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GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY (184...
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See also:GEORGE See also:EDWARD See also:BATEMAN See also:SAINTSBURY (1845- )
, See also:English See also:man of letters, was See also:born at See also:Southampton on the 23rd of See also:October 1845
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He was educated at See also:
(1906) 9765
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It is not enclosed by walls, and with its new houses, straight wide streets and numerous gardens forms a contrast to its See also:neighbour
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See also:North of the town there is a wet-See also:dock, 27 acres in extent, forming See also:part of the See also:harbour of St Malo
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The creek on which it opens is dry at See also:low See also:water, but at high water is 30 to 40 ft. deep
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The dock is used chiefly by See also:coasting and fishing vessels, a See also:fleet starting annually for the See also:Newfoundland See also:cod-See also:fisheries
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Two other ports on the Rance, south-See also:west of the town at the See also:foot of the See also:tower of Solidor, are of small importance
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This stronghold, erected towards the dose of the 14th century by See also:
Aleth was a See also:bulwark of See also:Druidism in those regions and was not Christianized till the 6th century, when St Malo became its first bishop
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On the removal of the bishopric to St Malo Aleth declined and was almost destroyed by St See also:
There is See also:trade in the agricultural products of the Chalosse, especially geese
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See also:SAINT-See also:SIMON, See also:CLAUDE DE ROUVROY, Due DE (1607-1693), French courtier, was born in See also:August 1607, being the second son of Louis de Rouvroi, seigneur du Plessis (d
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1643), who had been a warm supporter of See also: By his first wife, Diane de Budos de Portes, a relative of Conde, whom he married in 1644 and who died in 167o, he had three daughters . By his second wife, See also:Charlotte de 1'Aubespine, whom he married in 1672, he had a son Louis, the " author of the See also:memoirs " (see below) . SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE See also:HENRI DE ROUVROY, See also:COMTE DE (1760-1825), the founder of French See also:socialism, was born in Paris on the 17th of October 176o . He belonged to a younger See also:branch of the See also:family of the duc de Saint-Simon (above) . His See also:education was directed by D'See also:Alembert . At the See also:age of nineteen he assisted the See also:American colonies in their revolt against See also:Britain . From his youth Saint-Simon See also:felt the promptings of an eager ambition . His See also:valet had orders to awake him every See also:morning with the words, " Remember, See also:monsieur le comte, that you have great things to do." Among his See also:early schemes was one to unite the See also:Atlantic and the Pacific by a See also:canal, and another to construct a canal from See also:Madrid to the See also:sea . Although he was imprisoned in the Luxembourg during the Terror, he took no part of any importance in the Revolution, but profited by it to amass a little See also:fortune by See also:land See also:speculation—not on any selfish See also:account, however, as he said, but to facilitate his future projects . Accordingly, when he was nearly See also:forty years of age he went through a varied course of study and experiment, in See also:order to enlarge and clarify his view of things . One of these experiments was an unhappy See also:marriage—undertaken merely that he might have a See also:salon—which, after a See also:year's duration, was dissolved by mutual consent . The result of his experiments was that he found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury for the See also:remainder of his See also:life . The first of his numerous writings, Lettres d'un habitant de Geneve, appeared in 18o2; but his early writings were mostly scientific and See also:political . In 1817 he began in a See also:treatise entitled L'Industrie to propound his socialistic views, which he further See also:developed in L'Organisateur (1810), a periodical on which Augustin See also:Thierry and Auguste Comte collaborated . The first number caused a sensation, but it brought few converts . In 1821 appeared Du systeme industriel, and in 1823-1824 Catechisme des industriels . The last and most important expression of his views is the Nouveau Christianisme (1825), which he left unfinished . For many years before his death in 1825 (at Paris on the 10th of May), Saint-Simon had been reduced to the greatest straits . He was obliged to accept a laborious See also:post, working nine See also:hours a day for 40 a year, to live on the generosity of a former valet, and finally to solicit a small See also:pension from his family . In 1823 he attempted See also:suicide in despair . It was not till very See also:late in his career that he attached to himself a few ardent disciples . As a thinker Saint-Simon was entirely deficient in See also:system, clearness and consecutive strength . But his great See also:influence on modern thought is undeniable, both as the historic founder of French socialism and as suggesting much of what was after-wards elaborated into Comtism . Apart from the details of his socialistic teaching, which are vague and