See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]  , a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, situated to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula,' and on the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea . Pop . (1910, estimate) 6,85o,000; See also:

• AREA

area, about 50,720 sq. m., or about 65oo sq. m. less than the combined areas of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania begins on the seaward See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side with a See also:

• BAND

band of territory called the See also:

• DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian Dobritch, Rumanian Dobrogea)

Dobrudja (q.v.); and broadens westward into the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a blunted See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent, its See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn being called See also:

• MOLDAVIA

Moldavia, its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• WALACHIA, or WALLAHHIA

Walachia . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—Along the inner edge of this crescent run the Carpathian Mountains, also called, towards their western extremity, the Transylvanian Mountains (q.v.) or Transylvanian See also:

• ALPS

Alps; and the frontier which marks off Rumania from See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn along their crests . The eastern boundary is formed by the See also:

• RIVER

river Pruth (Prutu), between Moldavia and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia; farther south by the See also:

• KILIA

Kilia mouth of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube (Dunarea), between the Dobrudja and Russia, and by the Black Sea . In the extreme south-east, an irregular See also:

• LINE

line, traced from Ilanlac, to m . S. of See also:

• MANGALIA

Mangalia, on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, as far as the Danube at See also:

• SILISTRIA (Bulgarian Silistra)

Silistria, 85 m. inland, separates the Dobrudja from See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria . Otherwise, the Danube constitutes the whole southern frontier; its right See also:

• BANK

bank being Bulgarian for 290 m., and Servian, in the extreme See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, for 50 M . The Danube (q.v.) enters Rumania through the Verciorova or,Kazan 2 Pass . It here resembles a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, overshadowed by precipitous mountains, which vary from moo to 2000 ft. in height, and are covered by birches and pines . In this neighbourhood the channel contracts to about 116 yds. in width, with a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 30 fathoms .

At the eastern end of the pass are the celebrated See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

Gates, a rapid so named by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, not from the surrounding heights, which here descend gradually to the river, but from the number of submerged rocks in the waterway . As it flows eastward from the frontier, the Danube gains in breadth and See also:

• VOLUME

volume . Islands are frequent; the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks recede and become See also:

• LOWER

lower until, after 5o in., they stand almost level with the See also:

• WATER

water . Henceforward, for 290 m., the Rumanian See also:

• SHORE

shore is a desolate fen-See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, varied only by a few hills, by cities, and by lagoons often 15 m. long . East of See also:

• BUCHAREST (Bucuresci)

Bucharest, a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of lagoons and partially drained marshes stretches inland for 45 M . At Silistria the river bends N.N.E. for no m. with the Dobrudja on its right, and a barren See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, called the Baragan See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

Steppe, on its See also:

• LEFT

left . It here encloses two large swampy. islands, the upper being 57 in., the lower 43 M. long . Both have an See also:

• AVERAGE

average breadth of so m . Beyond See also:

• GALATZ (Galalii)

Galatz, the river again turns eastward, branching out, near See also:

• TULCEA, or TULTCHA

Tulcea, into three See also:

• GREAT

great waterways, which See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind through a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying alluvial See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta to the sea . The northern See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary is named the Kilia Mouth; the central, the See also:

• SULINA

Sulina; the southern, the St See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George's . Between Verciorova and the Sulina Mouth, the Danube traverses 540 M . Its current is rapid, and supplies the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive t In 1904, in a lecture read before the Rumanian See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Society, M .

A . See also:

• STURDZA, or STURZA

Sturdza showed that Rumania should not be included in the Balkan Peninsula, where it is placed by many writers and cartographers . This view was accepted by the Society, and a copy of the lecture was forwarded to all similar associations in Europe . See A . Sturdza, La Roumanie n'apparttient pas a la peninsula balkan'ique (Bucharest, 1904) . 2 I.e . Cauldron . awc*r m.Ita m See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power for thousands of floating watermills, which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie moored in the shallows . It is fed by many tributaries, which rise in the Carpathians as See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain torrents, growing broad and sluggish as they flow south-eastward through the central Rumanian plain . In Walachia, it is joined by the Jiu (or Schyl) opposite Rahova; by the Olt (See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Aluta) at Turnu Magurele; by the See also:

• UNITED

united streams of the Dimbovitza (Damboviia) and Argesh (Arge.f) at See also:

• OLTENITZA (Oltenita)

Oltenitza; by the Jalomitza (Ialomiia.) opposite Hirsova . The Olt pierces the Carpathians, by way of the Rothenthurm Pass, and forms the boundary of Little (i.e. western) Walachia, or Oltland . The Sereth (Sirelu or Seret.,) flows for about 340 M. from its Transylvanian source through Moldavia, and meets the Danube near Galatz, after receiving the Moldova, Bistritza (Bistrila), Trotosh (Trotocu), Milcovu, Putna, RSmnicd and See also:

• BUZEU

Buzeu on the west; and the See also:

• BERLAD

Berlad (B:Irladu) on the east .

The Milcovu was the former boundary between Walachia and Moldavia . The Pruth rises on the northern limit of Moldavia, forms the eastern frontier for 330 m., and falls into the Danube to m . E. of Galatz . Its See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief Rumanian tributaries are the Basheu (Ba.See also:

• FEU

feu) and Jijia, See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of the north . The Dobrudja (q.v.) or Dobrogea covers about 2900 sq. m. between the Black Sea and the lower reaches of the Danube . Its high crystalline rocks, covered with sedimentary formations, descend abruptly towards the delta, but more gradually towards the south, where the Bulgarian See also:

• STEPPES

steppes encroach upon Rumanian See also:

• SOIL

soil . The few small rivers which drain the hills generally flow seaward, but those of the delta and steppes belong to the Danubian See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The coast is a low-lying region of sandhills, See also:

• MERES, FRANCIS (1565-1647)

meres and marshes with one See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon . 42 M. long, connected by a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short stream with the St George Mouth . Its outlet on the sea is named the Portidje Mouth (See also:

• GURA, EUGEN (1842—1906)

Gura portilii) of the Danube . North of this, the lagoon is called Lake Razim; while its southern See also:

• HALF

half, shut off by three long islands, is the See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

Blue Lake (Sinoe Osero, in Bulgarian) . Apart from the Dobrudja, the whole of Rumania is included in the northern See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the lower Danube .

It consists of a single inclined See also:

• PLANE

plane stretching upwards, with a north-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly direction, from the left bank of the river to the summits of the Carpathians . It is divided into three zones—steppe, See also:

• FOREST

forest and alpine . The first begins beyond the mud-flats and See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed-beds which line the water's edge, and is a vast monotonous See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland, sloping so gently as to seem almost level .. The See also:

• SURFACE

surface is a yellow See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, with patches of See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown or dark See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey, outliers of the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian " black See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . " Cereals, chiefly See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize, with See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green crops and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of gourds, alternate with See also:

• FALLOW

fallow See also:

• LAND

land overgrown by coarse See also:

• GRASSES

grasses, weeds and stunted shrubs . Amongthe scanty trees, willows and poplars are commonest . The second See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone extends over the foothills and lower ridges of the Carpathians . This region, called by Rumans " the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of vines, " is the most fertile portion of the country . In it grow most fruits and See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers which thrive in a temperate See also:

• CLIMATE

climate . Oaks, elms, firs, ashes and beeches are the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal forest trees . The third zone covers the higher mountains on their southern and eastern sides, whose violently contorted strata leave many transverse valleys, though usually inclining laterally towards the south-east . The See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch and See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of this zone give way to See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine forests as the See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude increases; and the pines to mosses, See also:

• LICHENS

lichens and alpine See also:

• PLANTS

plants, just below the jagged iron-grey peaks, many of which attain altitudes of 6000 to 8000 ft .

