See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

SALT (a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, See also:

• LAT

Lat. sal)  . In See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry the See also:

• TERM

term See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt is given to a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound formed by substituting the See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen of an See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid by a See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal or a See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical acting as a metal, or, what comes to the same thing, by eliminating the elements of See also:

• WATER

water between an acid and a See also:

• BASE

base (see ACID; CHEMISTRY) . See also:

• COMMON

Common Salt . Common salt, or simply salt, is the name given to the native and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial forms of See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium chloride, NaCl . Pure sodium chloride, which may be obtained by passing hydrochloric acid See also:

• GAS

gas into a saturated See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the commercial salt, whereupon it is precipitated, forms colourless, crystalline cubes (see also below under See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

Rock salt) which melt at 815.4°, and begins to volatilize at slightly higher temperatures . It is readily soluble in water, See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo parts of which dissolve 35.52 parts at o° and 39.16 parts at loo° . The saturated solution at 109.7° contains 40.35 parts of salt to loo of water . On cooling a saturated solution to -1o°, or by cooling a solution in hot hydrochloric acid, the See also:

• HYDRATE

hydrate NaCl . 2HZO separates; on further cooling an aqueous solution to -20° a cryohydrate containing 23.7% of the salt is deposited . The See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of this important substance falls under two heads, See also:

• RELATING

relating respectively to See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea salt or " See also:

• BAY

bay " salt and " rock " salt or See also:

• MINERAL

mineral salt . The one is probably derived from the other, most rock salt deposits bearing See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of having been formed by the evaporation of lakes or seas . Sea Salt.—Assuming that each See also:

• GALLON

gallon of sea water contains 0.2547 lb of salt, and allowing an See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density 2.24 for rock-salt, it has been computed that the entire ocean if dried up would yield no less than four and a See also:

• HALF

half million cubic See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles of rock-salt, or about fourteen and a half times the bulk of the entire See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe above high-water See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark .

The proportion of sodium chloride in the water of the ocean, where it is mixed with small quantities of other salts, is on the average about 3.33%, ranging from 2.9% for the polar seas to 3.55% or more at the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator . Enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, the Red Sea. the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Sea, the Dead Sea, the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian and others, are dependent of course for the proportion and quality of their saline See also:

• MATTER

matter on See also:

• LOCAL

local circumstances (see OCEAN) . At one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time almost the whole of the salt in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce was produced from the evaporation of sea water, and indeed salt so made still forms a See also:

• STAPLE

staple commodity in many countries possessing a seaboard, especially those where the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is dry and the summer of See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long duration . In See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal there are salt See also:

• WORKS

works at See also:

• SETUBAL (formerly called in English St Ubes and in French St Yves)

Setubal, Alcacer do Sal, Figueira and See also:

• AVEIRO

Aveiro . See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain has salt works at the Bay of See also:

• CADIZ
• CADIZ (Cadiz)
• CADIZ (in Lat. Gades, and formerly called Cales by the English)

Cadiz, the Balearic Islands, &c.; See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy at See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany and See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia . See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France has its " marais salants du midi " and also works on the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic seaboard; whilst See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria has " Salzgarten " at various places on the Adriatic (Sabbioncello, See also:

• TRIESTE (Ger. Triest; Slay. Trst; the Roman Tergeste, q.v.)

Trieste, See also:

• PIRANO

Pirano, See also:

• CAPO

Capo d'See also:

• ISTRIA (Ger. Istrien)

Istria,&c.) . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry has greatly fallen off under the competition of the rock-salt works of See also:

• CHESHIRE

Cheshire . The See also:

• PROCESS

process of the spontaneous evaporation of sea water was studied by Usiglio on Mediterranean water at See also:

• CETTE

Cette . The density at first was 1.02 . Primarily but a slight See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit is formed (none until the concentration arrives at specific gravity 1.0509), this deposit consisting for the most See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (o= x6)]

calcium carbonate and ferric See also:

• OXIDE

oxide . This goes on till a density of 1.1315 is attained, when hydrated calcium sulphate begins to deposit, and continues till specific gravity 1.2646 is reached . At a density of 1.218 the deposit becomes augmented by sodium chloride, which goes down mixed with a little See also:

• MAGNESIUM [symbol Mg, atomic weight 24.32 (0 = 16)]

magnesium chloride and sulphate .

