURALISM

naturalism of which we have been speaking found free utterance now in the fabliaux of jongleurs, lyrics of See also:

• MINNESINGERS (Ger. Minnesinger from Minne, love)

minnesingers, tales of trouveres, romances of See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur and his knights—compositions varied in type and See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone, but in all of which sincere See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion and real enjoyment of life See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

pierce through'the thin See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

veil of chivalrous mysticism or of See also:

• ALLEGORY (iXXos, other, and ayopeuav, to speak)

allegory with which they were sometimes conventionally draped . The tales of See also:

• LANCELOT (Lancelot du Lac, or Lancelot of the Lake)

Lancelot and Tristram, the lives of the troubadours and the Wachtlieder of the minnesingers, sufficiently prove with what sensual freedom a See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight loved the See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady whom See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom and art made him profess to See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship as a See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint .

We do not need to be reminded that See also:

• BEATRICE

Beatrice's adorer had a wife and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, or that Laura's poet owned a son and daughter by a concubine, in order to perceive that the mystic passion of See also:

• CHIVALRY (O. Fr. chevalerie, from Late Lat. caballerius)

chivalry was compatible in the middle ages with See also:

• COMMONPLACE

commonplace See also:

• MATRIMONY (Lat. matrimonium, marriage, which is the ordinary English sense)

matrimony or vulgar illegitimate connexions . But perhaps the most convincing testimony to the presence of this ineradicable naturalism is affordedthy the Latin songs of wandering students, known as Carmina Baratta, written by the self-styled C liardic Goliardi . In these compositions, remarkable for their poetry. facile handling of medieval Latin rhymes and rhythms, the allegorizing mysticism which envelops chivalrous poetry is discarded . Love is treated from a frankly carnal point of view . Bacchus and See also:

• VENUS

Venus go hand in hand, as in the ancient ante-Christian age . The open-See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air enjoyments of the See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, the See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance upon the See also:

• VILLAGE

village See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green, are sung with juvenile lightheartedness . No See also:

• GRAVE

grave See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, warning us that the pleasures of this See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth are fleeting, that the visible world is but a See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of the invisible, that human life is a See also:

• PROBATION

probation for the life beyond, interrupts the tinkling See also:

• MUSIC

music as of See also:

• CASTANETS (Fr. castagnettes, Ger. Kastagnetten, Span. castanuelas)

castanets and tripping feet which gives a novel See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm to these unique See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of the 13th century . Goliardic poetry is further curious as showing how the classics even at that early period were a See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of pagan See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration . In the taverns and See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low places of amusement haunted by those lettered songsters, on the open road and in the forests trodden by their vagrant feet, the deities of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and Rome were not in See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile, but at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home within the See also:

• HEARTS

hearts of living men . Thus, while Christendom was still preoccupied with the See also:

• CRUSADES

Crusades, two main forces of the Renaissance, naturalism and See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm for antique modes of feeling, already brought their latent potency to light, prematurely indeed and precociously, yet with a promise that was destined to be kept . When due regard is paid to these See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous evidences of intellectual and sensual freedom during the middle ages, it will be Medieval seen that there were by no means lacking elements of aft/See also:

• TULLE

tulle native vigour ready to burst forth . What was wanting of nude was not vitality and See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence, not audacity of See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation, See also:

• SALAD (Med. Lat. salata, salted, pickled, salare, to sprinkle with salt)

salad .

not lawless See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct or rebellious impulse . It was rather the right See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch on life, the right feeling for human See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, the right way of approaching the materials of philosophy, religion, scholarship and literature, that failed . The courage that is See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born of knowledge, the See also:

• CALM

calm strength begotten by a positive attitude of mind, See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face with the dominant over-shadowing See also:

• SPHINX (Gr. Q¢lyyea', to draw tight, squeeze)

Sphinx of theology, were lacking . We may fairly say that natural and untaught people had more of the just intuition that was needed than learned folk trained in the schools . But these people were rendered licentious in revolt or impotent for salutary See also:

• ACTION

action by ignorance, by terror, by uneasy dread of the See also:

• DOOM (Old Eng. dOm, a word common to Tent. languages for that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning of " place "; cf, Gr. &Ass, from stem of ri'rust)

doom declared for heretics and rebels . Themassive vengeance of the church hung over them, like a heavy sword suspended in the cloudy air . Superstition and stupidity hedged them in on every side, so that sorcery and magic seemed the only means of winning power over nature or insight into mysteries surrounding human life . The path from darkness to light was lost; thought was involved in allegory; the study of nature had been perverted into an inept system of See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque and pious See also:

• PARABLE (Gr. 7apa(3oXi7, a comparison or similitude)

parable-mongering; the pursuit of truth had become a See also:

• GAME

game of wordy dialectics . The other world, with its imagined See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven and hell. haunted the See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience like a nightmare . However sweet this world seemed, however See also:

• FAIR

fair the flesh, both world and flesh were theoretically given over to the See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil . It was not See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth while to master and economize the resources of this earth, to utilize the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good and ameliorate the evils of this life, while every one agreed, in theory at any See also:

• RATE

rate, that the present was but a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad prelude to an infinitely worse or infinitely better future . To See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape from these preoccupations and prejudices except upon the path of conscious and deliberate See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin was impossible for all but minds of rarest quality and courage; and these were too often reduced to the recantation of their supposed errors no less by some See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret clinging sense of See also:

• GUILT