See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the Transylvanian Alps consists of sericite See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists and other similar rocks; and these are followed on the south by See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, Cretaceous and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary beds . The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary marine sediments, but from the Cenomanian to the Oligocene the deposits are of the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar facies known in the Alps and Carpathians as See also:

• FLYSCH

Flysch . Farther north, the Flysch forms practically the whole of the Rumanian flank of the Carpathians . Along the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Carpathians lies a broad trough of See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-bearing beds, and in this trough the strata are sometimes See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal and sometimes strongly folded . Outside the band of Miocene beds the Sarmatian, Pontian and Levantine See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, often concealed by See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary deposits, See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the great See also:

• PART

part of the Danube plain . Even the Pontian beds are sometimes folded . In the Dobrudja crystalline rocks, presumably of ancient date, rise through the Tertiary and See also:

• RECENT

recent deposits and form the hills which lie between the Danube and the Black Sea.' Climate.—The Rumanian climate alternates between extreme See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, when the thermometer may fall to–'2o° See also:

• FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1936)

Fahrenheit and extreme See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat in summer, when it may rise to too° in the shade . Autumn is the mildest See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season; See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring lasts only for a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . Spring at Bucharest has a mean temperature of 53°; summer, i See L . Teisseyre and L . Mrazec, Apergu giologique sur See also:

• LES

les formations saliferes et les gisements de sel en Roumanie, Moniteur See also:

• DES

des intirets petroliferes roumains (1902), pp . 3–51; S .

Stefanescu, Etude sur les terrains tertiaires de Roumanie (1897) ; J . Bergeron, " Observations relatives a la structure de la haute vallee de la Jalomita (Roumanie) et des Carpathes roumaines, " See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . See also:

• SOC

Soc . Geol . See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• SER

ser . 4, vol. iv . (1904), pp . 54–77 . 72.5°; autumn, 65°; winter, 27.5° For about 155 days in each See also:

• YEAR

year, Rumania suffers from the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter north-east wind (trivets) which sweeps over south Russia; while a scorching west or south-west wind (austru) blows for about 126 days . Little See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow falls in the plains, but among the mountains it may lie for five months . The frosts are severe, the Danube being often icebound for three months . The rainfall, which is heaviest in summer, averages about 15–20 in .

See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—In its fauna, Walachia has far more See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity to the lands lying south of the Danube than to Transylvania, although several See also:

• SPECIES

species of Claudilia, once regarded as exclusively Transylvanian, are found south of the Carpathians . Moldavia and the Baragan Steppe resemble the Russian prairies in their variety of molluscs and the lower kinds of mammals . Over 40 species of See also:

• FRESHWATER

freshwater mussels (Unionidae) have been observed in the Rumanian rivers . The lakes of the Dobrudja likewise abound in molluscs; See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent forms, in many cases, of species which reappear, greatly modified, in the Black Sea . See also:

• INSECT

Insect See also:

• LIFE

life is somewhat less remarkable; but besides a distinctive genus of See also:

• ORTHOPTERA (Gr. Op®os, straight, and rTepov, a wing)

Orthoptera (Jaquetia See also:

• HOSPODAR

Hospodar), there are several kinds of weevils (Curculionidae) said to be peculiar to Rumania . Birds are very numerous, including no fewer than 4 varieties of crows, 5 of warblers, 7 of woodpeckers, 8 of buntings, 4 of falcons, and 5 of eagles; while among the hosts of waterfowl which See also:

• PEOPLE

people the marshes of the Danube are 9 varieties of ducks, and 4 of rails . See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

Roe-See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, foxes and wolves find shelter in the forests, where bears are not uncommon; and See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois frequent the loftiest and most inaccessible peaks . Minerals.—The See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of Rumania lies chiefly in the mountains . See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

Petroleum, salt, See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite and brown See also:

• COAL

coal are largely worked . Deposits of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-salt, a valuable See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly, stretch from the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of Suceava in northern Moldavia to that of Gorjiu in Walachia, and are See also:

• MINED

mined in the departments of See also:

• BACAU

Bacau, Prahova and Ramnicti Sarat . The presence of petroleum, indicated by many ancient workings in the shape of shallow See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-dug See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells, can be traced continuously at the foot of the Transylvanian Alps, from Turnu Severin into See also:

• BUKOVINA

Bukovina . Rumans claim for their product a higher percentage of pure oil than is found in the See also:

• AMERICAN

American, Galician and Caucasian wells; and, although American competition nearly destroyed this See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry between 1873 and 1895, improved methods and legislation favouring the introduction of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital enabled it to recover .

At the beginning of the loth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the Rumanian petroleum deposits were among the most important in the See also:

• WORLD

world . The industry is carried on by private producers as well as by the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, the American See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

Standard Oil See also:

• COMPANY

Company being largely interested . The See also:

• TOTAL

total output, coming chiefly from the departments of Bacau, Buzeu, Dimbovitza and Prahova, was 250,000 metric tons in 1900, 615,000 in 1905, and 1,300,000 in 1909 . Associated with petroleum is See also:

• OZOKERITE, or OZOCERITE (Gr. 6~ ew, to emit odour, and iccpos, wax)

ozokerite, converted by the peasantry into candles . Lignite is used as See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel on the See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways . The chief See also:

• ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpaE, coal)

anthracite beds, those in the Gorjiu department, are leased until 1975 to an See also:

• ENGLISH

English capitalist, who has the right to construct railways . Extensive coalfields exist in the Dobrudja, and the Dimbovitza, Mehedintzi, Muscel, Prahova and Valcea departments . Iron, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury, See also:

• CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnober)

cinnabar, See also:

• COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59)

cobalt, See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur, See also:

• ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0)

arsenic and See also:

• CHINA

china clay also occur . Among the mountains, See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold was perhaps worked under See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan, who first appointed a See also:

• PROCURATOR (Lat. procurare, to take care of)

Procurator Metallorum, or overseer of mines, for See also:

• DACIA

Dacia; certainly in the 14th century, when immigrant Saxon miners established a considerable See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade with See also:

• RAGUSA
• RAGUSA (Serbo-Croatian Dubrovnik)

Ragusa, in See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

Dalmatia . Under the Turks, gold-washing was carried on by gipsy slaves, but it has long been abandoned as unprofitable . Until 1896 See also:

• BUILDING

building materials were chiefly imported; but, after that year, many quarries were opened to develop the native resources of See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine, red, yellow and green See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, and See also:

• MARBLES

marbles of all See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, including the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble from Dorna in Suceava, said by Rumans to See also:

• RIVAL

rival that of See also:

• CARRARA
• CARRARA, or CARRARESI

Carrara in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . Clear See also:

• AMBER

amber is found beside the Buzeu and its affluents, with brown and grey clouded amber, and a blue fluorescent variety, of considerable value .