At specific gravity 1.2461 a little sodium bromide has begun also to deposit . At specific gravity 1'311 the See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the water contained- - Magnesium sulphate . 11.45 °/ Magnesium chloride . 19.53 °A, Sodium chloride .. 15-98% Sodium bromide .. 2'04% See also:

• POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39.114 0=16)]

Potassium chloride 3.3o% Up to the time then that the water became concentrated to specific gravity 1.218 only o• 150 of deposit had formed, and that chiefly composed of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, but between specific gravity 1.218 and 1.313 there is deposited a mixture of Calcium sulphate . . . . 0'0283% Magnesium sulphate . . . o.o624 % Magnesium chloride . . 0.0153 % Sodium chloride .. . 2.7107 % Sodium bromide . . 0.0222 % 2.8389 % Of this about 95 % is sodium chloride .

Up to this point the separation of the salts has taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in a fairly See also:

• REGULAR

regular manner, but now the temperature begins to exert an See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, and some of the salts deposited in the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold of the See also:

• NIGHT

night dissolve again partially in the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . By night the liquor gives nearly pure magnesium sulphate; in the day the same sulphate mixed with sodium and potassium chlorides is deposited . The See also:

• MOTHER

mother-liquor now falls to a specific gravity of 1.3082 to 1.2965, and yields a very mixed deposit of magnesium bromide and chloride, potassium chloride and magnesium sulphate, with the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double magnesium and potassium sulphate, corresponding to the kainite of See also:

• STASSFURT

Stassfurt . There is also deposited a double magnesium and potassium chloride, similar to the carnallite of Stassfurt, and finally the mother-liquor, which has now again risen to specific gravity 1.3374, contains only pure magnesium chloride . The application of these results to the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of salt from sea water is obvious . A large piece of See also:

• LAND

land, barely above high-water mark, is levelled, and if necessary puddled with See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . In tidal seas a " jas " (or storage See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir) is constructed alongside, similarly rendered impervious, in which the water is allowed to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle and concentrate to a certain extent . In non-tidal seas this storage See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin is not required . The prepared land is partitioned off into large basins (adernes or muants) and others (called in France aires, suillets or tables salantes) which get smaller and more shallow in proportion as they are intended to receive the water as it becomes more and more concentrated, just sufficient fall being allowed from one set of basins to the other to cause the water to flow slowly through them . The flow is often assisted by pumping . The sea salt thus made is collected into small heaps on the paths around the basins or the floors of the basins themselves, and here it under-goes a first partial See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification, the more deliquescent salts (especially the magnesium chloride) being allowed to drain away . From these heaps it is collected into larger ones, where it drains further, and becomes more purified .

The salt is collected from the See also:

• SURFACE

surface by means of a sort of wooden See also:

• SCOOP (from M. L. Ger. or M. Du. schope, cf. Du. schoep, a bailing vessel, Ger. schopfen, and, from M. Du. schoppe, Ger. Schuppe, shovel)

scoop or scraper, but in spite of every precaution some of the See also:

• SOIL

soil on which it is produced is inevitably taken up with it, communicating a red or See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey tint . Generally speaking this salt, which may contain up to 15% of impurities, goes into commerce just as it is, but in some cases it is taken first to the refinery, where it either is simply washed and then See also:

• STOVE

stove-dried before being sent out, or is dissolved in fresh water and then boiled down and crystallized like See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white salt from rock-salt brine . The salt of the " seines du midi " of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of France is far purer, containing about 5% of impurities . In See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia and in See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia sea water is concentrated by freezing, the See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice which separates containing little salt; the brine is then boiled down when an impure sea salt is deposited . Rock-salt.—To mineralogists rock-salt is often known as halite—a name suggested in 1847 by E . F . Glocker from the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek &Xs (salt) . The word halite, however, is sometimes used not only for the See also:

• SPECIES

species rock-salt but as a See also:

• GROUP

group-name to include a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of haloid minerals, of which that species is the type . Halite or rock-salt crystallizes in the cubic See also:

• SYSTEM

system, usually in cubes, rarely in octahedra; the cubes being solid, unlike the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton-cubes obtained by rapid evaporation of brine . The mineral has perfect cubic cleavage . Percussion-figures, readily made on the cleavage-faces, have rays parallel to faces of the rhombic See also:

• DODECAHEDRON (Gr. Melia, twelve, and ESpa, a face or base)

dodecahedron; whilst figures etched with water represent the four-faced See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube . Rock-salt commonly occurs in cleavable masses, or sometimes in laminar, granular or fibrous forms, the finely fibrous variety being known as " See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair-salt." The hardness is 2 to 2.5 and the spec. See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

gray.2.1 to 2.6 .

Rock-salt when pure is colourless and transparent, but is usually red or See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown by See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical admixture with ferric oxide or hydroxide . The salt is often grey, through bituminous matter or other impurity, and rarely See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue or See also:

• VIOLET

violet . The blue See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, which disappears on See also:

• HEATING

heating or dissolving the salt, has been variously ascribed to the presence of sodium subchloride, sodium, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur or of a certain compound of iron, or again to the existence of See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute cavities with parallel walls . Halite occasionally exhibits double See also:

• REFRACTION
• REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart)

refraction, perhaps due to natural pressure, It is remarkably diathermanous, or capable of transmitting heat-rays, and has therefore been used in certain See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical investigations . Pure halite consists only of sodium chloride, but salt usually contains certain magnesium compounds rendering it deliquescent . Minute vesicular cavities are not infrequently See also:

• PRESENT

present, sometimes as negative cubes, and these may contain saline solutions or See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon dioxide or gaseous See also:

• HYDROCARBONS

hydrocarbons . Some salt decrepitates on solution (Knislersalz), the phenomenon being due to the See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape of condensed gases . Halite may occur as a sublimate on See also:

• LAVA

lava, as at See also:

• VESUVIUS (also Vesevus in ancient poets)

Vesuvius and some other volcanoes, where it is generally associated with potassium chloride; but its usual mode of occurrence is in bedded deposits, often lenticular, and sometimes of See also:

• GREAT

great thickness . The salt is commonly associated with See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum, often also with See also:

• ANHYDRITE

anhydrite, and occasionally with See also:

• SYLVITE

sylvite, carnallite and other minerals containing potassium and magnesium . Deposits of rock-salt have evidently been formed by the evaporation of salt water, probably in areas of inland drainage or enclosed basins, like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake of See also:

• UTAH

Utah, or perhaps in some cases in an See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the sea partially cut off, like the Kara Bughaz, which forms a natural salt-See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan on the east See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Caspian . Such beds of salt are found in strata of very varied See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age; the Salt Range of the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab, for instance, is probably of See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian age, while, the famous salt-deposits of See also:

• WIELICZKA

Wieliczka, near See also:

• CRACOW (Pol. Krakov; Ger. Krakau)

Cracow, have been referred to the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . In many parts of the See also:

• WORLD

world, including the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• AREA

area, the Triassic age offered conditions especially favourable for the formation of large salt-deposits .

