See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

RITUAL (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. ritus, a See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, especially a religious rite or custom)  , a See also:

• TERM

term of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, which may be defined as the routine of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . This is a " minimum See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition "; " See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual ". at least means so much, but may stand for more . Without some sort of ritual there could be no organized method in religious worship . Indeed, viewed in this aspect, ritual is to religion what See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit is to See also:

• LIFE

life, and its rationale is similar, namely, that by bringing subordinate functions under an effort-less See also:

• RULE

rule it permits undivided See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention in regard to vital issues . This See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy—for it is safer to regard such applications of individual See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology to social phenomena as only analogies—may be carried a step further . Just as the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main business of habit is to secure bodily See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to allow See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• PLAY

play to the See also:

• MENTAL

mental life, so the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief task of routine in religion is to organize the activities necessary to its stability and continuance as a social institution, in order that all available spontaneity and initiative may be directed into spiritual channels . Such organization will naturally affect far more than the forms of worship; but these at least, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the past See also:

• HISTORY

history of religion, cannot but submit extensively to its See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . The nature of religion, as the sociologist under-stands it, is See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with its congregational See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . In order that inter-subjective relations should be maintained between See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-worshippers, the use of one or another set of conventional symbols is absolutely required; for example, an intelligible vocabulary of meet expressions, or (since this is, perhaps, not indispensable) at any See also:

• RATE

rate sounds, See also:

• SIGHTS

sights, actions and so' on, that have come by See also:

• PRESCRIPTION

prescription to signify the See also:

• COMMON

common purpose of the religious society, and the means taken in common for the realization of that purpose . In this sense, the term " ritual," as meaning the prescribed ceremonial routine, is also extended to observances not strictly religious in character . But, whilst ritual at least represents routine, it tends, historically speaking; to have a far deeper significance for the religious consciousness . A recurrent feature of religion, which many students of its phenomena would even consider See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant and typical, is the attribution of a more or less self-contained and automatic efficacy to the ritual See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure as such .

Before proceeding to considerations of See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

genesis, it will be convenient briefly to analyse the notion as it appears in the higher religions . Two constituent lines of thought may be distinguished . Firstly, there is the tendency to pass beyond the purely petitionary attitude which as such can imply no more than the See also:

• DESIRE

desire, See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope or expectation of divine favour, and to take for granted the consummation sought, a deity that answers, a See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace and blessing that are communicated . Only when such accomplishment of its end is assumed can efficacy be held to attach to the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of worship . Secondly, there is the tendency to identify such a self-accomplishing act of worship with its See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective expression in the ritual that for purposes of mutual under-See also:

• STANDING

standing makes the See also:

• BODY

body of worshippers one . The Magical See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

Element in Ritual.—Exactly similar tendencies—to impute efficacy, and to treat the ritual procedure as the source of that efficacy—are typically characteristic of magic, and their reappearance in religion can hardly be treated as a coincidence, seeing that magic and religion would appear to have much in common, at any rate during the earlier stages of their development . In magic a See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion is made orally, or by dramatic See also:

• ACTION

action, or most often in both ways together, that is held ipso facto to bring about its own accomplishment . A certain conditionality attaches- to the magical operation, inasmuch as each magician is subject to interference on the See also:

• PART

part of other magicians who may neutralize his spell by a See also:

• COUNTER

counter spell of equal or greater See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power; nevertheless, the See also:

• INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone is that of a categorical assertion of binding force and efficacy . Again, in magic the self-realizing force is See also:

• APT

apt to seem to reside in the suggestional machinery rather than in the spiritual qualifications of the magician, though this is by no means invariably the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . On the whole, however, spells and ceremonies are wont to be regarded as an inheritable and transferable See also:

• PROPERTY

property containing efficacy in themselves . And what is true of magic is equally true of much of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive, and even of relatively advanced, religion . Dr J .