Rumania has long been noted for its mineral springs . Ruins of a See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath exist near Curtea de Argesh . In the Valcea department, besides many other See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

iodine, sulphur and mud See also:

• BATHS

baths, there are the state-supported spas of Calimanescil, Caciulata and Govora, situated among some of the finest Carpathian scenery . Most famous of all is See also:

• SINAIA

Sinaia (q.v.), the summer See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

Court; while important springs exist at Lake Sarat, near See also:

• BRAILA (in Rumanian Braila, formerly IBRAILA)

Braila; at Slanic, in the Prahova department, where flooded and abandoned salt-mines are fitted up as baths; at the Tekir Ghiol See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere, near See also:

• CONSTANTZA (Constanta)

Constantza; and at Baltzatesti (Bal4atetii), in the See also:

• NEAMTZU (Neamlu)

Neamtzu (Neamfu) department, a favourite resort of invalids from many parts of eastern Europe . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—That, in 1900, Rumania ranked third? after the United States and Russia, among the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain-growing countries of the world, is due partly to the fertile soil, whose chemical constituents are the same as in the " black earth " region of Russia, though even IThe relative Importance of Rumania was afterwards lessened by the development of See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat-culture in See also:

• CANADA

Canada, See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina and elsewhere.richer in nitrates; partly also to the improved methods and appliances introduced in the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th century . The frail wooden ploughs with a See also:

• LANCE

lance-headed See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share that only scratched the surface soil, were then superseded by iron ploughs; See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam threshers replaced the oxen which trod out the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, and See also:

• MODERN

modern implements were widely adopted . Vast harvests of wheat and maize ripen on the plains and lower hills . Apart from cereals, the principal crops are beans, potatoes, beetroot and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco . Among the See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine-producing countries of Europe, Rumania stood fifth in 1900, despite the ravages of See also:

• PHYLLOXERA (Gr. 4suXXov, leaf, and Erlpbs, dry)

phylloxera, old-fashioned culture, lack of storage and other drawbacks . The red wines of Moldavia, especially the See also:

• BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806)
• BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888)

brand known as Piscul Cerbului, resemble See also:

• BORDEAUX

Bordeaux . The best white wines came from Cotnar in the See also:

• JASSY (Iafit)

Jassy department, but here phylloxera ruined the vineyards . See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Cotnar was akin to Tokay .

To combat the phylloxera, the government ordered the destruction of all infected vines, distributed immune American See also:

• STOCKS

stocks and established See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of viticulture . On the upland See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit farms, although apples, See also:

• PEARS

pears, medlars, cherries, plums, peaches, apricots and melons thrive, the chief See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention is given to damsons, from which is extracted a mild spirit (tsuica), highly esteemed throughout Rumania . This industry began to decline after 1860, but revived with the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of government schools of fruit-culture in many villages . Further instruction was given at various horticultural institutes in the towns, notably the Botanic Gardens and See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute of Bucharest, where the experiments in planting See also:

• FIGS

figs, almonds, hops and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton yielded favourable results . Tobacco is largely cultivated, under state supervision . There are three breeds of Rumanian oxen, besides the peculiar black buffaloes, with horns lying almost See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat along their necks . Cheap transit enables the Rumanian farmers to compete success-fully in the See also:

• MEAT

meat-markets of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland . The southern Dobrudja and the Baragan Steppe, with the mountain pastures of Argeh, Buzeu, Dimbovitza, Muscel and Prahova, are occupied by large See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep-runs; 1200 farms were created in the Baragan by the Land See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of 1889 . In winter the flocks are driven from the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands to the plains . Cheeses of See also:

• EWE

ewe's See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, packed in sheepskins or bark, are in great demand . See also:

• SWINE

Swine and pork are largely exported to Russia and Austria-Hungary . Besides the Moldavian and Servian breeds, thousands of so-called " swamp hogs " run See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild among the marshes and on the islands of the Danube .

Silkworm-rearing, once an important See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household industry, had been almost abandoned, when, in 1891, the government established mulberry nurseries, and distributed silkworms See also:

• FREE

free of. See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge . Silkworm-rearing is taught in the monasteries and agricultural schools, especially in the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Agriculture and Sylviculture, at Ferestrlu, near Bucharest . Similar See also:

• MEASURES

measures were adopted to check the decline of See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-keeping, and a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model apiary was founded in 1890, under government See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control . Forests.—The forests of Rumania were long either neglected or exploited in the most reckless See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . Large tracts of woodland were cleared near the railways, and the communal rights of grazing and gathering firewood destroyed the aftergrowths . Nevertheless, in 1910 there were 2,760,000 acres under forests, chiefly in the mountains of north-western Moldavia . More than 1,000,000 acres are state See also:

• PROPERTY

property . Under See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles, an ardent forester, the wholesale destruction of See also:

• TIMBER

timber was arrested, and new plantations met with success . See also:

• LUMBER

Lumber is floated down the rivers of the Carpathian See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed to the Danube, and so exported to See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey and Bulgaria; casks, shaped planks and petroleum drums go chiefly to Austria and Russia . See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood-See also:

• CARVING

carving is taught in many schools, and a See also:

• SPECIAL

special school of forestry exists at Branesci in the Ilfav department . Estates in private hands are liable to state control, under the Forests Act of 1886 . Land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

Tenure.—The Rumanian system of land tenure See also:

• DATES

dates from 1864, when most of the land was held in large estates, owned privately, or by the state or by monasteries .

There was also a small class of See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors, called mocheneni in Walachia, risechi in Moldavia, living and working in See also:

• FAMILY

family communities; but the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the peasantry cultivated the lands of the large proprietors, giving a certain number of days' See also:

• WORK

work to their manorial See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, in addition to a tithe of the raw produce . They received in return a See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot of ground proportionate to the number of animals they owned, and had also rights of grazing and of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting fuel in the forests . In 1864, under the government of See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• CUZA (or CouzA), ALEXANDER JOHN [Alexandru Joan] (1820-1873)

Cuza, a new See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law was promulgated, conferring on each peasant family See also:

• FREEHOLD

freehold property in lots varying from 71 to 15 acres, according to the number of oxen that they owned . The See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man with no See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle received the minimum; the owner of 2 oxen got to acres, and the possessor of 4 received 121 to 15 acres . The See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of the land, which was calculated on the basis of the value of the forced labour to which the landlord had been entitled, was about Li, 16s. per See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

acre, paid to the landlord by the state as See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation, and subsequently recovered from the peasants in fifteen See also:

• ANNUAL

annual instalments . In the first See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution, which took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place almost immediately after the law was passed, 280,000 families in Walachia and about 127,000 in Moldavia became freeholders, holding nearly 4 million acres or one-third of the cultivated area of the country . These peasant plots were all declared inalienable for See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years . The law of emancipation, although passed with the best of motives, did not to any great extent benefit the peasantry . The limited See also:

• SIZE

size of their farms, and the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for buying wood and paying for pasturage, both of which were formerly free, prevented them from obtaining See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the large proprietors, on whose estates they still had to work for See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment in See also:

• MONEY

money or See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, while their improvidence soon got them into the hands of Jewish money-lenders, who, fortunately for the peasants, were by law unable to become proprietors of the soil . In 1866 and 1872 See also:

• LAWS

laws were passed for still further improving the position of these small proprietors; and in 1879 a measure was carried for allotting lands to 48,000 recently married couples, and for restoring to many peasant families lands which had been alienated . By the Land Act of 1889, the state domains, amounting to nearly one-third of the total area of Rumania (originally the property of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church and the convents, confiscated by Prince Cuza in 1866), were distributed among the peasantry . The land was divided into lots of 121, 25 and 371 acres .