In England extensive deposits of rock-salt are found near the base of the See also:

• KEUPER

Keuper See also:

• MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

marl, especially in Cheshire . The mineral occurs generally in lenticular deposits, which may reach a thickness of more than too ft.; but it is See also:

• MINED

mined only to a limited extent, most of the salt being obtained from brine springs and See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells which derive their saline See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character from deposits of salts . Much salt is obtained from See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• LANCASHIRE

Lancashire, as also from the brine pits of See also:

• STAFFORDSHIRE

Staffordshire, See also:

• WORCESTERSHIRE

Worcestershire, See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, See also:

• DURHAM
• DURHAM, JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON, 1ST EARL OF (1792–1840)

Durham and the Isle of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man (Point of Ayre) . The salt of N.E . Yorkshire and S . Durham is regarded by some authorities as See also:

• PERMIAN

Permian, but that near See also:

• CARRICKFERGUS

Carrickfergus in Co . See also:

• ANTRIM
• ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST EARL OF (d. 1636)
• ANTRIM, RANDAL MACDONNELL, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1609-1683)

Antrim, See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, is undoubtedly of Triassic age . The Antrim salt was discovered in 185o during a See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search for See also:

• COAL

coal: one of the beds at Duncrue mine has a thickness of 8o ft . Important deposits of rock-salt occur in the Keuper at See also:

• BERCHTESGADEN

Berchtesgaden, in the Bavarian See also:

• ALPS

Alps; at See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall in See also:

• TIROL (or TYROL 1)

Tirol and at Hallein, See also:

• HALLSTATT

Hallstatt, Ischl and Aussee in the See also:

• SALZKAMMERGUT

Salzkammergut in Austria . Salt occurs in the See also:

• MUSCHELKALK

Muschelkalk at Friedrichshall and some other localities in See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg and Thuringia; and in the See also:

• BUNTER

Bunter at See also:

• SCHONINGEN

Schoningen near See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick . The Permian system (Zechstein) yields the great salt-deposits worked at Stassfurt and at See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle in Prussian See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony . The Stassfurt deposits are of See also:

• SPECIAL

special importance for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of the associated salts of potassium and magnesium, such as carnallite and kainite .

These deposits, in addition to having a high commercial importance, present certain problems which have received much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, more particularly at the hands of See also:

• VAN

van't Hoff and his collaborators, whose results are embodied in his Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, vol. i . (1905), vol. ii . (1909) . (A See also:

• SUMMARY

summary is given in A . W . See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart, See also:

• RECENT

Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, 1909; see also van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical and Physical Chemistry, vol. i.) A typical See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section is as follows: Beneath the surface soil of See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone there is a layer up to loo ft. in thickness of carnallite, MgC12•KC1.6H2O, mixed with a little salt; this is followed by a thicker deposit of kieserite, MgSO9•See also:

• H2O (combined)

H2O, containing rather more salt than the upper See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed . Deeper down there are successively strata of polyhalite, MgSOi.K2SO4.2CaSO4.2H2O, and anhydrite, CaSO4, interspersed with regular layers of rock-salt; whilst below the anhydrite we have the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main rock-salt deposits . A bed of rock-salt in the Zechstein at Sperenberg near See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin has been proved by See also:

• BORING

boring to have a thickness of upwards of 4000 ft . The salt of Bex in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland is See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, whilst Cretaceous salt occurs in See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia and See also:

• ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands)

Algiers . Important deposits of salt are See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in many parts of the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary strata . At See also:

• CARDONA (perhaps the anc. Udura)

Cardona, near See also:

• BARCELONA

Barcelona, Tertiary salt forms See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill-masses, while the Carpathian sandstone in See also:

• GALICIA (Ger. Galizien; Pol. Halicz)
• GALICIA (the ancient Gallaecia or Callaecia, KaMauci,a or KaXau da)

Galicia and Transylvania is See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in salt . The extensive mines at Wieliczka are in this rock-salt, as also is the salt of Kalusz in Galicia, which is associated with sylvite, KC1 .