G . Frazer has pronounced the following to be marks of a primitive ritual: negatively, that there are no priests, no temples and no gods (though he holds that departmental, non-individual " See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits " are recognized); positively, that the See also:

• RITES

rites are magical rather than propitiatory (The See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Bough, 2nd ed. ii . 191) . If we leave it an open question whether, instead of " spirits," it would not be safer to speak of " See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers " (to which not a soul-like nature, but simply a capacity for exercising magic, is attributed), this characterization may be accepted as applying to many, if not to all, the rites of primitive religion . Thus the well-known totemic ceremonies of Central See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia afford a striking example of rites of a deeply religious import—in the sense that the purpose they embody is that of consecrating certain functions of the common life (see RELIGION)—yet almost wholly magical in See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . They resolve themselves on See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis into (r) See also:

• DIRECT

direct acts of magical suggestion, and (2) acts commemorative of the magical doings of mythical ancestors, the purport of which may be regarded as indirectly and constructively magical,'on the principle that in magic to mention a thing's origin is to See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control it, to recount another's wonder-working is to reproduce his power, and so on . It is to be noted, however, that other Australian rites are found, notably those that accompany See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern region, over which anthropomorphic beings having enough individuality to See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank as " gods " undoubtedly preside; but even here, though traces of propitiatory worship may be-discernible (the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence being scanty and conflicting), acts of pure magic are decidedly to the fore . And what is true of the most primitive and unreflective forms of cult remains true of more advanced types which have become relatively self-conscious . There is little or no See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt opposition between processes implying control and processes of a propitiatory character in the religion of the See also:

• PUEBLO

Pueblo See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians, which See also:

• AMERICAN

American ethnologists have been so successful in expounding, or, to See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

mount to a still higher level, in the Vedic, See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian or See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian cults . The leading See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, we may even say, is that expressed so happily by a character in See also:

• RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892)

Renan's Le Pre"Ere de Nemi: " L'ordre du monde depend de l'ordre See also:

• DES

des rites qu'on observe " (cf . A . See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, 2nd ed. i .

251) . As regards the most See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed forms of religion, whilst the old procedure largely survives unchanged, its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original intention is disowned by theologians, though it may be doubted if the popular mind is always strong enough to withstand the See also:

• APPEAL

appeal of prima facie See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance . This proneness to impute efficacy to ritual is immensely reinforced by another social proclivity, more or less distinct in its ultimate nature, which causes the rite to rank as a divine See also:

• ORDINANCE
• ORDINANCE, or ORDONNANCE

ordinance or command . Naturally if the See also:

• GOD

god manifests himself by means of certain forms, if he is reputed to have founded or revealed them, or if he has been known to evince displeasure at departures from them, there is strong See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to think that such forms are efficacious, and that in a sense of themselves, namely, by being what they are . At the sociological level of thought this divine See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction has to be treated as the See also:

• ECHO (Gr. I'Xw)

echo of a social sanction which ratifies and protects religious See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom . In See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early society the influence of what See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter See also:

• BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877)

Bagehot (in Physics and Politics, 9th ed. p . 102) calls the " persecuting tendency " in enforcing custom is on the whole not markedly in evidence . The tact is that See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation in a homogeneous See also:

• GROUP

group produces such unanimity that, with the help of some See also:

• EDUCATION

education, notably the instruction given at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of initiation, all non-conformity is nipped in the bud . Of the Central Australianceremonies we read that they " had to be performed in precisely the same way in which they had been in the Alcheringa (lit . ` See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream-time ' = See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of mythical tribal ancestors) . Everything was ruled by precedent; to See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change even the decoration of a per-former would have been an unheard-of thing; the reply, ` It was so in the Alcheringa,' was considered as perfectly satisfactory by way of explanation " (B . See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer and F .

Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia, 324) . Here we perceive the social sanction of public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion insensibly merging in a supernatural sanction . The tribe is a religious See also:

• PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late Lat. partionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing, pars, part)

partnership with a divine past with which it would not willingly break . As Mr Lang well puts it, " Ritual is preserved because it preserves See also:

• LUCK

luck " (loc. cit.) . Given an intrinsic sacredness, it is but a step to See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate definite gods with the origin or purpose of a rite, whose See also:

• INTEREST

interest it thereupon becomes to punish omissions or innovations by the removal of their blessing (which is little more than to say that the rite loses its efficacy), or by the active' infliction of disaster on the community . In the primitive society it is hard to point to any custom to which sacredness does not in some degree attach, but, naturally, the more important and See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn the usage, the more rigid the religious conservatism . Thus there are indications that in Australia, at the highly sacred ceremony of See also:

• CIRCUMCISION (Lat. circum, round, and caedere, to cut)

circumcision, the See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-stick was employed after See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone implements were known; and we have an exact parallel at a higher level of culture, the stone See also:

• IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere, to fill)

implement serving for the same operation when See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron is already in common use (Spencer and Gillen, ib . 401; cf . E . B . See also:

• TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832- )

Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3rd ed. p . 217) .