Peasants having no land might See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase the smaller lots on very easy terms . Those who already held less than 122 acres might purchase up to that amount . When a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of residence became necessary to enable the peasant to take up the new See also:

• ALLOTMENT (from O. Fr. a and toter, to divide by lot)

allotment, the state advanced £6 to each family to defray expenses . The price to be paid for the land differed in different districts, and was to be paid to the state in small annual instalments . If any land remained after satisfying the wants of the peasants, it was to be sold by public See also:

• AUCTION

auction in lots of 50 to 621 acres . All lots in both cases were declared inalienable for thirty years . The See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of the larger lots gave rise to so many abuses that in 1896 a law was passed abolishing their further sale . As a result of these measures the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of Rumans are peasant proprietors; but the smallness of the holdings renders scientific farming difficult except by co-operation, and many proprietors can only live by working for the owners of large estates . Thus, though the average value of agricultural land increased by 6o% between 1870 and 1900, the position of the peasantry is far from satisfactory, and the resultant discontent was the chief cause of the agrarian rising in 1907 . See also:

• FISHERIES

Fisheries.—Among See also:

• EUROPEAN

European freshwater fishing-grounds, the Danube is only surpassed by the See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga; the most valuable See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish being See also:

• STURGEON (Acipenser)

sturgeon and sterlet, mostly netted in the St George mouth; See also:

• CARP

carp, often weighing 50 lb; See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike, See also:

• PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. 7rEpKo; the last word is connected with 2repev6r, dark-coloured, spotted)
• PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod used for measurement)

perch, See also:

• TENCH (Tina vulgaris)

tench and eels . By an act of 1895, a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period was instituted, the lakes and rivers restocked, and the state fisheries, which are either farmed by private companies or directly administered, were set in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . The coarse-grained grey Rumanian See also:

• CAVIARE, or CAVIAR

caviare is forwarded to See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, and there blended with Russian caviare .

Flounders and See also:

• MULLET

mullet are caught in the Black Sea, and there are See also:

• OYSTER

oyster-beds in the delta and on the Dobrudja littoral . The principal markets for Rumanian fish are Turkey, Russia and Austria-Hungary . Fish of inferior quality is imported, chiefly from Russia . Manufactures and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—The native mines, fields and forests provide raw material for most of the few factories which exist . These include petroleum refineries, iron foundries, distilleries, See also:

• FLOUR

flour See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar refineries, sawmills, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper mills, chemical See also:

• WORKS

works, See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass works, See also:

• SOAP

soap and See also:

• CANDLE (Lat. candela, from candere, to glow)

candle works, &c . A law passed in 1887 pre =3ed that any one undertaking to found an See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial establishment with a capital of at least £2000, or employing at least 25 workmen (of whom two-thirds should be Rumanians), should be granted 12 acres of state land, exemption for a See also:

• TERM

term of years from all See also:

• DIRECT

direct taxes, freedom from customs dues for machinery and raw material imported, exemption from road taxes, reduction in cost of See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage of materials on the state railways, and preferential rights to the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of manufactured articles to the state . The following table shows the value of Rumanian imports and exports for five years: Year . Imports . Exports . 1904 . ££2,455,000 £10,475,000 1905 . 13,510,000 18,284,000 1906 .

16,885,000 19,654,000 1907 17,220,000 22,157,000 1908 . 16,563,000 15,158,000 The principal imports are metals and machinery (£5,510,000 in 1908), textiles, See also:

• SILK

silk, See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair and hides . Grain (££1,297,000 in 1908), petroleum (££,543,000) and timber (£1,059,000) are by far the most important exports, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder consisting of live-stock the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal products, fruit, vegetables and mineral See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters . In 1908 the chief consumers of Rumanian goods were (in order) See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and Italy; the chief exporters to Rumania were Germany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain and France . The wide fluctuations in Rumanian commerce are largely due to the dependence of the country on the grain See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest . See also:

• FINANCE

Finance.—The state See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue is derived from customs; from public works and public land; from indirect taxes in the shape of See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp, See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance, See also:

• BEER

beer, spirit, petroleum and other duties; from direct taxes on land and buildings, with road-tolls, licences for the sale of See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol and traders' See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration fees; from the tobacco, salt, match, playing-card and cigarette-paper monopolies; and from the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services . The chief items of See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure are See also:

• INTEREST

interest on the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, and the cost of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, public works and See also:

• EDUCATION

education . The following table shows the estimated revenue and expenditure for five years: Year . Revenue . Expenditure . 1906-7 £9,557,000 £9,509,000 1907-8 10,099,000 9,979,000 1908-9 16, 440,000 16,390,000 1909-10 17,427,000 17,146,000 1910-11 18,443,000 18,443,000 The great increase after 1907-8 is due to the inclusion of railway receipts and expenditure, with some other items not previously enumerated . In May 1905 the outstanding public debt, which amounted to about £54,000,000, mainly placed in Germany and bearing interest at an average See also:

• RATE

rate of 5 %, was converted into a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform 4% stock .

Besides this reductions of interest, the state secured an See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of fourteen years in each of the various periods allotted for repayment of the component loans . But a considerable increase in the total debt was involved, because a See also:

• BONUS (a jocular application of the Lat. bonus, for bonum, " a good thing ")

bonus of See also:

• IO2

Io2 % in new 4% stock, issued at See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par, was offered to induce bondholders to convert, while, to cover the bonus, an additional 4 % See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan was riased at 90.70, amounting to £4,000,000, redeemable in 1945 . At the beginning of the fiscal year 1909-10 (See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 31st, O.S.) the total outstanding debt was £58,367,000, and the debt charges for the year were estimated at £3,518,080 . Banks and Currency.—Apart from the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General Bank of Rumania (capital £200,000), which is owned by a See also:

• SYNDICATE

syndicate mainly of Germans, the largest See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit establishments belong to the state . They include the National Bank (capital and reserves in 1910, £1,560,000), founded in 188o; the Agricultural Loan Bank, founded in 1894; the Rural and See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

Urban Land Credit Institutes, which lend money on agricultural and building land respectively; the Cassa Rurala, which See also:

• BUYS

buys estates for resale in small lots; savings banks in all the principal towns; and the See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

Deposit and See also:

• TRUST

Trust Fund, which takes charge of estates left vacant through See also:

• INTESTACY (Lat. intestates, one who has not made a will, from testari, to, bear witness)

intestacy, surplus departmental and communal funds, securities given by contractors for public works, &c . After the See also:

• CRIMEAN

Crimean See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, a bimetallic currency was adopted, with the leu (See also:

• FRANC

franc) of too bani (centimes) as the unit of value . But after 1878 the Russian See also:

• SILVER

silver rouble was rated so highly as to drive the native coins out of circulation; and in 1889 Rumania joined the Latin Monetary See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union and adopted a• gold standard . Besides the silver pieces See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth 1, I, 2 and 5 lei, gold coins of 5, 10 and 20 lei are used . Silver is legal See also:

• TENDER

tender only up to 50 lei . All taxes and customs dues must be paid in gold, and, owing to the small quantities issued from the Rumanian See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint, foreign gold is current, especially See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French 20-franc pieces (equal at par to 20 lei), See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish gold lire (22.70), Old Russian Imperials (20.60) and English sovereigns of (25.22) . Besides See also:

• BRONZE

bronze coins of less value than 1 lei's, nickel pieces worth 5, to and 20 bans were authorized by a law of 1900 . The French decimal system is in use for weights and measures, together with Turkish See also:

• STANDARDS

standards .

