See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]  , a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, situated to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula,' and on the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea . Pop . (1910, estimate) 6,85o,000; See also:

• AREA

area, about 50,720 sq. m., or about 65oo sq. m. less than the combined areas of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania begins on the seaward See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side with a See also:

• BAND

band of territory called the See also:

• DOBRUDJA (Bulgarian Dobritch, Rumanian Dobrogea)

Dobrudja (q.v.); and broadens westward into the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a blunted See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent, its See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn being called See also:

• MOLDAVIA

Moldavia, its See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• WALACHIA, or WALLAHHIA

Walachia . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—Along the inner edge of this crescent run the Carpathian Mountains, also called, towards their western extremity, the Transylvanian Mountains (q.v.) or Transylvanian See also:

• ALPS

Alps; and the frontier which marks off Rumania from See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn along their crests . The eastern boundary is formed by the See also:

• RIVER

river Pruth (Prutu), between Moldavia and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia; farther south by the See also:

• KILIA

Kilia mouth of the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube (Dunarea), between the Dobrudja and Russia, and by the Black Sea . In the extreme south-east, an irregular See also:

• LINE

line, traced from Ilanlac, to m . S. of See also:

• MANGALIA

Mangalia, on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, as far as the Danube at See also:

• SILISTRIA (Bulgarian Silistra)

Silistria, 85 m. inland, separates the Dobrudja from See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria . Otherwise, the Danube constitutes the whole southern frontier; its right See also:

• BANK

bank being Bulgarian for 290 m., and Servian, in the extreme See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, for 50 M . The Danube (q.v.) enters Rumania through the Verciorova or,Kazan 2 Pass . It here resembles a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, overshadowed by precipitous mountains, which vary from moo to 2000 ft. in height, and are covered by birches and pines . In this neighbourhood the channel contracts to about 116 yds. in width, with a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 30 fathoms .

At the eastern end of the pass are the celebrated See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

Gates, a rapid so named by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, not from the surrounding heights, which here descend gradually to the river, but from the number of submerged rocks in the waterway . As it flows eastward from the frontier, the Danube gains in breadth and See also:

• VOLUME

volume . Islands are frequent; the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks recede and become See also:

• LOWER

lower until, after 5o in., they stand almost level with the See also:

• WATER

water . Henceforward, for 290 m., the Rumanian See also:

• SHORE

shore is a desolate fen-See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, varied only by a few hills, by cities, and by lagoons often 15 m. long . East of See also:

• BUCHAREST (Bucuresci)

Bucharest, a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of lagoons and partially drained marshes stretches inland for 45 M . At Silistria the river bends N.N.E. for no m. with the Dobrudja on its right, and a barren See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, called the Baragan See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

Steppe, on its See also:

• LEFT

left . It here encloses two large swampy. islands, the upper being 57 in., the lower 43 M. long . Both have an See also:

• AVERAGE

average breadth of so m . Beyond See also:

• GALATZ (Galalii)

Galatz, the river again turns eastward, branching out, near See also:

• TULCEA, or TULTCHA

Tulcea, into three See also:

• GREAT

great waterways, which See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind through a See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying alluvial See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta to the sea . The northern See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary is named the Kilia Mouth; the central, the See also:

• SULINA

Sulina; the southern, the St See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George's . Between Verciorova and the Sulina Mouth, the Danube traverses 540 M . Its current is rapid, and supplies the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive t In 1904, in a lecture read before the Rumanian See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Society, M .