In North See also:

• AMERICA

America salt is widely distributed at various geological horizons . In New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York it occurs in the See also:

• SALINA

Salina beds of the See also:

• ONONDAGA

Onondaga series, of See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian age; and Silurian salt is found also in parts of See also:

• MICHIGAN
• MICHIGAN, LAKE
• MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

Michigan and in See also:

• ONTARIO
• ONTARIO, LAKE

Ontario, See also:

• CANADA

Canada . Some of the salt of Michigan is regarded as Carboniferous . Rock-salt is mined in several states, as New York, See also:

• KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State ")

Kansas and See also:

• LOUISIANA

Louisiana; but See also:

• AMERICAN

American salt is mostly obtained from brine . Deposits of salt, regarded as either Cretaceous or Tertiary, occur in the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of Petite Anse, See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of See also:

• VERMILION

Vermilion Bay, in Louisiana . Salt often occurs in association with See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum and natural gas, and extensive beds were discovered in the See also:

• WYOMING

Wyoming valley in boring for petroleum . In the dry regions of the West salt occurs as an incrustation on the surface of the soil—a mode of occurrence found in See also:

• DESERT

desert areas in various parts of the world . Cubic pseudomorphs representing rock-salt are sometimes seen in strata which have been deposited in shallow water, especially on the margin of a salt-lake . The salt has been dissolved out of its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• MATRIX

matrix, and the cavity so formed has then been filled with See also:

• FINE

fine clayey or other mineral matter, forming a cubic See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast . Such casts are not infrequent in the Keuper marls and sandstones, and in the Purbeck beds of England . Manufacture.—The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief centres of manufacture in England are at See also:

• NORTHWICH

Northwich, See also:

• MIDDLEWICH

Middlewich, See also:

• WINSFORD

Winsford and See also:

• SANDBACH

Sandbach in Cheshire, See also:

• WESTON, THOMAS (1737-1776)

Weston-on-See also:

• TRENT
• TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trento; Ger. relent)
• TRENT, COUNCIL OF

Trent in Staffordshire, Stoke See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

Prior and See also:

• DROITWICH

Droitwich in Worcestershire and See also:

• MIDDLESBROUGH

Middlesbrough in Yorkshire.' The Cheshire and Worcestershire salt deposits are by far the most important . Although brine springs have been known to exist in both these counties ever since the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman occupation, and salt had been made there from time immemorial, it was not till 167o that rock-salt about 30 yds. thick was discovered at Marbury near Northwich by some men exploring for coal, at a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 34 yds .

In 1779 three beds of rock-salt were discovered at Lawton, separated from one another by layers of indurated clay . The old See also:

• MARSTON, JOHN (c. 1575-1634)
• MARSTON, PHILIP BOURKE (1850-1887)

Marston or Marston Rock mine is the largest and perhaps the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest in England . It was worked for about a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years in only its upper bed, but in 1781, after traversing a layer of indurated clay intersected with small See also:

• VEINS

veins of salt 10k yds. thick, a layer of rock-salt 33 to 37 yds. thick was found . Beneath it are others, but they are thin and impure . The See also:

• TOTAL

total depth of the mine to the bottom of the See also:

• LOWER

lower level is 120 yds . At Winsford, where the same formation seems to recur, it is 159 yds. from the surface . The Marston mine covers an area of about 40 acres . The salt is first reached at 35-40 yds. in the Northwich See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and the upper layer is 25-50 yds. in thickness (Marston 23-26 yds.); it has above its apparently lying in the recesses of its surface, a layer of saturated brine . This is the brine which is raised at the various pumping stations in Northwich and elsewhere around, and which serves to produce white salt . The beds are reached by sinking through the See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays and variegated marls typical of this formation . The salt is blasted out with See also:

• GUNPOWDER

gunpowder . The Middlesbrough deposit was discovered by Bolckow and See also:

• VAUGHAN, CHARLES JOHN (1816-1897)
• VAUGHAN, HENRY (1622-1695)
• VAUGHAN, HERBERT (1832-1903)
• VAUGHAN, THOMAS (1622-1666)
• VAUGHAN, WILLIAM (1577-1641)

Vaughan in boring for water in 1862 at a depth of 400 yds., but was not utilized, and was again found by Messrs See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

Brothers at See also:

• PORT

Port See also:

• CLARENCE, DUKES OF

Clarence at a depth of 376 yds .