On the railways and in See also:

• POST

post offices the Gregorian See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar is employed; elsewhere the See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian remains in use . Chief Towns.—The chief towns, with their estimated See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population in 1910, are Bucharest, the capital (300,000) ; Jassy, the capital of Moldavia (8o,00o) ; Galatz (66,000), Braila (60,000), See also:

• PLOESCI (Ploescii)

Ploesci (50,000), See also:

• CRAIOVA, or KRAJOVA

Craiova (46,000), See also:

• BOTOSHANI (Botosani)

Botoshani (34,000), Berlad (25,000), See also:

• FOCSHANI (Rumanian Focrani, sometimes incorrectly written Fokshani or Fokshan)

Focshani (25,000), Tulcea (20,000), Constantza (16,000), See also:

• GIURGEVO (Giurgiu)

Giurgevo (15,000) . Other towns which, like the foregoing, are described in See also:

• SEPARATE

separate articles are See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria, See also:

• BABADAG, or BABATAG

Babadag, Bacau, Buzeu, See also:

• CALAFAT

Calafat, See also:

• CALARASHI (Cdllrasi)

Calarashi, See also:

• CAMPULUNG (also written Campu Lung and Kimpulung)

Campulung, See also:

• CARACAL
• CARACAL (Lynx caracal)

Caracal, Curtea de Argesh, See also:

• DOROHOI, or DOROGOI

Dorohoi, See also:

• DRAGASHANI (Rumanian Draga. ani)

Dragashani, Falticeni, See also:

• HUSHI (Rumanian Husi)

Hushi, Manalia, Neamtzu, Oltenitza, See also:

• PIATRA (PEATRA)

Piatra, See also:

• PITESCI (Pitesti)

Pitesci, Ramnicu Sarat, Ramnicu Valcea, Roman, Sinaia, Sulina, Tirgu Jiu, Tirgu Ocna, See also:

• TIRGOVISHTEA (Rumanian Ttrgoeiltea, or Tdrgovigtea, sometimes incorrectly written Tergovista or Tirgovist)

Tirgovishtea, See also:

• TECUCI (Tecuciu)

Tecuci, Turnu Magurele, Turnu Severin and See also:

• VASLUI

Vaslui . Communications.—Until the 19th century, See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic was carried on in Rumania chiefly by means of ox-wagons, over the roughest df roads . After 183o, however, many highways were opened, these being usually excellent among the mountains but deteriorating as they descend into the lowlands, where See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone is dear . Highways are maintained by the state, department or See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune, according to their size and importance . In 1869, the first Rumanian railway was opened, between Bucharest and Giurgevo, its See also:

• PORT

port . Other lines followed rapidly; some built by private enterprise, others by the state, which by 1888 had bought the entire system . This centres in one See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main line, carried southwards from See also:

• SUCZAWA (Rumanian, Suceava)

Suczawa in Bukovina through the whole length of Moldavia, and turning westwards through Walachia to meet the Hungarian frontier at Verciorova . See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Branch lines extend, on one side, up the lateral valleys of the Carpathians, and, on the other, to Jassy and the principal Danubian ports . A direct line connects Jassy with Galatz; another traverses the Dobrudja from Constantza to Cernavoda, where it crosses the Danube and proceeds north-west to join the main line . The See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge of Cernavoda, with the viaducts leading to it, stretches for 122 m. across the river and surrounding marshes .

Besides the junctions at Suczawa and Verciorova, the Rumania system meets the Hungarian through the Gyimes, Rothenthurm and Vulkan Passes; the Russian by lines from Jassy and Galatz to See also:

• KISHINEV (Kishlanow of the Moldavians)

Kishinev in See also:

• BESSARABIA

Bessarabia; the Bulgarian and Servian by means of numerous ferries . Rumania has no canals, and the canalization of its rivers is impeded by drought and floods . The Pruth and Sereth are navigable for a short distance by small sailing See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft; the conservancy of the Danube (q.v.) is controlled by a European See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission, which sits at Galatz . Besides river services, the state maintains lines of sea-going See also:

• SHIPS

ships from Constantza to See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople and the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean Islands, and from Braila to See also:

• ROTTERDAM

Rotterdam . In 1908 the ports of Rumania were entered by 32,888 vessels of 9,269,000 tons, of which 30,504 of 6,529,000 tons belonged to the river (Danubian) trade . The See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant See also:

• NAVY

navy of Rumania comprised about 495 vessels of 145,000 tons, including 88 steamers . Population.—The population of Rumania numbered 5,912,520 in 1899, and about 6,850,000 in 191o . Fully 6,000,000 of these were Rumans or See also:

• VLACHS

Vlachs (q.v.) . The population of foreign descent comprises many See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, Armenians, See also:

• GIPSIES, or GYPSIES

gipsies, Greeks, Germans, Turks, See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars and See also:

• MAGYARS

Magyars, Servians and Bulgarians . The Jews increase more rapidly than any of these peoples except the Armenians . They usually congregate in the larger towns, though in northern Moldavia there are a few purely Jewish villages, recalling those of See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland . The bitter feeling against them in Rumania is not so much due to religious fanaticism as to the fear that if given See also:

• POLITICAL

political and other rights they will gradually possess themselves of the whole soil .

In many towns in northern Moldavia the Jews are in a majority, and their total See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers in Rumania are about 300,000, i.e. about one-twentieth of the entire population, a larger ratio than exists in any other country in the world . In many places they have the monopoly of the wine and spirit shops, and See also:

• RETAIL

retail trade generally; and as they are always willing to advance money on See also:

• USURY

usury, and are more intelligent and better educated than the ordinary peasant, there is little doubt that in a country where the large landowners are proverbially extravagant, and the peasant proprietors needy, the soil would soon fall into the hands of the Jews were it not for the stringent laws which pre-vent them frdm owning land outside the towns . When in addition it is considered that the Moldavian Jews, who are mostly of See also:

• POLISH

Polish and Russian origin, speak a foreign See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, See also:

• WEAR

wear a distinguishing See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress and keep themselves aloof from their neighbours, the antipathy in which they are held by the Rumanians generally may be understood . The gipsies, who are mostly converts to the Orthodox Church, still, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, cling to their vagabond existence, though their skill at all handicrafts finds them ready employment in the towns . During their centuries of See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery, they were organized into castes, as musicians, See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal workers, masons, &c.; but after about 1850 the bonds of See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste were gradually relaxed and gipsies began to intermarry with Rumans . The Greeks form a floating population of merchants and small traders, anxious to amass a See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune and return See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home . See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German and See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian business men visit the country in large numbers, and colonies of German farmers flourish among the mountains of Little Walachia . In central Moldavia there is a large population of Magyar descent, and the Servian and Bulgarian elements are strong near the Danube . The interior of the Dobrudja is occupied largely by Turks and Bulgarians, with Tatars, Russians and Armenians, but here the Ruman steadily gains ground at the expense of the See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien . At Megidia, a flourishing See also:

• TOWN

town of about ro,000 inhabitants, which sprang up after 186o between Cernavoda and Constantza, the Tatars predominate . Russians of the Lipovan See also:

• SECT

sect live in See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile in Bucharest and other cities, earning a livelihood as See also:

• CAB (shortened about 1825 from the Fr. cabriolet, derived from cabriole, implying a bounding motion)

cab-drivers, and wearing the long coats and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round caps of their countrymen . National Characteristics.—Two dissimilar types are noticeable among the Rumans .

