See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

ROME (See also:

• ROMA

Roma)  , the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, in' the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, on the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber, r7 See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles N.E. from its mouth on the Mediterranean . As formerly the centre of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic and of the Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, and the headquarters of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, Rome is unique among See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical cities, and its antiquarian See also:

• INTEREST

interest far surpasses that of any other locality in the See also:

• WORLD

world . In the following See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general subject of Rome is treated broadly under two aspects, themselves subdivided . These are:-(r) the See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography and growth of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Rome, the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of which is traced from the earliest times to the See also:

• PRESENT

present, and (2) Roman See also:

• HISTORY

history, i.e. the See also:

• POLITICAL

political and social history of the Roman republic, empire and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune . The nine or ten hills and ridges on which the city stands are formed of masses of tufa or conglomerated See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand and ashes thrown out by neighbouring volcanoes now See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct, but active down to a very See also:

• RECENT

recent See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . One See also:

• GROUP

group of these volcanoes is that around Lago See also:

• BRACCIANO

Bracciano, while another, still'nearer to Rome, composes the See also:

• ALBAN, SAINT

Alban Hills . That some at least of these craters have been in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of activity at no very distant period has been shown by he See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery at many places of brokefii pottery and See also:

• BRONZE

bronze See also:

• IMP
• IMP (O. Eng. impa, a graft, shoot; the verb impian is cognate with Ger. impfen, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. enter; the ultimate origin is probably the Gr. 'µ4uety, to implant, cf. Et.A4Uros, engrafted)

imp; ments below the strata of tub, or other volcanic deposits . Traces of human See also:

• LIFE

life have even been found below that See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood of See also:

• LAVA

lava which, issuing from the Alban Hills, flowed towards the site of Rome, only stopping about 5 miles See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, by the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of See also:

• CECILIA, SAINT

Cecilia Metella . The superficial strata on which Rome is built are of three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main kinds: (I) the plains and valleys on the See also:

• LEFT

left 'batik of the Tiber are covered, as it were, by a See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea of alluvial deposits, in the midst of which (2) the hills of volcanic origin rise like somany islands; and (3) on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the Tiber, around the' Janiculan and Vatican Hills, are extensive remains of an ancient sea-See also:

• BEACH

beach, conspicuous in parts by its See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• GOLDEN

golden sand and its de-posits of greyish See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• POTTER, ALONZO (1800-1865)
• POTTER, HENRY CODMAN (1835–1908)
• POTTER, J
• POTTER, JOHN (c. 1674-1747)
• POTTER, PAUL (1625—1654)
• POTTER, PHILIP CIPRIANI HAMBLEY (1792—1871)

potter's See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . From its yellow sand the Janiculan has been sometimes known as the Golden See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, a name which survives in the church on its See also:

• SUMMIT

summit called Pietro in Montorio (See also:

• MONTE

Monte d'Oro) . In addition to these three See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief deposits, at a few places, especially in the Aventine and Pincian Hills, under-strata of travertine See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop out—a hard See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock, once in See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution in See also:

• RUNNING

running See also:

• WATER

water, and deposited gradually as the water lost its carbonic-See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid solvent, a: See also:

• PROCESS

process still rapidly going on at See also:

• TERNI (anc. Interamna Nahars)

Terni, See also:

• TIVOLI (anc. Tibur, q.v.)

Tivoli and other places in the neighbourhood . The conditions under which the tufa hills were formed have been' very various, as is clearly seen by an examination of the rock at different places .

The volcanic ashes and sand of which the tufa is composed appear in parts to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie just as they were showered down from the See also:

• CRATER

crater; in that See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case it shows but little sign of, stratification, and consists wholly of igneous products . In parts See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and pressure have See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound together these scoriae into a soft and friable rock; in other places they still lie in loose sandy beds and can be dug out with the See also:

• SPADE

spade . Other masses of tufa again show signs either of having been deposited in water, or else washed away from their first resting-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place and redeposited with visible stratifications; this is shown by the .water-worn pebbles and chips of limestone rock, which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate bound together by the volcanic ashes into a sort of natural See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement . A third variety is that which exists on the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine Hill . Here the shower of 'red-hot ashes has evidently fallen on a thickly growing See also:

• FOREST

forest, and the burning See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, partly smothered by the ashes, has been converted into See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal, large masses of which are embedded in the tufa rock . In some places charred branches of trees, their form well preserved, can be easily distinguished, . The so-called " See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of See also:

• ROMULUS

Romulus ". is built of this conglomerate of tufa and charred wood; a veryperfect See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree is visible on one Of" the blocks by the ScalaeCaci . So great have been the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical changes in the site of Rome since the first See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of the historic period that it is difficult now to realize what its aspect once was . The See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

Forum Romanum, the Velabrum, the great Campus Martins (now the most crowded See also:

• PART

part of modern Rome), and other valleys were once almost impassable marshes or pools of water (Ov . See also:

• FASTI

Fasti, V . 401; Dionys. ii . 5o) .

The draining of these valleys was effected by means of the great cloacae, which were among the earliest important architectural See also:

• WORKS

works of Rome (See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro, See also:

• LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839)

Ling . See also:

• LAT

Lat. iv . 149) . Again, the various hills and ridges were once more numerous and very much more abrupt than they are now . At an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early period, when each hill was crowned by a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• VILLAGE

village fort, the great See also:

• OBJECT

object of the inhabitants was to increase the steepness of its cliffs and render See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access difficult . At a later time, when Rome was See also:

• UNITED

united under one See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, the very 'physical peculiarities which had originally made its hills so populous, through their natural adaptability for See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, became extremely inconvenient in a united city, where architectural symmetry and splendour were above all things aimed at . Hence the most gigantic See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering works' were undertaken: tops of hills were levelled, whole ridges cut away, and See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle slopes formed in the place of abrupt cliffs . The levelling of the See also:

• VELIA (Gr. 'TEktl, later'EXfa)

Velia and the ekcavation of the site forTrajan's forum are instances of this . The same works were' continued in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, as when in the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century an access was made to the Capitoline Arx 1 from the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Campus See also:

• MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794—1868)

Martius; up to that time a steep cliff had prevented all approach except from the side of the Forum . Finally, after Rome had become the capital of united Italy, the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th century, an extensive government See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan (piano regulatore) was gradually carried out, with the 'object of reducing hills and valley to a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform level and constructing wide boulevards on the chessboard method of a modern See also:

• AMERICAN

American city . The See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant fires which have at times devastated Rome have been a powerful See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent in obliterating the natural See also:

• CONTOUR

contour of the ground; and the accumulated rubbish from this and other causes has in some plates overlaid' the ground to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 4o ft., notably in the valleys .