unsystematic, we find that the ideas of Saint-Simon as to the reconstruction of society are very See also:simple . His opinions were conditioned by the French Revolution and by the feudal and military system still prevalent in France . In opposition to the destructive liberalism of the Revolution he insisted on the See also:necessity of a new and See also:positive reorganization of society . So far was he from advocating fresh social revolt that he appealed to Louis XVIII. to inaugurate the new order of things . In opposition, however, to the feudal and military system, the former aspect of which had been strengthened by the restoration, he advocated an arrangement by which the See also:industrial chiefs should See also:control society . In See also:place of the See also:medieval church the spiritual direction of society should fall to the men of See also:science . What Saint-Simon desired, therefore, was an industrialist See also:state directed by modern science in which universal association should suppress See also:war . In short, the men who are fitted to organize society for productive labour are entitled to See also:bear See also:rule in it . The social aim is to produce things useful to life . The contrast between labour and capital so much emphasized by later socialism is not present to Saint-Simon, but it is assumed that the industrial chiefs, to whom the control of See also:production is to be committed, shall rule in the See also:interest of society . Later on the cause of the poor receives greater See also:attention, till in his greatest work, The New See also:Christianity, it takes the See also:form of a See also:religion . It was this development of his teaching that occasioned his final See also:quarrel with Comte . Previous to the publication of the Nouveau Christianisme, Saint-Simon had not concerned himself with See also:theology . Here he starts from a belief in See also:God, and his See also:object in the treatise is to reduce Christianity to its simple and essential elements . He does this by clearing it of the dogmas and other excrescences and defects which have gathered See also:round the See also:Catholic and See also:Protestant forms of it . He propounds as the comprehensive See also:formula of the new Christianity this See also:precept—" The whole of society ought to strive towards the amelioration of the moral and See also:physical existence of the poorest class; society ought to organize itself in the way best adapted for attaining this end." This principle became the watchword of the entire school of Saint-Simon . During his lifetime the views of Saint-Simon had very little influence; and he left only a few devoted disciples, who continued to See also:advocate the doctrines of their master, whom they revered as a See also:prophet . Of these the most important were Olinde Rodrigues, the favoured See also:disciple of Saint-Simon, and See also:Barthelemy Prosper See also:Enfantin (q.v.), who together had received Saint-Simon's last instructions . Their first step was to establish a See also:journal, Le Producteur, but it was discontinued in 1826 . The See also:sect, however, had begun to grow, and before the end of 1828, had meetings not only in Paris but in many provincial towns . An important departure was made in 1828 by Amand See also:Bazard, who gave a " See also:complete exposition of the Saint-Simonian faith" in a See also:long course of lectures at Paris, which were well attended . His Exposition de la See also:doctrine de St Simon (2 vols., 1828-1830), which is by far the best account of it, won more adherents . The second volume was chiefly by Enfantin, who along with Bazard stood at the See also:head of the society, but who was See also:superior in See also:meta-physical See also:power, and was prone to push his deductions to extremities . The revolution of See also:July (183o) brought a new freedom to the socialist reformers . A See also:proclamation was issued demanding the community of goods, the abolition of the right of See also:inheritance, and the enfranchisement of See also:women . Early next year the school obtained See also:possession of the Globe through See also:Pierre See also:Leroux (q.v.), who had joined the school, which now numbered some of the ablest and most promising See also:young men of France, many of the pupils of the Ecole Polytechnique having caught its See also:enthusiasm . The members formed themselves into an association arranged in three grades, and constituting a society or family, which lived out of a See also:common See also:purse in the See also:Rue Monsigny . Before long, however, dissensions began to arise in the sect . Bazard, a man of logical and more solid temperament, could no longer work in See also:harmony with' Enfantin, who desired to establish an arrogant and fantastic See also:sacerdotalism with lax notions as to marriage and the relation of the sexes . After a See also:time Bazard seceded and many of the strongest supporters of the school followed his example . A series of extravagant entertainments given by the society during the See also:winter of 1832 reduced its See also:financial resources and greatly discredited it in See also:character . They finally removed to Menilmontant, to a See also:property of Enfantin, where they lived in a communistic society, distinguished by a See also:peculiar See also:dress . Shortly after the chiefs were tried and condemned for proceedings prejudicial to the social order; and the sect was entirely broken up (1832) . Many of its members became famous as See also:engineers, economists, and men of business . In the school of Saint-Simon we find a great advance on the vague and confused views of the master . In the See also:philosophy of history they recognize epochs of two kinds, the critical or