One is See also:

• FAIR

fair-haired, florid and blue-eyed; the other, more frequent among the Carpathians, is dark, resembling the southern Italians . Both alike are See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy, though rarely tall; both, when of the peasant class, frugal and inured to toil amid the rigours of their native climate . Proud of their See also:

• RACE

race and country, they acquired, with their independence, an ardent sense of See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality; and they look forward to the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day which will reunite them to their kinsmen in Transylvania and Bessarabia . They have been taught, originally in the interests of Transylvanian Roman Catholicism,to regard themselves as true descendants of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans . The peasants retain their distinctive dress, long discarded, except on festivals and at court, by the wealthier classes . Men wear a long See also:

• LINEN

linen See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic, See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt, white woollen See also:

• TROUSERS

trousers and leather gaiters, above Turkish slippers or sandals . The lowlanders' See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-dress is generally a high cylindrical cap of rough See also:

• CLOTH

cloth or See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, while the mountaineers prefer a small round See also:

• STRAW

straw See also:

• HAT

hat . Sundays and holidays bring out a sleeveless jacket, embroidered in red and gold; and both sexes wear sheepskins in cold See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . The linen dresses of See also:

• WOMEN

women are fastened by a long See also:

• SASH

sash or See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle, See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound many times round the See also:

• WAIST

waist: the See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday attire being a white See also:

• GOWN

gown covered with embroideries, one or more brightly coloured aprons and necklaces of beads or coins . The standard of comfort is lowest along the Danube and in parts of the Dobrudja . As the land becomes higher, the dwellings improve; but, despite the presence of a See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor in each commune, disease is everywhere rife . Many villages are wholly built of timber and See also:

• THATCH (O.E. thaec; the word is common to many Teutonic languages in the sense of " roof," " cover "; cf. Du. dak, Ger. Dach; from Du. dekken comes " deck "; the Indo-European root is stag, whence Gr. or.yos, roof, Lat. tegere, to cover; the French equiva

thatch, especially amongst the Carpathians, the floors being frequently raised on piles, several feet above the ground .

The inner walls are often hung with hand-See also:

• WOVEN

woven tapestries, which harmonize well with the See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke-blackened rafters, the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• LOOM

loom and the huge Dutch See also:

• STOVE

stove characteristic of a prosperous Rumanian See also:

• FARM

farm . Many See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan beliefs linger on in the country, where vampires, witches and the evil See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye are dreaded by all . The peasants reassure themselves by the use of charms and spells, and by a strict observance of the forms which their creed prescribes . A See also:

• CROSS

cross See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards every well or spring; every home has its ikons or sacred pictures . Church festivals and fasts are kept with equal- care . For months together a Ruman will subsist on vegetables and mamaliga, the maize See also:

• PORRIDGE (an altered form of " pottage," Fr. pelage, soup, that which is cooked in a pot)

porridge that forms his See also:

• STAPLE

staple -See also:

• DIET

diet . See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

Beef and- mutton are rarely touched, and in some districts pork is only eaten on St Hilary's day (the loth of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December, O.S.) . Veal is the one kind of meat generally consumed Wine and See also:

• PLUM

plum-spirit, or the more powerful See also:

• BRANDY

brandy distilled from grain, are drunk in great quantities by the townsfolk, more sparingly by countrymen; Rumans generally being more sober than the western Europeans . The ceremonies which accompany a See also:

• WEDDING

wedding preserve the tradition of See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage by See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture; a peasant See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride must enter her new home carrying See also:

• BREAD

bread and salt, and in parts of Walachia a See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower is painted on the See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of cottages in which there is a girl old enough to marry . See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young men swear eternal brotherhood; girls, eternal See also:

• SISTER

sister-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood; and the Church ratifies their choice in a service at which the feet of the pair are chained together . This relation-See also:

• SHIP

ship is morally and legally regarded as not less binding than kinship by See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth . The dead are See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne to the See also:

• GRAVE

grave with uncovered faces, and a Rumanian funeral is a See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of much barbaric display .

All classes delight in See also:

• MUSIC

music and dancing . Women hold See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning-parties at which the See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader begins a ballad, and each in turn contributes a See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse . A number of satirical folk-tales (largely of Turkish origin) are current at the expense of See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew, gipsy or See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest . The Rumanian folk-songs, sung and often improvised by the villagers, or by a wandering See also:

• GUITAR (Fr. guitarre, Ger. Guitarre, Ital. chitarra, Span. guitarra)

guitar-player (cobzar), are of exceptional interest and beauty (see Literature, below) . The national dances and music closely resemble those of the Southern Slays (see See also:

• MONTENEGRO

MONTENEGRO and BULGARIA) . Constitution.—In 1866, Prince Charles of Hohenzoliern-See also:

• SIGMARINGEN

Sigmaringen was chosen prince of Rumania. by a constituent See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly elected under universal See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage . This See also:

• BODY

body at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up a constitution, which remains in force, though modified in 18i9 and 1884 . In 1881, Prince Charles was proclaimed king . As he proved childless, the See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession was accepted by his See also:

• BROTHER

brother, Prince See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold, on behalf of his son See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William; and in 1888 William renounced his claim in favour of See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand his younger brother . Thus the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy became hereditary in the family of See also:

• HOHENZOLLERN

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen . No woman may ascend the See also:

• THRONE

throne; and, in See also:

• DEFAULT (Fr. defaut, from defailler, to fail, Lat. fallere)

default of a male See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir, the representatives of the people can choose a king among the royal families of western Europe . See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

Parliament consists of a See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, elected for eight years, and a chamber of deputies, elected for four years .

Senators must be See also:

• FORTY

forty years old and possess an income of 9400 lei (£376) . They are chosen by two colleges of See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors; one composed of citizens with an income of £80; the other, of citizens with incomes varying from £32 to £80 . The heir-apparent, the two See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch-bishops, the six bishops and the rectors of both See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities, sit ex officio in the senate . For the chamber of deputies, all See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen taxpayers of full See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age may See also:

• VOTE

vote, being organized for the purpose into three colleges . All persons with an income of £5o vote in the first; all residents in an urban commune who pay taxes amounting to sixteen shillings yearly, with those who have been through the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary course of education, and all members of the liberal professions, retired See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and state pensioners, vote in the second . The third college is formed of the remaining taxpayers . Those who can read and write vote directly, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest indirectly . Every fifty indirect electors choose a delegate, who votes along with the direct electors . The See also:

• NATURALIZATION

naturalization of Jews and Moslems is hedged about by many technical difficulties, and requires a separate vote of the legislature in every individual See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . Deputies must be not less than twenty-five years of age . Both senators and deputies receive 20 lei for each day of actual attendance, and travel free on the railways . The king may temporarily See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto any measure passed by parliament .

