SAHARA  , the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• DESERT

desert of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . The Sahara are connected with the See also:

• LOWER

lower ranges of See also:

• BORKU, or BORGU

Borku and Ennedi, which has an See also:

• AREA

area, according to Dr A . Bludau's calculation of the areas See also:

• MERGE

merge into the plains of See also:

• WADAI

Wadai and See also:

• DARFUR

Darfur . The slopes are See also:

• BARE

bare and rocky . By some authorities the Tasili of the Asjer, the Tummo, of See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• RIVER

river basins, of 3,459,500 sq. m., made up as follows: See also:

• TIBESTI

Tibesti and Borku ranges are considered " the orographic backbone " Sq. m. of the Sahara . Drainage or slope to See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic . . 131,000 In addition to the plateaus and ranges named, there are several Drainage or slope to Mediterranean . 502,000 disconnected See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain masses . Midway between the Atakor-'n- Drainage inland . . 2,602,500 Ahaggar and See also:

• NIGERIA

Nigeria are the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

Air or Asben hills in which Dr Erwin Slope to See also:

• NIGER
• NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS

Niger See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin . 224,000 von Bary discovered (1877) the distinct volcanic See also:

• CRATER

crater of Teginjir with a vast See also:

• LAVA

lava-See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed down its eastern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . By some writers Air See also:

• TOTAL

Total .

3,459,500 (q.v.) is not included in the Sahara, as it lies within the limit of the This includes See also:

• TRIPOLI
• TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West)
• TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis)

Tripoli and See also:

• FEZZAN (the ancient Phazania, or country of the Garamantes)

Fezzan, which practically belong to tropical rains; but the districts farther See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south have all the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character-the desert See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone, but does not include arid portions of the basins istics of the desert . See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West of Air, and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the See also:

• BEND

bend of the of the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile and Niger, in which the drainage is at most inter- Niger, lies the hilly region sometimes known as See also:

• ADRAR (Berber for "uplands ")

Adrar of the floras mittent, and which might with See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason be included in the Sahara. or of the Awellimiden (the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern confederacy of the See also:

• TUAREG, or TAWAREK (more properly Tawarik, the collective form of tarki, from Arabic terek, to give up)

Tuareg) . To the N.E., in FEZZAN (q.v.), are the dark mountains of See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel-es- The area would thus be brought up to at least 3i million sq. in., Soda, which are continued S.E. towards Kufra by the similar range about the area of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe minus the Scandinavian See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula. of the Harui; and in the extreme S.W., at no great distance from the The See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical limits of this region are in some directions marked Atlantic, is the hilly See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of the western Adrar (q.v.) . with great precision, as in parts of See also:

• MOROCCO

Morocco and See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria, where Nearly all the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the Sahara consists in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main of undulating surfaces of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock (distinguished as hammada), vast tracts of See also:

• WATER

water- the southern edge of the See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas range looks out on what worn pebbles (serir) and regions of sandy See also:

• DUNES

dunes (variously called Area and has almost the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of a boundless See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, and ma hter, erg or are , i idi, and in the east rhart , which occupy 8 % & g ) py about See also:

• MSS

mss, forms, as it were, a bold See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-See also:

• LINE

line, whose sheltered bays one-ninth or one-tenth of the total area . The following is the and commanding promontories are occupied by a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of the dunes: — From a point on the Atlantic coast south of Cape Blanco a broad of towns and villages—Tizgi, Figuig, El Aghuat, &c . In other See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt extends N.E. for about 1300 m., with a breadth varying from directions the boundaries are vague, conventional and disputed . 50 to 300 M . This is usually called the Igidi or Gidi, See also:

• SANA (Send'a)

sana This is especially the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case towards the south, where the desert from the See also:

• BERBER

Berber word for dunes . In See also:

• PART

part it runs parallel dunes- . sometimes comes to a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close as suddenly as if it had been cut off with the Atlas mountains . Eastward it is continued, with a See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife, but at other times merges gradually and irregularly separated sprby a Algeria and See also:

• TUNISIA (Regency of Tunis)

Tunisia, narrow valley a at t the Golea . Western South o and Eastern Erg; th of the Eastern Erg into the well-watered and fertile lands of the See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan .

While (which extends as far north as the neighbourhood of the Gulf of towards the east the valley of the Nile at first sight seems to See also:

• GABES

Gabes) the continuity of the sandy See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract is completely broken by afford a natural frontier, the characteristics of what is usually the Hammada al-Homra (or Red Rock See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

Plateau), but to the south of called the Nubian desert are so identical in most respects with extend region to gion See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie Murzuthek in dunes Fezzan . South which, h, the with slight hammada of Murzuk intofrthose of the Sahara proper that some authorities extend this the dunes of Murzuk stretch south-east . This series of tracts may designation to the shores of the Red Sea . The desert, indeed, be called the northern zone of the Sahara; it forms a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow, does not end with Africa, but is prolonged eastwards through with its extremities respectively at the Atlantic and the Libyan See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia towards the desert of See also:

• SIND

Sind . As the Nubian region is desert and its See also:

• APEX

apex in the south of Tunisia . In the south are the Juf (depressions), covering a vast area to the south-east of the described under SUDAN: § Anglo-See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian, the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is See also:

• MIDDLE

middle portion of the Igidi, another area between the Adghagh confined to the country west of the Nile Valley, the Libyan plateau and the Ahaggar, and a third between Air and Tibesti. desert inclusive . Its greatest length, along the loth parallel of The Juf or depressions are not, except in rare instances, below sea- level . In the Libyan desert is a vast region of dunes of unascertained north See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, is some 3200 m.; its breadth north to south varies limits; the characteristics of the Libyan desert being thought typical from Boo to 1400 M. of the whole of the Sahara originated the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of " a sea of shifting The sea-like aspect of certain portions of the Sahara has given See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand " as descriptive of the entire desert . Here a region of over rise to much popular misconception, and has even affected the 500,000 sq. in. extending east from the Tibesti mountains to the ideas and phraseology of scientific writers . Instead of valley of the Nile, bounded south by Wadai and Darfur and north (letters, being a boundless See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain broken only by See also:

• WAVE

wave-like and d Fezzan and e increasingl t covered bY 1CduneseaTherre is onlY n one know sroute aspect . mounds of sand hardly more See also:

• STABLE

stable than the waves through this dreadful See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness—one See also:

• RUNNING

running "north and south of ocean, the Sahara is a region of the most varied See also:

• SURFACE

surface to the oases of Kufra, which lie in its centre." The dunes in the and irregular See also:

• RELIEF

relief, ranging from 100 ft. below to Libyan desert, so far as is known, run N.N.W. and S.S.E . In .the 5000 and Eastern Erg the dunes also lie in See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long lines in a N.N.W. and S.S.E .

6000 and even in isolated instances to 8000 ft. above the sea- direction, presenting a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual slope to windward and an abrupt level, and, besides sand-dunes and oases, containing rocky descent to leeward . There they are generally about 6o or 70 ft. plateaus, vast tracts of loose stones and pebbles, ranges of the high, but in other parts of the Sahara they are said to attain a height most dissimilar types, and valleys through which abundant Under s of unwardh of 300 ft: the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind the surface of the dunes is subject watercourses must once have flowed. to continual See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, but in the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass they have attained such a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state In the centre of the Sahara is a vast mountain region known as of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium that their topographic distribution may the Ahaggar (Hoggar) Tasili or plateau . The culminating peaks be considered as permanent, and some of them, such as See also:

• GERA

Gera (See also:

• PEAK, THE

Peak) of this plateau, Mounts Watellen and Hikena, are about 900 in. in al-Shuf and Gern Abd-al-Kader, to the south of Golea, have names a straight line almost due S. of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands)

Algiers and about 1200 M. of their own . The popular stories about caravans and armies being due N. of the mouth of the Niger . They also occupy, speaking engulfed in the moving sands are regarded as apocryphal (See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save roughly, a central position between the Atlantic and the Nile. perhaps in some instances in the Libyan desert), but there is abundant See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence against the theory of M . Vatonne as to the dunes having been formed in situ . Although now mainly waterless, the Sahara possesses the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton of s See also:

• REGULAR

regular river-See also:

• SYSTEM

system . From the north side of the Atakor-'n-SkeJeion Ahaggar, through which runs the " water-parting" river- 'between the basins of the Mediterranean and Atlantic, system. begins See also:

• WADI

Wadi Igharghar, which, runping northwards between the Tasili plateau and the Irawen mountains, appears to lose itself in the sands of the Eastern Erg, but can be traced northwards for hundreds of See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles . Its bed contains rolled fragments of lava and See also:

• FRESHWATER

freshwater shells (Cyrena and Planorbis) . In a line almost parallel to Wadi Igharghar, Wadi Mya descends from the plateau of Tademayt, and' shows the importance of its See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient current by deep erosion of the Cretaceous rocks, in which a large number of See also:

• LEFT

left-See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand tributaries have also left their See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark . The streams flowing south from the Atlas, which seem to be absorbed in the sands of the desert, evidently find a. series of underground reservoirs or basins capable of being tapped by artesian See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells over very extensive areas . As See also:

• OLYMPIODORUS

Olympiodorus (quoted by See also:

• PHOTIUS
• PHOTIUS (c. 82o-891)

Photius) mentions that the inhabitants of the Sahara used to make excavations from See also:

• IOO

ioo to 120 ft. deep, out of which jets of pure water See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in columns, it is clear that this state of matters is (historically) of ancient date .

Since 1856 See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers have carried on a series of borings which have resulted in the fertilizing of extensive tracts . In Wadi Righ (otherwise Rhir), which runs for 8o m. towards the south-west of the Shat Melrir (See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, Algeria), the water-bearing stratum is among permeable sands, which are covered to a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 200 ft. by impermeable marls, by which the water is kept under pressure . In this valley many artesian wells have been sunk by the French . Connexions probably exist with subterranean water-supplies in the mountains to the north . That the water in the artesian reservoirs is kept aerated is shown by the existence below ground of fishes, crabs and freshwater molluscs, all of which were ejected by the well called Mezer in Wadi Righ . Further west the Wadis Zusfana and Ghir unite to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the Saura, known in See also:

• TUAT

Tuat as the Messaud . These See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers still carry water as far as the northern part of Tuat; thence the course of the Messaud was, apparently, S.W. to the eastern Juf . There are also well-marked river-beds in the central Sahara . The Wadi Telemsi, rising in Adrar, of the Iforas, apparently joined the Niger nearGao, while the Wadi Taffassassent, which rose in the Ahaggar mountains, is believed to have been the ancient upper course of the lower Niger . The oases are also proofs of the presence of a steady See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of underground moisture, for vegetation under the Saharan See also:

• CLIMATE

climate (beyond the few See also:

• PLANTS

plants specially adapted to desert conditions) is exceptionally thirsty . The existence of these wadis or river-beds is a See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the cause of the desert nature of the country . In all parts of the Sahara there is evidence of denudation carried Dene out on a See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of unusual magnitude .

The present surface of the desert has been exposed to the protracted See also:

• WEAR

wear and See also:

• TEAR

tear of the elements . But to determine the exact method by which the elements have done their See also:

• WORK

work has hitherto proved beyond the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science . The theory of submarine denudation was accepted by many scientists of the See also:

• MID

mid-Victorian era . The sand-dunes, the See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt efflorescence and deposits, and the See also:

• LOCAL

local occurrence of certain See also:

• MODERN

modern marine molluscs all go to help the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of a diluvial sea . Nor is evidence lacking that in cretaceous times portions of the Sahara were covered by the sea . See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel P . L . See also:

• MONTEIL, AMANS ALEXIS (1769–1850)

Monteil brought See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home (1892) a fossil sea-urchin from See also:

• BILMA, or KAWAR

Bilma . In 1902 at Tamaske, some 250 m . W. of See also:

• ZINDER

Zinder, and a little north of See also:

• SOKOTO

Sokoto, a See also:

• NAUTILUS

nautilus and four sea-urchins (fossils) were found by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain Gaden in a See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone bed . Similar fossils occur in the, region between Zinder and Air, and others of the same See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age have been found near See also:

• DAKAR

Dakar . Basing his conclusions on these and other facts, de See also:

• LAPPARENT, ALBERT AUGUSTE COCHON DE (1839–19o8)

Lapparent held that an See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the sea extended inland from the Atlantic to the eastern Sahara .

This sea was bounded on the north and east by the mountains of Air, Ahaggar, the Asjer Tasili, &c . An extensive acquaintance with Saharan characteristics shows, however, that a sea for the Sahara as a whole is impossible . See also:

• HENRI

Henri See also:

• SCHIRMER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1802—1866)
• SCHIRMER, JOHANN WILHELM (1807-1865)

Schirmer, who in 1893 published an admirable See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of Saharan See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography up to that date, argued that the desert nature of the Sahara is due to forces which have been at work for ages, although, as in all deserts, the dryness is probably progressively increasing . The See also:

• PRIMARY

primary cause is to be sought in the existing distribution of See also:

• LAND

land and sea, the great land mass of North Africa causin an outflow of air in all directions (and consequent See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain) in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, and an in-See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught in summer, when the surface is intensely heated and the relative humidity of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere becomes so small that condensation is all but impossible . The vicinity of the comparatively cool Mediterranean in the north accentuates the f"orce of the winds from that direction, which, blowing towards a lower latitude, are in their very nature dry winds . The influence of mountain ranges, such as the Atlas, See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the border of the desert, is thus but a sub-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate cause of the latter's dryness, which would probably be little diminished did the Atlas not exist . This dryness reacts again on the temperature conditions of the Sahara, accentuating both the daily and See also:

• ANNUAL

annual variation . The intense See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day is compensated by the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold of the nights, so that the mean annual temperature is not excessive . The difference between the mean temperature ofthe hottest and coldest See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month Ms been found to be as high as 45° F., and the extreme range at least 90° F., See also:

• MAXIMA

maxima of I12 and over having been frequently observed . As a result of the extreme dryness of the air, evaporation is excessive, and, being greater than the precipitation, involves a progressive See also:

• DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up)

desiccation of the Sahara .. The surface of the rocks, heated by the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and suddenly chilled by rapid See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation at See also:

• NIGHT

night, gets fractured and crumbled; elsewhere the cliffs have been scored and the sand thus formed is at once turned by the wind into an active See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of See also:

• ABRASION (from Lat. ab, off, and radere, to scrape)

abrasion. in many places it has planed the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat rocks of the hammada as smooth as See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice . Elsewhere it has scored the See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical faces of the cliffs with curious imitations of glacial striation, and helped to undercut the See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar or table-like eminences—remains of former more extensive plateaus—which, under the name gur, are among the most See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar products of Saharan erosion .

The softer See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz rocks of the See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary and Cretaceous series have been made to yield the sand which, drifted and sifted by the winds, has taken on the form of dunes . The slighest See also:

• BREEZE

breeze is enough to make the. surface ":See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke " with dust; and at times the weird singing of the sands, waxing louder and louder, tells the scientific traveller that the See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion is not See also:

• CON

con-fined to the superficial particles . The dry wind of the Sahara is known in southern Europe as the See also:

• SIROCCO

Sirocco . It brings with it clouds of See also:

• FINE

fine red dust, as noted long since by See also:

• IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154]

Idrisi, the Arabian geographer . Dr See also:

• THEOBALD, (d. 1161)
• THEOBALD, LEWIS (1688-1744)

Theobald See also:

• FISCHER
• FISCHER, EMIL (1852– )
• FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824–1907)

Fischer and Dr Oscar See also:

• FRAAS, KARL NIKOLAS

Fraas agree in believing that the desiccation has markedly increased in historic times . Evidence derived from ancient monuments combined with the statements of See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus and See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny are held to prove that the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant, the See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros, and the See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile existed in North African regions where the environment is now utterly See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien, and on the other hand that the See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel is a See also:

• LATE

late introduction . Any See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to improve the See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic conditions of the Sahara as a whole can hardly meet with success when the causes of its desiccation are considered . Much may, however, be done to modify local conditions, and fairly satisfactory results have been obtained in the direction of fixing the dunes and covering them with a growth of vegetation . Experiments carried out by the French at See also:

• AIN

Ain Sefra, on the northern border of the desert, have shown that by protecting the sand from the See also:

• ACTION

action of the wind by a See also:

• LITTER (through O. Fr. litere or litiere, mod. litiere from Med. Lat. lectaria, classical lectica, lectus, bed, couch)

litter of alfa grass, See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time is given for the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of suitable trees, which include the See also:

• TAMARISK

tamarisk, See also:

• ACACIA

acacia, See also:

• EUCALYPTUS

eucalyptus, prickly See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach and See also:

• ASPEN

aspen See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, the last-named having proved the most capable of all of resisting the desert conditions . Such planting operations can only be carried out in favourable localities, such as' valleys in which a certain amount of water is available . Wide areas like the arid stony plateaus (hammada) must be abandoned as hopeless . As already stated, the popular conception of the Sahara as a sand desert is erroneous .