A . See also:

• STURDZA, or STURZA

Sturdza showed that Rumania should not be included in the Balkan Peninsula, where it is placed by many writers and cartographers . This view was accepted by the Society, and a copy of the lecture was forwarded to all similar associations in Europe . See A . Sturdza, La Roumanie n'apparttient pas a la peninsula balkan'ique (Bucharest, 1904) . 2 I.e . Cauldron . awc*r m.Ita m See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power for thousands of floating watermills, which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie moored in the shallows . It is fed by many tributaries, which rise in the Carpathians as See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain torrents, growing broad and sluggish as they flow south-eastward through the central Rumanian plain . In Walachia, it is joined by the Jiu (or Schyl) opposite Rahova; by the Olt (See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Aluta) at Turnu Magurele; by the See also:

• UNITED

united streams of the Dimbovitza (Damboviia) and Argesh (Arge.f) at See also:

• OLTENITZA (Oltenita)

Oltenitza; by the Jalomitza (Ialomiia.) opposite Hirsova . The Olt pierces the Carpathians, by way of the Rothenthurm Pass, and forms the boundary of Little (i.e. western) Walachia, or Oltland . The Sereth (Sirelu or Seret.,) flows for about 340 M. from its Transylvanian source through Moldavia, and meets the Danube near Galatz, after receiving the Moldova, Bistritza (Bistrila), Trotosh (Trotocu), Milcovu, Putna, RSmnicd and See also:

• BUZEU

Buzeu on the west; and the See also:

• BERLAD

Berlad (B:Irladu) on the east .

The Milcovu was the former boundary between Walachia and Moldavia . The Pruth rises on the northern limit of Moldavia, forms the eastern frontier for 330 m., and falls into the Danube to m . E. of Galatz . Its See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief Rumanian tributaries are the Basheu (Ba.See also:

• FEU

feu) and Jijia, See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of the north . The Dobrudja (q.v.) or Dobrogea covers about 2900 sq. m. between the Black Sea and the lower reaches of the Danube . Its high crystalline rocks, covered with sedimentary formations, descend abruptly towards the delta, but more gradually towards the south, where the Bulgarian See also:

• STEPPES

steppes encroach upon Rumanian See also:

• SOIL

soil . The few small rivers which drain the hills generally flow seaward, but those of the delta and steppes belong to the Danubian See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The coast is a low-lying region of sandhills, See also:

• MERES, FRANCIS (1565-1647)

meres and marshes with one See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon . 42 M. long, connected by a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short stream with the St George Mouth . Its outlet on the sea is named the Portidje Mouth (See also:

• GURA, EUGEN (1842—1906)

Gura portilii) of the Danube . North of this, the lagoon is called Lake Razim; while its southern See also:

• HALF

half, shut off by three long islands, is the See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

Blue Lake (Sinoe Osero, in Bulgarian) . Apart from the Dobrudja, the whole of Rumania is included in the northern See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the lower Danube .

It consists of a single inclined See also:

• PLANE

plane stretching upwards, with a north-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly direction, from the left bank of the river to the summits of the Carpathians . It is divided into three zones—steppe, See also:

• FOREST

forest and alpine . The first begins beyond the mud-flats and See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed-beds which line the water's edge, and is a vast monotonous See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland, sloping so gently as to seem almost level .. The See also:

• SURFACE

surface is a yellow See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, with patches of See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown or dark See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey, outliers of the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian " black See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . " Cereals, chiefly See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize, with See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green crops and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of gourds, alternate with See also:

• FALLOW

fallow See also:

• LAND

land overgrown by coarse See also:

• GRASSES

grasses, weeds and stunted shrubs . Amongthe scanty trees, willows and poplars are commonest . The second See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone extends over the foothills and lower ridges of the Carpathians . This region, called by Rumans " the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of vines, " is the most fertile portion of the country . In it grow most fruits and See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers which thrive in a temperate See also:

• CLIMATE

climate . Oaks, elms, firs, ashes and beeches are the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal forest trees . The third zone covers the higher mountains on their southern and eastern sides, whose violently contorted strata leave many transverse valleys, though usually inclining laterally towards the south-east . The See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch and See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of this zone give way to See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine forests as the See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude increases; and the pines to mosses, See also:

• LICHENS

lichens and alpine See also:

• PLANTS

plants, just below the jagged iron-grey peaks, many of which attain altitudes of 6000 to 8000 ft .