Executive power is vested in a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council under the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of a See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister, and representing the ministers of foreign affairs; See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice; the interior; See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and education; war; finance; agriculture, trade, industry and public domains; and public works . Entire See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty of speech, assembly and the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press is guaranteed by the constitution, by which also the titles and privileges of the boiars or nobles were abolished . For purposes of See also:

• LOCAL

local government, Rumania is divided into 32 departments, each controlled by a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect, and subdivided into sub-prefectures and communes . The sub-prefectures (plasii) correspond with the French arrondissements . Prefects and sub-prefects are appointed by the state, but the chief civic officials are elected . Very heavy See also:

• OCTROI (0. Fr. octroyer, to grant, authorize; Lat. auctor)

octroi duties provide the means of municipal See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration . Law and Justice.—Until the 17th century justice was administered according to See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom and precedent, or, in ecclesiastical cases, by the rules of an See also:

• ILL

ill-defined See also:

• CANON

canon law . The first change was introduced by See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew Bassaraba, prince of Walachia (1633–54), and by See also:

• BASIL (Russ. VASILY)

Basil the See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

Wolf, prince of Moldavia (1634-53) . Basil drew up a criminal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code, on the principle of " an eye for an eye." Thus, a man guilty of See also:

• ARSON (from Lat. ardere, to burn)

arson was burned alive . No See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of equality before the law as yet existed: nobles might only be beheaded or banished . Bassaraba, besides reforming the canon law, issued a similar criminal code, with a number of See also:

• CIVIL

civil enactments, based on Roman law, and regulating testaments, guardianship, &c . The next great advance began with the Russian See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate over Rumania (1828–56), when magistrates were made irremovable, and new tribunals created, including a See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty court in each rural commune .

But nothing was yet done to modify the relative positions of See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble and serf . The growth of the See also:

• PRESENT

present system dates from the union of Moldavia and Walachia in 1859 . The main provisions of Rumanian law are drawn from the codes of western See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, especially the Code See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon . Besides the communal courts, there are quarter-sessional or See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit courts, where See also:

• SIMPLE

simple cases are decided . An See also:

• APPEAL

appeal from these lies to the departmental courts, which sit in every capital of a department, and in which sessions are held, at stated times, for the trial by See also:

• JURY

jury of serious offences . Any appeal from the departmental courts is brought before the appeal courts of Bucharest, Craiova, Galatz or Jassy; and thence, if necessary, to the supreme tribunal, or court of cassation (Curtea de Casatie), which sits in Bucharest . Defence.—At the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of Prince Charles, the Rumanian See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army consisted of raw levies, led by adventurers from any country, provided with no uniform, and, in many cases, armed only with pikes or sabres . Under Prince Charles universal and compulsory service was introduced . The present system, in which his reforms culminated, rests upon a law of 1891, modified in 1900 and 1908 . By this law the forces are divided into three sections . The first is composed of men between the ages of 21 and 30, enrolled in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field army and its reserves . Every citizen capable of bearing arms must serve from his 30th to his 36th year in the second See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, or territorial See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia, which musters in spring for See also:

• SHOOTING

shooting-practice and in the autumn for field manmuvres .

In the militia are included soldiers who have served their time in the ranks, and recruits chosen by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot from the yearly contingent of conscripts but not immediately summoned for See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty in the field army . Finally, every citizen between the ages of 36 and 46 belongs to the third section, called the Gloats (See also:

• LANDSTURM

Landsturm), which can only be called upon forhome service in war . In time of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace the field army consists of four complete army See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps, with headquarters at Craiova, Bucharest, Jassy and Galatz; besides an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. brigade, Ital. brigata, Span. brigada; the English use of the word dates from the early 17th century)

brigade in the Dobrudja, and a separate See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division with headquarters at Bucharest . Its peace strength in 1909–10 was 4415 officers, 89,227 non-commissioned officers and men, and 18,920 horses . The See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry was armed with the Mannlicher See also:

• MAGAZINE

magazine See also:

• RIFLE

rifle (model 1893), the cavalry with the Mannlicher See also:

• CARBINE (Fr. carabine, Ger. Karabiner)

carbine, the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse and field See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery with See also:

• KRUPP, ALFRED (1812—1887)

Krupp See also:

• QUICK

quick-firing guns . On a war footing the field army would contain 225,000 combatants . It was estimated that the militia should ultimately furnish an additional force of See also:

• IOO

ioo,000 men, but up to 1910 this branch of the service was not completely organized . The arrangements for mobilization are otherwise very complete, and the field army is maintained in a high state of efficiency . The war See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget for 1909–10 was £2,271,300 . The fortifications designed in 1882 by the Belgian engineer, General See also:

• BRIALMONT, HENRI ALEXIS (1821-1903)

Brialmont, and completed at a cost of more than £4,000,000, form the See also:

• KEYSTONE

keystone of the national defences . They consist of the Sereth Line, an entrenchment extending over a front of 45 M. from Galatz to Focshani, and intended to cover an army of defence against invaders from the north-east, and of the outworks which make Bucharest the largest fortified See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp in the world, except See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris . All these fortifications, including the additional works at Galatz and Focshani, are strongly armed with Krupp and Gruson guns .

The Rumanian navy is divided into two squadrons; one for the Danube, with headquarters at Galatz; one for the Black Sea, with headquarters at Constantza . In 1909–*.o the See also:

• FLEET

fleet comprised one cruiser, seven gunboats, eight See also:

• TORPEDO

torpedo-boats, six See also:

• COASTGUARD

coastguard vessels, a training-ship, a despatch-See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat, a ship for the See also:

• MINING

mining service and numerous vessels for See also:

• NAVAL

naval See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police . The state possesses a floating See also:

• DOCK

dock and a marine See also:

• ARSENAL

arsenal at Galatz . Religion.—The State Church of Rumania, which is governed by a See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

Synod, professes the Orthodox See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental creed . Its independence was formally recognized by the See also:

• OECUMENICAL (through the Lat. from Gr. oiKOVµevI.KOS, universal, belonging to the whole inhabited world, i] oiKovµtvf sc. y;7, aides, to dwell)

oecumenical See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of Constantinople, in 1885 . The Rumanian Church had claimed its independence from very ancient times, but under the Turkish See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty and Phanariote hospodars Greeks were generally elected as bishops, and the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek patriarch at Constantinople came to be more and more felt . In 1864 it declared itself independent of all foreign prelates . In 1872 a law was passed by which the bishops were elected by the senate, the chamber of deputies, and the synod sitting as an assembly (the only other occasion on which See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision is made for such an assembly is in the event of the throne becoming vacant without any apparent heir) . It was subsequently decided to consecrate the holy oil in Rumania instead of procuring it from Russia or Constantinople; but the Greek patriarch protested . See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

Secret negotiations were entered into which came to a successful issue . The patriarch feared on the one hand that the growing influence of the Russian Church would give a See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of Slavism to the whole church, and that a Russian might eventually be appointed oecumenical patriarch at Constantinople, while the Rumanians hoped by means of the independence of their church to deprive the Russians of all excuse for interfering in their See also:

• INTERNAL

internal affairs under the pretext of religion . The Rumanians, although obtaining complete independence, agreed to recognize the patriarch at Constantinople as the chief dignitary of the Orthodox Church .