It is really a stony, wind-swept See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste with much bare rock visible, the actual area of pure sand fleolo forming a relatively small portion . A broad belt of gical Archaean rocks extends throughout the desert, appearing structure' at intervals in the form of hills and plateaus from beneath the superficial sands and Quaternary deposits Examples are the See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite of Air and the See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and See also:

• MICA

mica-See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists of this See also:

• MASSIF

massif and of the Ahaggar plateau . Flanking this zone are immense tracts occupied by rocks of Devonian and Carboniferous ages, from which characteristic marine fossils have been obtained at the springs of El Hassi and between See also:

• WAD

Wad Draa and the dunes of Igidi . Productus See also:

• AFRICANUS, SEXTUS JULIUS

africanus is a See also:

• COMMON

common fossil of the Carboniferous rocks . At the close of the Carboniferous See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period it has been generally considered that the southern and central Sahara became dry land and has remained so up to the present day . Marine fossils of Cretaceous age have, however, been found within See also:

• RECENT

recent years in the central ;regions; while See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene echinoids have been obtained near Sokoto (Geol . Mag., 1904) . During Lower Cretaceous times the Mediterranean covered the Algerian and Tripolitan Sahara and the northern portion of the eastern desert; the extensive development of the Cretaceous system being, one of the most striking features of Saharan See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

geology . At,the close of the Cretaceous period the Tripolitan Sahara completely emerged,' but parts of the Tunisian and Algerian Sahara seem to have remained below sea-level until the end of the Lower Eocene . Only on the extreme See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the desert, however, do See also:

• TERTIARY

tertiary formations See also:

• PLAY

play any prominent part . During the Quaternary, period the Sahara possessed a moister climate than the present . This is shown by the numerous water-cut valleys, now dry, and by the remains of See also:

• HIPPOPOTAMUS (" river-horse," Gr. lames, horse and aoraµbs, river)

hippopotamus in the Quaternary deposits .

The idea so long held that the Sahara represented the recently dried-up bed of an See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the Mediterranean has been disproved by the investigations of French geologists . The sand is mainly derived from the wide expanse of Cretaceous sandstones, which become rapidly disintegrated by the contraction caused by the wide range of temperature between day and night . The loose sands of the Quaternary deposits also furnish abundant material . The true dune sand is remarkable for the uniformity of its See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition and the geometrical regularity of its grains, which measure less than •03937 in . While individually these appear transparent or reddish yellow (from the presence of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron), they have in the mass a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• GOLDEN

golden See also:

• HUE

hue . According to Tissandier See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal organisms, such as the microscopic shells of See also:

• RHIZOPODA

Rhizopoda, abundant in sea-sand, are strikingly absent: Botanically the Sahara is the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-ground of representatives of the " Mediterranean " and the " Tropical " floras which have accommodated themselves to the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar climatic conditions . The line of demarcation between the two floral areas, almost coinciding in the west with the Tropic of See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

Cancer and in the east Botanyand bdipping y far the greater portion of the area to " Mediterranean ne assigns See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

Zoology. infuences . Uniformity, in spite of See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude and See also:

• SOIL

soil, is a general characteristic of the vegetation, which outside of the oases consists mainly of plants with a tufty, dry, stiff See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of growth . The oases are the See also:

• SPECIAL

special home of the date-See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm, of which there are about 4,000,000 in the Algerian oases alone . In See also:

• COMPANY

company with this See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, without which See also:

• LIFE

life in the Sahara would be practically impossible, are grown apples, peaches, oranges, citrons, See also:

• FIGS

figs, grapes, pomegranates, &c . From See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and other northern See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain crops are successfully cultivated, and in the hotter See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, dukhn, See also:

• DURRA
• DURRA (also written dourah, dhura, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, hence a grain of corn)

durra and other tropical products . Altogether the oasal See also:

• FLORA

flora has considerable variety; See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-nine See also:

• SPECIES

species are known from the Kufra See also:

• GROUP

group, See also:

• FORTY

forty-eight from the Aujila group .

Zoologically the Sahara is also partly Mediterranean, partly Tropical . Apart from the domestic animals (camels, asses, &c., and very noticeably a See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black breed of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle in Adrar), the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of fifteen mammals comprises the See also:

• JERBOA

jerboa, the fennek or See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, the See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal, the sand See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat (Psammomys obesus), the See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare, the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

ass and three species of See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope . In Borku, Air, &c., baboons, hyaenas and mountain See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep are not uncommon . Without counting migratory visitants, about eighty species of birds have been registered—the See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich, the Certhilauda deserti or desert-See also:

• LARK (0. Eng. ldwerce, Ger. Lerche, Dan. Laerke, Dutch Leeuwerik)

lark (which often surprises the traveller with its See also:

• SONG

song), Emberiza Saharae, three species of Dromolea, &c . Tortoises, lizards, chameleons, geckos, skinks, &c. of fifteen different species were collected by the single See also:

• ROHLFS, FRIEDRICH GERHARD (1831—1896)

Rohlfs expedition of 1873–1874; the serpents comprise the horned See also:

• VIPER

viper, Psammophis sibilans, Coelopeltis lacertina, the See also:

• PYTHON

python and several other species . The edible See also:

• FROG

frog also occurs . Cyprinodon dispar, a See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish not unlike Cyprinodon calaritanus, is found In all the brackish See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of north Sahara and swarms in the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake of the See also:

• SIWA

Siwa See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief centres of See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population in the Sahara are, firstly, the oases, which occupy positions where the underground water makes its way to the surface or is readily reached by See also:

• TEES

tees See also:

• BORING

boring; and, secondly, certain mountainous districts of popula- tion. where the atmospheric moisture is condensed,'and a moderate rainfall is the result . Except in the south of Algeria, where cultivation has been extended by means of artesian wells, the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the Sahara oases is far from prosperous . See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

Prior to the French occupation, a feeling of in-See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security had been engendered by the marauding habits of the See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad tribes; cultivation had become more restricted; and the decline of the See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade had brought ruin to certain centres, such as Murzuk . The most important are the oases of the Tuat region, especially Insalah; those of See also:

• GHAT, or RHAT

Ghat and See also:

• GHADAMES, GADAMES

Ghadames on the route from Tripoli to See also:

• TINDER (O. Eng. tyndre, from tindan, tendan, to kindle, cf. Dan. tonder, Ger. anzunden)

Tinder; and of Kufra, in eastern Sahara (see TUAT and Tx1Ponr) . The various confederations of the Tuareg, in the central Sahara, are grouped round hilly districts .

The most important are the Awellimiden, on the left See also:

• BANK

bank of the Middle Niger; and the Kel-Ui, grouped around the mountainous districts of Air or Asben; the two northern con-federations, those of the Ahaggar and Asjer, being less powerful . Much See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information respecting the Awellimiden See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

confederation was obtained during the voyage down the Niger, in 1896, of See also:

• LIEUTENANT

Lieutenant Hourst of the French See also:

• NAVY

Navy, who was much struck with its powerful organization under the chief Madidu . North-west of See also:

• TIMBUKTU (French spelling Tombouctou)

Timbuktu in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district or " See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom " of Biru is the oasis and See also:

• TOWN

town of Walata, a Tuareg See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement . Other mountainous districts in which a certain amount of rain falls regularly, and which contain a population above the See also:

• AVERAGE

average for the Sahara, are Tibesti and Borku, in the east centre, and Adrar in the west . Tibesti and Borku are peopled by Tibbus; the western Adrar by See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors (See also:

• BERBERS

Berbers) . The northern portions of the Sahara are inhabited by nomad See also:

• ARABS

Arabs . Attempts have been made by many explorers and writers to trace in certain of the existing inhabitants the remnants of an aboriginal See also:

• RACE

race of See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities, which inhabited the See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology . Sahara before the arrival of the Berbers and Arabs . E . F . See also:

• GAUTIER
• GAUTIER, EMILE THEODORE LEON (1832-1897)
• GAUTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-1872)

Gautier, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing in 1908, maintained that the evidence available (for the central Sahara) rendered probable the hypothesis that at a period perhaps as recent as the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of North Africa the Sahara was still See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

neolithic and peopled by a race of agricultural negroes, who extended to the confines of Algeria . Negro influence is undoubtedly seen in various parts of the Sahara, but it may date from a much more recent perio8 than has been supposed .

For example, the connexion between many of the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place-names in Fezzan and the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of See also:

• BORNU

Bornu is attributable to the northward extension of the influence of the Bornu-Kanem See also:

• EMPIRE

empire between the See also:

• FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857– )
• FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880)

firth and 14th centuries A.D . The allusions by classical writers to Ethiopians as inhabitants of the Sahara prove little, in view of the very vague and general meaning attached to the word . The physical characteristics, and especially the dark See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, of many of the Saharan populations is apparently a stronger See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument, but even this is capable of another explanation . Caravans of negro slaves from time immemorial passed northwards along the main desert routes, and it is just in the oases on these routes that the dark See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the population is chiefly found . It may there-fore be attributed to the intermarriage of the See also:

• ORIGINAL