The See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

Interpretation of Ritual.—A valuable truth insisted on by the See also:

• LATE

late W . See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith (Religion of the Semites, 17 sqq.) is that in primitive religion it is ritual that generates and sustains myth, and not the other way about . Sacred See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore of course cannot be dispensed with; even Australian society, which has hardly reached the See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of having priests, needs its Oknirabata or " See also:

• GREAT

great instructor " (Spencer and Gillen, ib . 303) . The See also:

• FUNCTION

function of such an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert, however, is chiefly to See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand on See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere rules for the performance of religious acts . If his Iore include sacred histories, it is largely, we may suspect, because the description and dramatization of the doings of divine persons enter into ritual as a means of magical control . Similarly, the sacred books of the religions of See also:

• MIDDLE

middle grade teem with See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute prescriptions as to ritual, but are almost destitute of See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine . Even in the highest religions, where orthodoxy is the main requirement, and ritual is held merely to symbolize See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

dogma, there is a remark-able rigidity about the dogma that is doubtless in large part due to its association with ritual forms many of them bearing the most primeval See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp . As regards the symbolic interpretation of ritual, this is usually held not to be primitive; and it is doubtless true that an unreflective age is hardly aware of the difference between " outward sign " and " inward meaning," and thinks as it were by means of its eyes . Nevertheless, it is easier to define See also:

• FETISHISM

fetishism (a fetish " differing from an idol in that it is worshipped in its own character, not as the See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol, See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image or occasional See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of a deity," New See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1901) than it is to bring such a fetishism See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home to any See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage See also:

• PEOPLE

people, the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• AFRICAN

African negroes not excluded (cf . A . B .

See also:

• ELLIS (originally SHARPE), ALEXANDER JOHN (1814-189o)
• ELLIS, GEORGE (1753-1815)
• ELLIS, ROBINSON (1834- )
• ELLIS, SIR HENRY (1777-1869)
• ELLIS, WILLIAM (1794 – 1872)

Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

Coast of W . See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, 192) . It is the magic power, virtue or grace residing in, and proceeding from, the material See also:

• OBJECT

object—a power the communicability of which constitutes the whole working See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of the magico-religious performance—that is valued in those cases where native opinion can be tested . Moreover, it must be remembered that in the act of magic a symbolic method is consciously pursued, as See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness the very formulas employed: " As I See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn this image, so may the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man be consumed," or the even more explicit, " It is not See also:

• WAX

wax I am scorching; it is the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver, See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart and See also:

• SPLEEN (Gr. o-1rXilv)

spleen of So-and-so that I scorch " (W . W . See also:

• SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835– )

Skeat . See also:

• MALAY

Malay Magic, 570) ,where appearance and reality are distinguished in order to be mystically reunited . Now it is important to observe that from the symbol as embodying an imperative to the symbol as expressing an optative is a transition of meaning that involves no change of form whatever; and, much as theorists love to contrast the suggestional and the petitionary attitudes, it is doubtful- if the savage does not move quite indifferently to and fro across the supposed frontier See also:

• LINE

line between magic and religion, interspersing " See also:

• BLUFF (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with an obsolete Dutch word, blaf, broad)

bluff " with blandishment, spell with genuine See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer . Meanwhile the particular meanings of the detailed acts composing a complicated piece of ritual soon tend to lose themselves in a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general sense of the efficacy of the rite as a whole to bring blessing and avert evil . See also:

• NAY, or NEY

Nay, unintelligibility is so far from invalidating a sacred practice that it positively supports it by deepening the characteristic See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery . Even the higher religions show a lingering predilection for cabalistic formulas . Changes in Ritual.—Whilst ritual displays an extraordinary stability, its nature is of course not absolutely rigid; it grows, alters and decays .