See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of the Transylvanian Alps consists of sericite See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists and other similar rocks; and these are followed on the south by See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, Cretaceous and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary beds . The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds are See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary marine sediments, but from the Cenomanian to the Oligocene the deposits are of the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar facies known in the Alps and Carpathians as See also:

• FLYSCH

Flysch . Farther north, the Flysch forms practically the whole of the Rumanian flank of the Carpathians . Along the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Carpathians lies a broad trough of See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-bearing beds, and in this trough the strata are sometimes See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal and sometimes strongly folded . Outside the band of Miocene beds the Sarmatian, Pontian and Levantine See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, often concealed by See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary deposits, See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the great See also:

• PART

part of the Danube plain . Even the Pontian beds are sometimes folded . In the Dobrudja crystalline rocks, presumably of ancient date, rise through the Tertiary and See also:

• RECENT

recent deposits and form the hills which lie between the Danube and the Black Sea.' Climate.—The Rumanian climate alternates between extreme See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, when the thermometer may fall to–'2o° See also:

• FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1936)

Fahrenheit and extreme See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat in summer, when it may rise to too° in the shade . Autumn is the mildest See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season; See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring lasts only for a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . Spring at Bucharest has a mean temperature of 53°; summer, i See L . Teisseyre and L . Mrazec, Apergu giologique sur See also:

• LES

les formations saliferes et les gisements de sel en Roumanie, Moniteur See also:

• DES

des intirets petroliferes roumains (1902), pp . 3–51; S .

Stefanescu, Etude sur les terrains tertiaires de Roumanie (1897) ; J . Bergeron, " Observations relatives a la structure de la haute vallee de la Jalomita (Roumanie) et des Carpathes roumaines, " See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . See also:

• SOC

Soc . Geol . See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• SER

ser . 4, vol. iv . (1904), pp . 54–77 . 72.5°; autumn, 65°; winter, 27.5° For about 155 days in each See also:

• YEAR

year, Rumania suffers from the See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter north-east wind (trivets) which sweeps over south Russia; while a scorching west or south-west wind (austru) blows for about 126 days . Little See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow falls in the plains, but among the mountains it may lie for five months . The frosts are severe, the Danube being often icebound for three months . The rainfall, which is heaviest in summer, averages about 15–20 in .

See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—In its fauna, Walachia has far more See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity to the lands lying south of the Danube than to Transylvania, although several See also:

• SPECIES

species of Claudilia, once regarded as exclusively Transylvanian, are found south of the Carpathians . Moldavia and the Baragan Steppe resemble the Russian prairies in their variety of molluscs and the lower kinds of mammals . Over 40 species of See also:

• FRESHWATER

freshwater mussels (Unionidae) have been observed in the Rumanian rivers . The lakes of the Dobrudja likewise abound in molluscs; See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent forms, in many cases, of species which reappear, greatly modified, in the Black Sea . See also:

• INSECT

Insect See also:

• LIFE

life is somewhat less remarkable; but besides a distinctive genus of See also:

• ORTHOPTERA (Gr. Op®os, straight, and rTepov, a wing)

Orthoptera (Jaquetia See also:

• HOSPODAR

Hospodar), there are several kinds of weevils (Curculionidae) said to be peculiar to Rumania . Birds are very numerous, including no fewer than 4 varieties of crows, 5 of warblers, 7 of woodpeckers, 8 of buntings, 4 of falcons, and 5 of eagles; while among the hosts of waterfowl which See also:

• PEOPLE

people the marshes of the Danube are 9 varieties of ducks, and 4 of rails . See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

Roe-See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, foxes and wolves find shelter in the forests, where bears are not uncommon; and See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois frequent the loftiest and most inaccessible peaks . Minerals.—The See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of Rumania lies chiefly in the mountains . See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

Petroleum, salt, See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite and brown See also:

• COAL

coal are largely worked . Deposits of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-salt, a valuable See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly, stretch from the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of Suceava in northern Moldavia to that of Gorjiu in Walachia, and are See also:

• MINED

mined in the departments of See also:

• BACAU

Bacau, Prahova and Ramnicti Sarat . The presence of petroleum, indicated by many ancient workings in the shape of shallow See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-dug See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells, can be traced continuously at the foot of the Transylvanian Alps, from Turnu Severin into See also:

• BUKOVINA

Bukovina . Rumans claim for their product a higher percentage of pure oil than is found in the See also:

• AMERICAN

American, Galician and Caucasian wells; and, although American competition nearly destroyed this See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry between 1873 and 1895, improved methods and legislation favouring the introduction of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital enabled it to recover .

At the beginning of the loth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the Rumanian petroleum deposits were among the most important in the See also:

• WORLD

world . The industry is carried on by private producers as well as by the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, the American See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

Standard Oil See also:

• COMPANY

Company being largely interested . The See also:

• TOTAL

total output, coming chiefly from the departments of Bacau, Buzeu, Dimbovitza and Prahova, was 250,000 metric tons in 1900, 615,000 in 1905, and 1,300,000 in 1909 . Associated with petroleum is See also:

• OZOKERITE, or OZOCERITE (Gr. 6~ ew, to emit odour, and iccpos, wax)

ozokerite, converted by the peasantry into candles . Lignite is used as See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel on the See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways . The chief See also:

• ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpaE, coal)

anthracite beds, those in the Gorjiu department, are leased until 1975 to an See also:

• ENGLISH

English capitalist, who has the right to construct railways . Extensive coalfields exist in the Dobrudja, and the Dimbovitza, Mehedintzi, Muscel, Prahova and Valcea departments . Iron, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury, See also:

• CINNABAR (Ger. Zinnober)

cinnabar, See also:

• COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59)

cobalt, See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur, See also:

• ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0)

arsenic and See also:

• CHINA

china clay also occur . Among the mountains, See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold was perhaps worked under See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan, who first appointed a See also:

• PROCURATOR (Lat. procurare, to take care of)

Procurator Metallorum, or overseer of mines, for See also:

• DACIA

Dacia; certainly in the 14th century, when immigrant Saxon miners established a considerable See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade with See also:

• RAGUSA
• RAGUSA (Serbo-Croatian Dubrovnik)

Ragusa, in See also:

• DALMATIA (Ger. Dalmatien; Ital. Dalmazia; Serbo-Croatian, Dalmacija)

Dalmatia . Under the Turks, gold-washing was carried on by gipsy slaves, but it has long been abandoned as unprofitable . Until 1896 See also:

• BUILDING

building materials were chiefly imported; but, after that year, many quarries were opened to develop the native resources of See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine, red, yellow and green See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, and See also:

• MARBLES

marbles of all See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, including the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble from Dorna in Suceava, said by Rumans to See also:

• RIVAL

rival that of See also:

• CARRARA
• CARRARA, or CARRARESI

Carrara in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . Clear See also:

• AMBER

amber is found beside the Buzeu and its affluents, with brown and grey clouded amber, and a blue fluorescent variety, of considerable value .

Rumania has long been noted for its mineral springs . Ruins of a See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath exist near Curtea de Argesh . In the Valcea department, besides many other See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

iodine, sulphur and mud See also:

• BATHS

baths, there are the state-supported spas of Calimanescil, Caciulata and Govora, situated among some of the finest Carpathian scenery . Most famous of all is See also:

• SINAIA

Sinaia (q.v.), the summer See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

Court; while important springs exist at Lake Sarat, near See also:

• BRAILA (in Rumanian Braila, formerly IBRAILA)

Braila; at Slanic, in the Prahova department, where flooded and abandoned salt-mines are fitted up as baths; at the Tekir Ghiol See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere, near See also:

• CONSTANTZA (Constanta)

Constantza; and at Baltzatesti (Bal4atetii), in the See also:

• NEAMTZU (Neamlu)

