See also:

• SALAMANCA
• SALAMANCA (anc. Salmantica or Elmantica)

SALAMANCA (anc. Salmantica or Elmantica)  , the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• SALAMANCA
• SALAMANCA (anc. Salmantica or Elmantica)

Salamanca, on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• RIVER

river Tormes, 2648 ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level and 172 M. by See also:

• RAIL

rail N.W. of See also:

• MADRID

Madrid . Pop . (1900) 25,690 . Salamanca is the centre of a network of See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways which radiate N. to See also:

• ZAMORA

Zamora, N.E. to See also:

• MEDINA
• MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- )

Medina, E. to Penaranda, S. to See also:

• PLASENCIA

Plasencia, W.S.W. to See also:

• GUARDA

Guarda in See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal, and W. to See also:

• OPORTO (i.e. o Porto, " the port ")

Oporto in Portugal . The river is here crossed by a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge 500 ft. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long built on twenty-six See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches, fifteen of which are of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman origin, while the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder date from the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city is still much the same in outward See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance as when its tortuous streets were thronged with students . The university was naturally the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief source of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth to the See also:

• TOWN

town, the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of which in the 16th century numbered 50,000, 10,000 of whom were students . Its decay of course reacted on the towns-folk, but it fortunately also arrested the See also:

• PROCESS

process of modernization . The ravages of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war alone have wrought serious damage, for the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French in their defensive operations in 1811-1812 almost destroyed the western See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter . The ruins still remain, and give an See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air of desolation which is not See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne out by the real See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the inhabitants, however poverty-stricken they may appear . See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side by side with the remains of a See also:

• GREAT

great past are the See also:

• MODERN

modern buildings: two theatres, a See also:

• CASINO (diminutive of casa, a house)

casino, See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull-See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring, town See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall and electric See also:

• LIGHT

light factory . The magnificent Plaza See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

Mayor, built by See also:

• ANDRES, JUAN (1740-1817)

Andres See also:

• GARCIA
• GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832)

Garcia de See also:

• QUINONES

Quinones at the beginning of the 18th century, and capable of holding 20,000 See also:

• PEOPLE

people to See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness a bull-fight, is one of the finest squares in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe .

It is surrounded by an See also:

• ARCADE

arcade of ninety arches on Corinthian columns, one side of the square being occupied by the municipal buildings . The decorations of the facades are in the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, and the plaza as a whole is a See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum; a doublet of " example ")

sample of Plateresque See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture . The University.—Salamanca is still See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in educational establishments . It still keeps up its university, with the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate faculties of letters, See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, sciences, See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine; its university and provincial public library, with 80,000 volumes and woo See also:

• MSS

MSS.; its Irish See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college, provincial See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute, See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior normal school, ecclesiastical See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

seminary (founded in 1778), economic and other learned See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, and very many charitable See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations . The city has still its 25 parishes, 25 colleges, and as many more or less ruinous convepts, and to yet flourishing religious houses . The university, the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest in the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula, was founded about 1230 by See also:

• ALPHONSO

Alphonso IX. of See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon, and refounded in 1242 by St See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand of See also:

• CASTILE, or CASTILLE (Castilla)

Castile . Under the patronage of the learned Alphonso X. its wealth and reputation greatly increased (1252–1282), and its See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of See also:

• CANON

canon law and See also:

• CIVIL

civil law attracted students even from See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna . In the 15th and 16th centuries it was renowned throughout Europe . Here See also:

• COLUMBUS
• COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451, -15o6)

Columbus, to whom a statue was erected in 1891, lectured on his discoveries, and here the Copernican See also:

• SYSTEM

system was taught long before it had won See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance . But soon after 1550 a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of decline set in . The university statutes were remodelled in 1957, but See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial troubles and the incessant See also:

• WARS

wars which checked almost every reform in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain prevented any recovery up to 1857, when a fresh reorganization was effected . At the beginning of the 20th century the number of students was about 1200, and the number of professors r9—fewer than in any other Spanish university .

See also:

• PRINCIPAL

Principal Buildings.—The chief See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the city are the old and new cathedrals . The old See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral is a cruciform See also:

• BUILDING

building of the 12th century, begun by See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop Jeronimo, the See also:

• CONFESSOR

confessor of the See also:

• CID, THE

Cid (q.v.) . Its style of architecture is that See also:

• LATE

Late Romanesque which prevailed in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, but the builder showed much originality in the construction of the See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome, which covers the See also:

• CROSSING

crossing of the See also:

• NAVE

nave and transepts . The inner dome is made to See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, not from immediately above the arches, but from a higher See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double arcade pierced with windows . The thrust of the vaulting is borne by four massive pinnacles, and over the inner dome is an See also:

• OUTER

outer pointed one covered with tiles . The whole forms a most effective and graceful See also:

• GROUP

group . On the vault of the See also:

• APSE
• APSE (Gr. alkir, a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel; Lat. absis)

apse is a See also:

• FRESCO (Ital. for cool, " fresh ")

fresco of Our See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord in See also:

• JUDGMENT

Judgment by the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian painter See also:

• NICOLAS
• NICOLAS, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS (1799–1848)

Nicolas Florentino (15th century) . The See also:

• REREDOS (Anglo-Fr. areredos, from arere, behind, and dos, back)

reredos, which has the peculiarity of fitting the See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of the apse, contains fifty-five panels with paintings mostly by the same artist . There are many fine monuments in the south See also:

• TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across, and septum, enclosure; synonymous terms in other languages are Fr. croisee, nef transversee; Ital. crociata; Ger. Querbau, Quersch&)

transept and See also:

• CLOISTER (Lat. claustrum; Fr. cloitre; Ital. chiostro; Span. claustro; Ger. Kloster)

cloister chapels . An adjoining building, the Capilla de Talavera, is used as a See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel for service according to the Mozarabic rite, which is celebrated there six times a See also:

• YEAR

year . On the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of and adjoining the old See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church stands the new cathedral, built from designs by Juan Gil de Ontanon . Though begun in 1509 the See also:

• WORK

work of construction made little progress until 1513, when it was entrusted to Ontaiion under Bishop Francisco de Bobadilla; though not finished till 1734, it is a notable example of the late See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic and Plateresque styles .

Its length is 340 ft. and its breadth 160 ft . The interior is fairly Gothic in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, but on the outside the Renaissance spirit shows itself more clearly, and is fully See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in the dome . Every-where the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere novelty or richness results in feebleness . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch of the great portal consists of a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• TREFOIL (Lat. trif olium, three-leaved plant, Fr. trk/le, Ger. Dreiblatt and Dreiblattbogen)

trefoil, but the See also:

• LABEL (a French word, now represented by lambeau, possibly a variant; it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word appearing in the English " lap," a flap or fold)

Label above takes an See also:

• OGEE (probably an English corruption of Fr. ogive, a diagonal groin rib, being a moulding commonly employed; equivalents in other languages are Lat. cyma-reversa, Ital. gola, Fr. cymaise, Ger. Kehlleisten)

ogee See also:

• LINE

line, and the inner arches are elliptical . Above the doors are bas-reliefs, foliage, &c., which in exuberance of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and quality of workmanship are See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good examples of the latest efforts of Spanish Gothic . The church contains paintings by J . F. de See also:

• NAVARRETE, JUAN FERNANDEZ (1526-1579)
• NAVARRETE, MARTIN FERNANDEZ DE (1765–1844)

Navarrete (1526–1579) and L. de Morales (c . 1509-1586), and some 9verrated statues by Juan de Juni (16th century) . The See also:

• TREASURY

treasury is very rich, end amongst other articles possesses a custodia which is a masterpiece of See also:

• GOLDSMITH
• GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763–1846)
• GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728–1774)

goldsmith's work, and a See also:

• BRONZE

bronze crucifix of undoubted authenticity, which was borne before the Cid in See also:

• BATTLE

battle . The great See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell weighs over 23 tons . Of the university buildings the See also:

• FACADE

facade of the library is a peculiarly rich example of late 15th-century Gothic . The cloisters are light and elegant; the See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• STAIRCASE

staircase ascending from them has a fine See also:

• BALUSTRADE

balustrade of foliage and figures .

The Colegio de Nobles Irlandeses, formerly Colegio de See also:

• SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE CHILE

Santiago Apostol, was built in 1521 from designs by Pedro de See also:

• IBARRA

Ibarra . The double arcaded cloister is a fine piece of work of the best period of the Renaissance . The Jesuit College is an immense and ugly Renaissance building begun in 1614 by Juan See also:

• GOMEZ, DIOGO (DIEGO) (ff. 1440-1482)

Gomez de See also:

• MORA, JOSE (1638-1725)
• MORA, or MORRA (Ital. delay)

Mora .. The Colegio Viejo, also called See also:

• SAN

San Bartolome, was rebuilt in the 18th century, and now serves as the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor's See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace . The See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent of Santo Domingo, sometimes called San Esteban, shows a mixture of styles from the 13th century onwards . The church is Gothic with a Plateresque facade of great lightness and delicacy . It is of purer design than that of the cathedral; nevertheless it shows the tendency of the period . The reredos, one of the finest Renaissance See also:

• WORKS

works in Spain, contains statues by See also:

• SALVADOR, or SAN SALVADOR (Republica del Salvador)

Salvador See also:

• CARMONA

Carmona, and a curious bronze statuette of the Virgin and See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

Child on a See also:

• THRONE

throne of champleve See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel of the 12th century . The See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, built by Juan Moreno in 1637, and the staircase and See also:

• SACRISTY (through Fr. sacrist-le, from med. Lat. sacristies or sacristina)

sacristy are good examples of later work . The convent of the Augustinas Recoletas, begun by See also:

• FONTANA, DOMENICO (1543-1607)
• FONTANA, LAVINIA (1552-1614)
• FONTANA, PROSPERO (1512-1597)

Fontana in 1616, is in better See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste than any other Renaissance building in the city . The church is rich in See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble fittings and contains several fine pictures of the Neapolitan school, especially the Conception by J . See also:

• RIBERA, GIUSEPPE (1588-1656)

Ribera (1588–1656) over the See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar .

The convent of the Espirita Santo has a good See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door by A . Berruguete (c . 1480–1561) . There is also a rather effective portal to the convent of See also:

• LAS

Las Dueiias . The church of S . Marcos is a curious circular building with three eastern apses; and the churches of S . See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin and S . Matteo have good See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early doorways . Many of the private houses are untouched examples of the domestic architecture of the prosperous times in which they were bililt . Such are the Casa de las Conchas, the finest example of its period in Spain; the Casa de la Sal, with a magnificent courtyard and sculptured See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery; and the palaces of Maldonado, See also:

• MONTEREY

Monterey and Espinosa . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade of Salamanca was not insignificant, and the stamped See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather-work produced there is still sought after . Its manufactures are now of little consequence, and consist of See also:

• CHINA

china, See also:

• CLOTH

cloth and leather .

The transport trade is, however, of more importance, and shows signs of increasing, as a result of the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of railway communication between 1875 and 1900 . During this period the population increased by nearly 7000 . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The town was of importance as early as 222 B.c., when it was captured by See also:

• HANNIBAL
• HANNIBAL (" mercy " or " favour of Baal ")

Hannibal from the Vettones; and it afterwards became under the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans the ninth station on the Via Lata from See also:

• MERIDA
• MERIDA (anc. Augusta Emerita, capital of Lusitania)

Merida to See also:

• SARAGOSSA (Zaragoza)
• SARAGOSSA, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Caesarauguslana)

Saragossa . It passed successively under the See also:

• RULE

rule of the Goths and the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

Moors, till the latter were finally driven out about 1o55 . About 11oo many See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign settlers were induced by Alphonso VI. to establish themselves in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and the city was enlarged and adorned by See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond of See also:

• BURGUNDY

Burgundy and his wife, the Princess Urraca . The See also:

• FUERO

Fuero de Salamanca, a celebrated See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of civil law, probably See also:

• DATES

dates from about 'zoo . Thenceforward, until the second See also:

• HALF

half of the 16th century, the prosperity of the university rendered the city one of the most important in Spain . But in 1593 the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent bishopric at See also:

• VALLADOLID

Valladolid (then the seat of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court), which had previously been subject to the see of Salamanca, dealt a serious See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow to the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of the city; and its See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce was shattered by the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the See also:

• MORISCOS (i.e. little Moors)

Moriscos in 1610 and the wars of the 18th and 19th centuries . See Villar y Macias, Historia de Salamanca (3 vols., Salamanca, 1887) ; H . Rashdall, See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. ii. pt . 1 . (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1895) ; Lapunya, La Universidad de Salamanca y la cultism espanola en el siglo XIII .

(Paris, 1900) . (K . G . J.) Battle of Salamanca, 1812 . (For the operations which preceded this battle see See also:

• PENINSULAR

PENINSULAR WAR.) On the 22nd of See also:

• JULY

July 1812 the Allied See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army under See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington (about 46,000 with 6o guns) was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up south of Salamanca, the See also:

• LEFT

left resting on the river Tormes at See also:

• SANTA

Santa Marta, with a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division under Pakenham and some See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

cavalry on the north bank at Cabrerizos; the right near the See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Arapiles and two hills of that name . Wellington's See also:

• OBJECT

object was to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover Salamanca and guard his communications through See also:

• CIUDAD

Ciudad Rodrigo with Portugal . The French under See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

Marshal See also:

• MARMONT, AUGUSTE FREDERIC LOUIS VIESSE DE, DUKE OF RAGUSA (1774–1852)

Marmont (about 42,000 with 70 guns) were See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting towards Wellington's right, stretching southwards from Calvariza de Ariba . The See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country generally is undulating, but crossed by some marked ridges and streams . Until the See also:

• MORNING

morning of the battle it had been uncertain whether Marmont wished to reach Salamanca by the right or left bank of the Tormes, or to gain the Ciudad Rodrigo road, but Wellington now See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that the latter was his real See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective . At daylight there was a See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush by both armies for the two commanding hills of the Arapiles; the See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

Allies gained the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern (since termed the " See also:

• ENGLISH

English "), and the French the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern (since termed the " French ") Arapiles . While Marmont was closing up his forces, a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of position was carried out by Wellington . Pakenham was directed to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march through Salamanca, crossing the Tormes, and move under cover to a See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood near Aldea Tejada, while Wellington, holding the village of Arapiles and the northern See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill, took up a line with four See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry divisions, a Portuguese See also:

• BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. brigade, Ital. brigata, Span. brigada; the English use of the word dates from the early 17th century)

brigade (See also:

• BRADFORD
• BRADFORD, JOHN (1510?—1555)
• BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1590—1657)
• BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1663—1752)
• BRADFORD, WILLIAM (1827—1892)

Bradford), a strong force of cavalry, and See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don See also:

• CARLOS, DON (1545-1568)
• CARLOS, DON (1788-1855)
• CARLOS, DON (CHARLES MARIA DE LOS DOLORES JUAN ISIDOR.E JOSEPH FRANCIS QUIRIN ANTONY MICHAEL GABRIEL RAPHAEL) (1848—1909)

Carlos's Spanish brigade, under cover of a See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge between Arapiles and Aldea Tejada .

By See also:

• NOON

noon his old right had become his left, and he was nearer to the Ciudad Rodrigo road, flanking Marmont should he move towards it . See also:

• EMERY (Ger. Smirgel)

Emery Wslkcr se . Redrawn from Maj.-Gen . C . W . See also:

• ROBINSON, EDWARD (1794–1863)
• ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1777–1867)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1575–1625)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1650-1723)
• ROBINSON, JOHN THOMAS ROMNEY (1792–1882)
• ROBINSON, MARY [" Perdita "] (1758–1800)
• ROBINSON, SIR JOHN BEVERLEY, BART
• ROBINSON, SIR JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1845– )
• ROBINSON, THEODORE (1852-1896)

Robinson's Wellington's See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

Campaigns, by permission of See also:

• HUGH
• HUGH, ST

Hugh See also:

• REES, THOMAS (1777–1864)

Rees, Ltd . It was not Wellington's wish (Despatches, July 21, 1812) to fight a battle " unless under very advantageous circumstances." He knew that large reinforcements were nearing the French, and, having determined to fall back towards Portugal, he began to pass his baggage along the Ciudad Rodrigo road . Marmont, about 2 P.M., seeing the dust of his baggage See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column, ignorant of his true position, and anxious to intercept his See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat, ordered two divisions under Maucune, the leading one of which became afterwards Thomieres'' to push westward, while he himself attacked Arapiles . Maucune moved off, flanked by some cavalry and fifty guns, leaving a See also:

• GAP

gap between him and the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the French . Wellington instantly took See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of this . Directing Pakenham to attack the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the leading French division, and a Portuguese brigade (See also:

• PACK (apparently from the root pak-, paq-, seen in Lat. pangere, to fasten; cf. " compact ")
• PACK, OTTO VON (c. 1480-1537)

Pack) to occupy the enemy by assaulting the south (or French) Arapiles, he prepared to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear down in strength upon Maucune's right flank . The French attack upon Arapiles was after hard fighting repulsed; and, at about 5 P.M., Maucune's See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork a, when in confusion from the fierce attack of Pakenham and Wellington in front and flank and suffering severely, was suddenly trampled down " with a terrible clamour and disturbance " (See also:

• NAPIER
• NAPIER, JOHN (1550-1617)
• NAPIER, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860)
• NAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMES (1782-1853)
• NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860)

Napier) by an irresistible See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of Le Marchant's and See also:

• ANSON, GEORGE ANSON, BARON (1697-1762)

Anson's cavalry under See also:

• SIR

Sir Stapleton See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

Cotton .

This counterstroke decided the battle, Marmont's left wing being completely broken . The French made a gallant but fruitless effort to retrieve the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, and repulsed Pack's attack upon the French Arapiles; but, as the light waned, See also:

• CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT (1772–1842)

Clausel, Marmont being wounded, See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew off the French army towards See also:

• ALBA

Alba de Tormes and retired to Valladolid . Both. armies lost heavily, the Allies about 6000, the French some s3,uOO men, 12 guns 2 eagles and several See also:

• STANDARDS

standards . The rout would have been even more thorough had not the See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle and See also:

• FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW
• FORD, JOHN (r586–c.1640)
• FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858)
• FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 158o)

ford at Alba de i Some authorities differ as to this (see The Salamanca See also:

• CAMPAIGN

Campaign, by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain A . H . Marindin, 1906, appendix, pp . 51-59) . Battle of SALAMANCA July zsnd, 18:s English See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles .. % 5 3 Allies French __,.~ ... Tormes been evacuated by its Spanish See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison without Wellington's knowledge . Salamanca was a brilliant victory, and followed as it was by the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Madrid, it severely shook the French domination in Spain . (C .

W .