negative and the organic or constructive . The former, in which philosophy is the dominating force, is characterized by war, egotism and anarchy; the latter, which is controlled by religion, is marked by the spirit of obedience, devotion, association . The two See also:spirits of antagonism and association are the two great social principles, and on the degree of prevalence of the two depends the character of an See also:epoch . The spirit of association, however, tends more and more to prevail over its opponent, extending from the family to the city, from the city to the nation, and from the nation to the federation . This principleof association is to be the keynote of the social development of the future . Under the present system the industrial See also:chief exploits the See also:proletariat, the members of which, though nominally See also:free," must accept his terms under See also:pain of See also:starvation . The only remedy for this is the abolition of the See also:law of inheritance, and the See also:union of all the See also:instruments of labour in a social fund, which shall be exploited by association . Society thus becomes See also:sole proprietor, entrusting to social See also:groups and social functionaries the management of the various properties . The right of See also:succession is transferred from the family to the state . The school of Saint-Simon insists strongly on the claims of merit; they advocate a social See also:hierarchy in which each man shall be placed according to his capacity and rewarded according to his works . This is, indeed, a most See also:special and pronounced feature of the Saint-Simon socialism, whose theory of See also:government is a See also:kind of spiritual or scientific See also:autocracy, degenerating into the fantastic sacerdotalism of Enfantin . With regard to the family and the relation of the sexes the school of Saint-Simon advocated the complete emancipation of woman and her entire equality with man . The " social individual " is man and woman, who are associated in the exercise of the triple See also:function of religion, the state and the family . In its See also:official declarations the school maintained the sanctity of the See also:Christian law of marriage . Connected with these doctrines was their famous theory of the rehabilitation of the flesh," deduced from the philosophic theory of the school, which was a See also:species of See also:Pantheism, though they repudiated the name . On this theory they rejected the See also:dualism so much emphasized by Catholic Christianity in its penances and mortifications, and held that the See also:body should be restored to its due place of See also:honour . It is a vague principle, of which the ethical character depends on the See also:interpretation; and it was variously interpreted in the school of Saint-Simon . It was certainly immoral as held by Enfantin, by whom it was developed into a kind of sensual See also:mysticism, a system of free love with a religious See also:sanction . An excellent edition of the works of Saint-Simon and Enfantin was published by the survivors of the sect (47 vols., Paris, 1865-'878) . See, in addition to the works cited above, L . See also:Reybaud, Etudes sur See also:les reformateurs contemporains (7th edition, Paris, 1864); See also:Paul See also:Janet, Saint-Simon et le Saint-Simonisme (Paris, 1878); A . J . See also:Booth, Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism (London, 1871); Georges Weill, See also:Uri Precurseur du socialisme, Saint-Simon et son oeuvre (Paris, 1894), and a history of the Ecole Saint-Simonienne, by the same author (1896) ; G . See also:Dumas, Psychologie de deux messies positivistes St Simon et Comte (1905); E . See also:Levasseur's Etudes sociales sous la Restauration, contains a good See also:section on Saint-Simon . (T . 
K.; J . T . S.*) SAINT-SIMON, LOUIS DE ROUVROY, Duc DE (1675-1755), French soldier, diplomatist and writer of memoirs, was born at Versailles on the 16th of See also:January 1675 . The See also:peerage granted to his See also:father, Claude de St Simon (q.v.), is the central fact in his history . The French peerage under the old regime was a very peculiar thing, difficult to comprehend at all, but quite certain to be miscomprehended if any See also:analogy of the English.peerage is imported into the See also:consideration . No two things could be more different in France than ennobling a man and making him a peer . No one was made a peer who was not ennobled, but men of the noblest See also:blood in France and representing their houses might not be, and in most cases were not, peers . Derived at least traditionally and imaginatively from the douze pairs of See also:Charlemagne, the peers were supposed to represent the chosen of the noblesse, and gradflally, in an indefinite and constantly disputed See also:fashion, became associated with the See also:parlement of Paris as a quasi-legislative (or at least law-registering) and directly judicial body . But the peerage was further complicated by the fact that not persons but the holders of certain fiefs were made peers . Strictly speaking, neither Saint-Simon nor any one else in the same See also:case was made a peer, but his See also:estate was raised to the See also:rank of a duche- pairie or a comte pairie as the case might be . Still the peers were in a way a standing See also:committee representative of the entire body of nobles, and it was Saint-Simon's lifelong ideal, and at times his practical effort to convert them into a sort of great See also:council of the nation . His See also:mother, Charlotte de l'Aubespine, belonged to a family not of the See also:oldest See also:nobility but one which had been distinguished in the public service at least since the time of See also: |