As regards its growth, there is hardly a known tribe without its elaborate body of magico-religious rites . In the exceptional instances where this feature is relatively absent (the See also:

• MASAI

Masai of E.'Africa offer a case in point), we may suspect a disturbance of tradition due to See also:

• MIGRATION

migration or some similar cause . Thus there is always a pre-existing See also:

• PATTERN

pattern in accordance with which such See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution or invention as occurs proceeds . Unconscious evolution is perhaps the more active See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in primitive times; imitation is never exact, and small See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations amount in time to considerable changes . On the other hand, there is also deliberate innovation . In Australia See also:

• COUNCILS

councils of the older men are held See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day by day during the performance of their ceremonies, at which traditions are repeated and procedure determined, the effect being mainly to preserve custom but undoubtedly in part also to alter it . Moreover, the individual religious See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius exercises no small influence . A man of a more original turn of mind than his See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows will claim to have had a new ceremony imparted to him in a See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision, and such a ceremony will even be adopted by another tribe which has no notion of its meaning (Spencer and Gillen, ib . 272, 278, 281 n.) . Meanwhile, since little is dropped whilst so much is being added, the result is an endless complication and elaboration of ritual . See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side by side with elaboration goes systematization, more especially when See also:

• LOCAL

local cults come to be merged in a wider unity . Thereupon assimilation is likely to take See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to one or another leading type of rite—for instance, See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice or prayer .

At these higher stages there is more need than ever for the expert in the shape of the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, in whose hands ritual procedure becomes more and more of a conscious and studied discipline, the naive popular elements being steadily eliminated, or rather transformed . Not but what the transference of ritualistic duties to a professional class is often the See also:

• SIGNAL

signal for slack and See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical performance, with consequent decay of ceremonial . The trouble and worry of having to comply with the endless rules of a too complex See also:

• SYSTEM

system is apt to operate more widely—namely, in the religious society at large—and to produce an endless See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop of evasions . See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good examples of these on the part alike of priests and people are afforded by Toda religion, the degenerate See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of which is expressly attributed by Dr W . H . R . See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

Rivers to " the over-development of the ritual aspect of religion " (The See also:

• TODAS

Todas, 454-55) . It is interesting to observe that a religion thus atrophied tends to revert to purely magical practices, the use of the word of power, and so on (ib. ch. x.) . It is to be noted, however, that what are known as ritual substitutions, though they lend themselves to purposes of evasion (as in the well-known case of the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese use of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper See also:

• MONEY

money at funerals), See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest ultimately on a principle that is absolutely fundamental in •magico-religious theory—namely, that what suggests a thing because it is like it or a part of it becomes that thing when the mystic power is there to carry the suggestion through . The See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Classification of Rites.—More than one basis of See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division has suggested itself . From the sociological point of view perhaps the most important distinction in use is that between public and private rites . Whilst the former essentially belong to religion as existing to further the common weal, the latter have from the earliest times an ambiguous character, and tend to split into those which are licit—" sacraments," as they may be termed—and those which are considered See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-socialin tendency, and are consequently put beyond the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of religion and assigned to the " See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• ART

art " of magic .

Or the sociologist may -prefer to correlate rites with the forms of social organization—the tribe, the phratry, the See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan, the -See also:

• FAMILY

family and so on . Another interesting contrast:- (seeing how See also:

• PRIMARY

primary a function of religion it is to establish a See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar of sacred seasons). is that between - periodic and occasional rites—one that . to a certain extent falls into line with the previous See also:

• DICHOTOMY (Gr. bLya, apart, TEµvew, to cut)

dichotomy . A less fruitful method of classing rites is that which arranges them according to -their inner meaning . As we have seen, such meaning is usually acquired ex See also:

• POST

post facto, and typical forms of rite are used for many different purposes; so that attempts to differentiate are likely to beget more equivocations than they clear up . The fact is that See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative religion must be content to regard all its classifications alike as pieces of mere scaffolding serving temporary purposes of construction . Negative Rites .—A word must be added on a subject dealt with elsewhere (see See also:

• TABOO (also written tapu and tabu)

TABOO, See also:

• GENNA

GENNA), but strictly germane to the See also:

• MATTER

matter in hand . What have the best, if not the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole, right to rank as taboos are ritual interdictions (See M . Mauss in L'Annee sociologique, ix . 249) . Taboo, as understood in See also:

• POLYNESIA, (Gr. iroXi,, many, and vnno-os, island)
• POLYNESIA, MELANESIA, MICRONESIA (q.v.)