Neamtzu (Neamfu) department, a favourite resort of invalids from many parts of eastern Europe . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—That, in 1900, Rumania ranked third? after the United States and Russia, among the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain-growing countries of the world, is due partly to the fertile soil, whose chemical constituents are the same as in the " black earth " region of Russia, though even IThe relative Importance of Rumania was afterwards lessened by the development of See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat-culture in See also:

• CANADA

Canada, See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina and elsewhere.richer in nitrates; partly also to the improved methods and appliances introduced in the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th century . The frail wooden ploughs with a See also:

• LANCE

lance-headed See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share that only scratched the surface soil, were then superseded by iron ploughs; See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam threshers replaced the oxen which trod out the See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, and See also:

• MODERN

modern implements were widely adopted . Vast harvests of wheat and maize ripen on the plains and lower hills . Apart from cereals, the principal crops are beans, potatoes, beetroot and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco . Among the See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine-producing countries of Europe, Rumania stood fifth in 1900, despite the ravages of See also:

• PHYLLOXERA (Gr. 4suXXov, leaf, and Erlpbs, dry)

phylloxera, old-fashioned culture, lack of storage and other drawbacks . The red wines of Moldavia, especially the See also:

• BRAND, JOHN (1744-1806)
• BRAND, SIR JOHN HENRY (1823-1888)

brand known as Piscul Cerbului, resemble See also:

• BORDEAUX

Bordeaux . The best white wines came from Cotnar in the See also:

• JASSY (Iafit)

Jassy department, but here phylloxera ruined the vineyards . See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Cotnar was akin to Tokay .

To combat the phylloxera, the government ordered the destruction of all infected vines, distributed immune American See also:

• STOCKS

stocks and established See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of viticulture . On the upland See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit farms, although apples, See also:

• PEARS

pears, medlars, cherries, plums, peaches, apricots and melons thrive, the chief See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention is given to damsons, from which is extracted a mild spirit (tsuica), highly esteemed throughout Rumania . This industry began to decline after 1860, but revived with the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of government schools of fruit-culture in many villages . Further instruction was given at various horticultural institutes in the towns, notably the Botanic Gardens and See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute of Bucharest, where the experiments in planting See also:

• FIGS

figs, almonds, hops and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton yielded favourable results . Tobacco is largely cultivated, under state supervision . There are three breeds of Rumanian oxen, besides the peculiar black buffaloes, with horns lying almost See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat along their necks . Cheap transit enables the Rumanian farmers to compete success-fully in the See also:

• MEAT

meat-markets of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland . The southern Dobrudja and the Baragan Steppe, with the mountain pastures of Argeh, Buzeu, Dimbovitza, Muscel and Prahova, are occupied by large See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep-runs; 1200 farms were created in the Baragan by the Land See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of 1889 . In winter the flocks are driven from the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands to the plains . Cheeses of See also:

• EWE

ewe's See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, packed in sheepskins or bark, are in great demand . See also:

• SWINE

Swine and pork are largely exported to Russia and Austria-Hungary . Besides the Moldavian and Servian breeds, thousands of so-called " swamp hogs " run See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild among the marshes and on the islands of the Danube .

Silkworm-rearing, once an important See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household industry, had been almost abandoned, when, in 1891, the government established mulberry nurseries, and distributed silkworms See also:

• FREE

free of. See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge . Silkworm-rearing is taught in the monasteries and agricultural schools, especially in the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Agriculture and Sylviculture, at Ferestrlu, near Bucharest . Similar See also:

• MEASURES

measures were adopted to check the decline of See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-keeping, and a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model apiary was founded in 1890, under government See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control . Forests.—The forests of Rumania were long either neglected or exploited in the most reckless See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . Large tracts of woodland were cleared near the railways, and the communal rights of grazing and gathering firewood destroyed the aftergrowths . Nevertheless, in 1910 there were 2,760,000 acres under forests, chiefly in the mountains of north-western Moldavia . More than 1,000,000 acres are state See also:

• PROPERTY

property . Under See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles, an ardent forester, the wholesale destruction of See also:

• TIMBER

timber was arrested, and new plantations met with success . See also:

• LUMBER

Lumber is floated down the rivers of the Carpathian See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed to the Danube, and so exported to See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey and Bulgaria; casks, shaped planks and petroleum drums go chiefly to Austria and Russia . See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood-See also:

• CARVING

carving is taught in many schools, and a See also:

• SPECIAL

special school of forestry exists at Branesci in the Ilfav department . Estates in private hands are liable to state control, under the Forests Act of 1886 . Land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

Tenure.—The Rumanian system of land tenure See also:

• DATES

dates from 1864, when most of the land was held in large estates, owned privately, or by the state or by monasteries .

There was also a small class of See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant proprietors, called mocheneni in Walachia, risechi in Moldavia, living and working in See also:

• FAMILY

family communities; but the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the peasantry cultivated the lands of the large proprietors, giving a certain number of days' See also:

• WORK

work to their manorial See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, in addition to a tithe of the raw produce . They received in return a See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot of ground proportionate to the number of animals they owned, and had also rights of grazing and of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting fuel in the forests . In 1864, under the government of See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• CUZA (or CouzA), ALEXANDER JOHN [Alexandru Joan] (1820-1873)

Cuza, a new See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law was promulgated, conferring on each peasant family See also:

• FREEHOLD

freehold property in lots varying from 71 to 15 acres, according to the number of oxen that they owned . The See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man with no See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle received the minimum; the owner of 2 oxen got to acres, and the possessor of 4 received 121 to 15 acres . The See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of the land, which was calculated on the basis of the value of the forced labour to which the landlord had been entitled, was about Li, 16s. per See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

acre, paid to the landlord by the state as See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation, and subsequently recovered from the peasants in fifteen See also:

• ANNUAL

annual instalments . In the first See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution, which took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place almost immediately after the law was passed, 280,000 families in Walachia and about 127,000 in Moldavia became freeholders, holding nearly 4 million acres or one-third of the cultivated area of the country . These peasant plots were all declared inalienable for See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years . The law of emancipation, although passed with the best of motives, did not to any great extent benefit the peasantry . The limited See also:

• SIZE

size of their farms, and the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for buying wood and paying for pasturage, both of which were formerly free, prevented them from obtaining See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the large proprietors, on whose estates they still had to work for See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment in See also:

• MONEY

money or See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, while their improvidence soon got them into the hands of Jewish money-lenders, who, fortunately for the peasants, were by law unable to become proprietors of the soil . In 1866 and 1872 See also:

• LAWS

laws were passed for still further improving the position of these small proprietors; and in 1879 a measure was carried for allotting lands to 48,000 recently married couples, and for restoring to many peasant families lands which had been alienated . By the Land Act of 1889, the state domains, amounting to nearly one-third of the total area of Rumania (originally the property of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church and the convents, confiscated by Prince Cuza in 1866), were distributed among the peasantry . The land was divided into lots of 121, 25 and 371 acres .

Peasants having no land might See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase the smaller lots on very easy terms . Those who already held less than 122 acres might purchase up to that amount . When a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of residence became necessary to enable the peasant to take up the new See also:

• ALLOTMENT (from O. Fr. a and toter, to divide by lot)

allotment, the state advanced £6 to each family to defray expenses . The price to be paid for the land differed in different districts, and was to be paid to the state in small annual instalments . If any land remained after satisfying the wants of the peasants, it was to be sold by public See also:

• AUCTION

auction in lots of 50 to 621 acres . All lots in both cases were declared inalienable for thirty years . The See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of the larger lots gave rise to so many abuses that in 1896 a law was passed abolishing their further sale . As a result of these measures the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of Rumans are peasant proprietors; but the smallness of the holdings renders scientific farming difficult except by co-operation, and many proprietors can only live by work