The See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of Bucharest, officially styled metropolitan See also:

• PRIMATE (from Low Lat. primas=one who held the first place, primas partes)

primate of Rumania, presides over the Holy Synod; the other members being the metropolitan of Jassy (primate of Moldavia), the six bishops of Ramnicu Valcea, Roman, Hushi, Buzeu, Curtea de Argesh and the Lower Danube (Galatz) ; together with eight bishops in partibus, their coadjutors . Metropolitans and bishops are elected by the senate and deputies, sitting together . In Hungary there are a uniate metropolitan and three bishops be-longing to the Rumanian church . The See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy marry before ordination; and only See also:

• REGULAR

regular clergy (kalugari) are eligible for high preferment . Although many convents had been closed and utilized for secular purposes, there were in 1910 no less than 168, including nunneries . The older convents are usually built in places difficult of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access and are strongly fortified; for in troublous times they served as refuges for the peasants or rallying-places for demoralized troops . The See also:

• SEQUESTRATION

sequestration of the monastic estates, which in 1864 covered nearly one-third of Rumania, was due to flagrant abuses . Many estates were held by alien See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations, such as the convents of See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• ATHOS (Gr. "Aytov "Opos; Turk. Aineros; Ital. Monte Santo)

Athos and See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem; while the revenues of many more were spent abroad by the patriarch of Constantinople . Religious liberty is accorded to all churches, Jews, Moslems, Roman Catholics, Protestants, Armenians and Lipovans having their own places of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . Education.—Primary education is free and compulsory, " where schools are available," for See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children between seven and eleven years of age . At the close of the19th century, however, the See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation was insufficient, the attendance limited in consequence, and the percentage of illiterates high; reaching 88.5 % in some of the rural communes . Great improvements were effected between 1900 and 1907, the number of schools increasing from 3643 to 4463, and the pupils from 298,000 to 515,000 .

The state contributes to the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of elementary schools, for the Vlachs in See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia, Bulgaria and Transylvania . Secondary and higher education are also free . There are gymnasia, or See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar schools of four classes, roughly corresponding with the German sub-gymnasia; and lyceums of eight classes, which See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to the German gymnasia . Up to the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth class all pupils are taught alike in the lyceums; in the fifth, however, they are divided into a See also:

• LITERARY

literary or " humanist " section, and a scientific or " realist " section . The four upper classes are taught French and German; English and See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian being added for the " realists," Greek and Latin for the " humanists." Technical instruction is given in the agricultural schools; in various arts and crafts institutes, such as those of Bucharest and Jassy; in the veterinary and See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering colleges of Bucharest; in numerous commercial schools, and in schools of domestic See also:

• ECONOMY

economy for girls . In 1909–10 there were four ecclesiastical seminaries, seven training schools for teachers and eight military schools . The cost of education is largely borne by the communes, as well as by the state . At Bucharest and Jassy there are universities with faculties of law, See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine and See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology . Antiquities.—The See also:

• HISTORY

history of primitive See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization in Rumania can be traced back to the See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic Age; numerous remains of this period have been found at Vodastra in the Romanatzi department . Roman rule left a deep imprint on the country . The following Roman towns have been identified: (1) in the Dobrudja, Cius (Hirsova), Troesmis (Iglitza), Arrubium (Machin), Viodunum (Isakcha), Istrus (Karaharman), Tropaeum (See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam Klissi), Kallatis (Mangalia), Tomi (Constantza) ; (2) in Moldavia, Dinogetia (Tiglina) ; (3) in Walachia, Drobetae (Turnu Severin), Malva (Celeiu), Castra Nova (Craiova), Romula (Resca), Sorium (Roshiori de Vede), Pelendava (Bradesci), Acidava (Jenuseshti), Rusidava (Dragasani), Castra . Traiana (Ramnicu Valcea), Arutela (Bivolari), Pons Vetus (Caineni), Komidava (Petroasa), Ramidava (Buzeu) .

A great military road encircled the Dobrudja hills and skirted the Bulgarian shore of the Danube . It was linked by a See also:

• FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb " to fare," to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. fahren; it is connected with the root of Gr. 7ropos, way, and Lat. portage, to carry)
• FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832—1893)

ferry at Celeiu to two lesser roads; one striking northwards into Transylvania, up the Olt valley, the other bending westwards until it reached the Jiu, and there diverging southwards to Turnu Severin, and northwards to the See also:

• VULCAN (Volcanos)

Vulcan Pass . The plains near the Olt and Jiu estuaries are See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in Roman remains, notably in the towns of Caracal, Grodjibod and Islaz . Ruins and See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions may be seen at Resca, a See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple at Slaveni, villas and a statue of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192)

Commodus (A.D . 161–92) at Celeiu . All these lie within a See also:

• RADIUS

radius of 6o m . Two ramparts, known as Trajan's wall, can be discerned, one on either side of the railway from Cernavoda to Constantza; and there were See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges over the Danube at Turnu Severin and Turnu Magurele . The Tropaeum Trajani, or Adam Klissi See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument (found near Rassova in the Dobrudja and removed to Bucharest museum), is a round stone structure of too ft. circumference and 40 ft. high, carved in low See also:

• RELIEF

relief with scenes representing Trajan's See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Dacia . (See G . Tocilescu, Das Monument von Adam Klissi, See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1895.) Few monuments were left by the See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian invaders who ravaged Rumania from the 3rd eentury to the 14th See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save some vestiges of See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic culture at Buzeu, and at Petroasa, close by . The celebrated treasure of Petroasa (commonly written Petrossa), preserved in Bucharest museum, consists of embossed and jewelled gold See also:

• PLATE

plate, and probably dates from the 6th century (see PLATE) . See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval tapestries, with ecclesiastical See also:

• VESTMENTS

vestments, ornaments and some See also:

• FINE

fine pieces of early woodwork, are also preserved in Bucharest museum .

The See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to create a national See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture, based on Greek and See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• MODELS

models, began under See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen the Great of Moldavia (1457–1504), lasting until the 17th century, when it wa_ arrested, first by political disorders, and, later, by the commercial development which caused a demand for cheap and rapid building . Its chief accomplishment is the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral of Curtea de Argesh (q.v.) . See also:

• PAINTING

Painting and See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture, like modern Rumanian architecture, are still in their See also:

• INFANCY

infancy . BmI,IOCRAPHY.—A See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the numerous statistical and other See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official publications issued at Bucharest in Rumanian or French is given yearly in Annual statistic al Romaniei . The final results of the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1899 were published by the See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry of agriculture in 1905, with introduction by Dr L . Colescu . See also G . J . Lahovari, Marele dicitonar geografic al Romaniei (vols . 1-5, Bucharest, 1899–1902); A. de See also:

• GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, COUNT (1840– )

Gubernatis, La Roumanie et les Roumains (See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence, 1898) ; E. de Martonne, La Valachie, essai de monographie geographique; J . Samuelson, Rumania, Past and Present (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1882); G . Beuger, Rumania in 1900 (trans. from the German by A .

H . See also:

• KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH (1839– )

Keane (London, 1901)); A . Bellessort, La Roumanie See also:

• CONTE

conte;nporaine (Paris, 1905); L . Colescu, Progres economiques . . . realises sous la regne de Sa Majeste le Roi See also:

• CAROL (O. Fr. carole)

Carol I . (Bucharest, 1907) ; G . D . Creanga, Grundbesitzverteilung and Bauernfrage in Rumanien (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1907) ; C . Baicoianu, Histoire de la politique douaniere de la Roumanie de 1870–1903 (2 vols., Bucharest, 1904) . (X.) HISTORY (I) Introduction.—The earliest See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the lands which constitute the kingdom of Rumania begins with the period immediately preceding their conquest by the Romans .