Polynesia, the home of the See also:

• FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW
• FORD, JOHN (r586–c.1640)
• FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858)
• FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 158o)

Ford, is as wide as, and no wider than, religion, representing one side or aspect of the sacred (see RELIGION) . The very power that can help can also blast if approached improperly and without due precautions . Taboos are such precautions, abstinences prompted, not by See also:

• SIMPLE

simple dread or dislike, but always by some sort of respect as felt towards that which- in other circumstances or in other form has healing virtue .

Thus the negative attitude of the observer of taboo involves a See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive attitude of reverence from which it becomes in. practice scarcely distinguishable . To keep a fast, for instance, is looked upon as a direct act of worship . It must be noted, too, that, whereas taboo as at first conceived belongs to the magico-religious circle of ideas, - implying a quasi-See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical transference of sacredness from what has it to one not See also:

• FIT

fit to receive it, it is very easily reinterpreted as an See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation imposed by the deity on his worshippers . The See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law observed by a primitive religious community abounds in negative precepts, and if early religion tends to be a religion of fear it. is because the taboo-breaker provides the most palpable objective for human and divine sanctions . In the higher religions, to be pure remains amongst the most laudable of aspirations, and, even though the ceremonial aversion of a former age has be-come moralized, and a purity of heart set up as the ideal, it is on " virtues of omission " that stress . is apt to be laid, so that a timorous propriety is too often preferred to a forceful grappling with the problems of life . There are signs, however, that the religious consciousness has at length come to appreciate the fact that the function of routine in religion as elsewhere is to clear the way for action . BIBLIOGRAPHY: A comprehensive study of ritual as such from the comparative standpoint remains yet to be written . Some leading ideas on the subject are struck out by E . B . Tylor, Primitive Cultures (1903), ch . 18; and A . Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion2 (1899); whilst the whole of .J G .

Frazer's vast collection of facts in The Golden Bough' (19oo) illustrates ritual, moreespecially on its magical side; see also W . Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889) . A very valuable See also:

• WORK

work of restricted range but embodying a method that might fruitfully be applied to the whole subject of ritual is H . See also:

• HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727)

Hubert and M . Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et sur la fonction du sacrifice " in L'Annee sociologique, ii.; in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion with the above should be studied S . See also:

• LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900)
• LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888)

Levi, La Doctrine du sacrifice dans See also:

• LES

les Brdhmanas (1899); W . Caland and V . See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry, L'Agnistoma, description See also:

• COMPLETE

complete de la forme normale du sacrifice de See also:

• SOMA (Sanskrit for " pressed juice," from the root su, to press)

Soma dans le See also:

• TULLE

tulle vedique (1906) see also H . Oldenberg, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Religion des Veda (1894) ; A . Hillebtant, Ritual Lilteratur: Vedische Opfer and Zaubee (1896) . Admirable descriptions of Australian ritual are to be found in B . Spencer and F .

J . Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) and The See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern Tribes of Central Australia (1904) . On See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North American rituals very excellent studies exist in A . C . See also:

• FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM (1845– )
• FLETCHER, ANDREW
• FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548-1611)
• FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1584-1623)
• FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (1729-1785)
• FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1582-1650)

Fletcher, " The See also:

• HAKE (Merluccius vulgaris)
• HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579)
• HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1809-1895)

Hake: A See also:

• PAWNEE
• PAWNEE (perhaps from the native word fer " horn," in allusion to their scalping lock, which was " dressed " so as to stand straight up)

Pawnee Ceremony," in 22nd See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report of See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

Bureau of American See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology; see also various papers by the same authoress in See also:

• PEABODY
• PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811–1893)
• PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804-1894)
• PEABODY, GEORGE (1795-1869)

Peabody Reports; likewise in J . W . Fewkes, " Tusayan Katchinas," in 15th See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

Rep. of B. of A . Eth.; and id., " See also:

• HOPI

Hopi Katchinas," in zest Rep . ; M . C . See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

Stevenson, " The Zuni Indians," in 23rd Rep . ; cf .

F . H . See also:

• CUSHING, CALEB (1800-1879)
• CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER (1842–1874)

Cushing, Zuni Fetiches," in 2nd Rep . The following See also:

• WORKS

works pay See also:

• SPECIAL

special attention to ritual features: L . R . Farnell, The Cults of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek States (1896-1907) ; A . Moret, Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte (1902); A. de Marchi Ii culto private di See also:

• ROMA

Roma antica (1902) . (R . R .