In Cheshire the surface-water trickling through the overlying strata dissolves the salt, which is subsequently pumped as brine, but at Middlesbrough the great depth and impermeability of the strata precludes this, so another method has been resorted to . A See also:

• BORE

bore is made into the salt, and lined with tubing, and this See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube where it traverses the salt is pierced with holes . Within this is hung loosely a second tube of much smaller dimensions so as to leave an See also:

• ANNULAR, ANNULATE

annular space between the two . Through this space the fresh surface water finds its way, and dissolving the salt below rises in the inner tube as brine, but only to such a level that the two columns See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear to one another the relation of ten to twelve, this being the inverse ratio of the respective weights of saturated brine and fresh water . For the remaining distance the brine is raised by a See also:

• PUMP

pump . The fresh water, however, as it descends rises to the surface of the salt, tending rather to dissolve its upper layers and extend superficially. so that after a time the superincumbent soil, being without support, falls in . These interior landslips, besides choking the pipes and breaking the communication, often produce sinkings at the surface . The same inconvenience is See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in the environs of See also:

• NANCY

Nancy, and a similar one produces on a larger See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale the sinking and subsidences at Winsford and Northwich . In the See also:

• UNITED

United States extensive deposits and brine springs are worked, and also incrustations (see above) . Canada also is a producer . South America possesses several salt deposits and brine springs . See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic Russia is very abundantly supplied with salt, as likewise is See also:

• CHINA

China; and See also:

• PERSIA

Persia is perhaps one of the countries most abundantly endowed with this natural and useful product .

In See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India there is the great salt range of the Punjab, as well as the Sambhur Lake, and salt is obtained from sea water at many places along its extensive seaboard . The termination "wich " in See also:

• ENGLISH

English place-names often points to See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient salt manufacture—the word " wich " (See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

creek, bay; Icel. vik) having acquired a special sense in English usage . In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the various forms of the non-See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic words Hall, Halle occurring in place-names point in the same way to ancient salt-works . Rock-salt is the origin of the greater part of the salt manufactured in the world . It occurs in all degrees of purity, from that of See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere salty clay to that of the most transparent crystals . In the former See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case it is often difficult to obtain the brine at a density even approaching saturation, and See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers and galleries are sometimes excavated within the saliferous beds to increase the dissolving surface, and water let down fresh is pumped up as brine . Many brine springs also occur in a more or less saturated See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . In cases where the atmospheric conditions are suitable the brine is run into large tanks and. concentrated merely by See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

solar heat, or it may be caused to trickle over faggots arranged under large open sheds called " See also:

• GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE)

graduation houses " (Gradirhauser), whereby a more extensive surface of evaporation is obtained and the brine becomes rapidly concentrated . After settling it is evaporated in iron pans . The use, however, of the " graduation houses " is dying out, as both their construction and their See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance are expensive . The purer rock-salt is often simply ground for use, as at Wieliczka and elsewhere, but it is more frequently pumped as brine, produced either by artificial solution as at Middlesbrough and other places, or by natural means, as in Cheshire and Worcestershire . One great See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback to the use of even the purest rock-salt simply ground is its tendency to revert to a hard unwieldy See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, when kept any length of time in sacks .

As usually made, white salt from rock-salt may be classified into two See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups: (1) boiled: known as fine, table, lump, stoved lump, superfine, See also:

• BASKET

basket, See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter and See also:

• CHEESE (Lat. caseus)

cheese salt (Fr. sel fin-fin, sel a la minute, &c.); (2) unboiled: common, chemical, See also:

• FISHERY (LAW OF)

fishery, Scotch fishery, extra fishery, double extra fishery and bay salt (Fr. sel de 12, 24, 48, 6o and 72 heures) . All these names are derived from the See also:

• SIZE

size and See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the crystals, their uses and the modes of their production . The boiled salts, the crystals of which are small, are formed in a See also:

• MEDIUM

medium constantly agitated by boiling . The fine or stoved table salts are those white masses with which we are all See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar . Basket salt takes its name from the conical baskets from which it is allowed to drain when first it is " See also:

• DRAWN

drawn " from the pan . Butter and cheese salts are not stove-dried, but See also:

• LEFT

left in their more or less moist condition, as being thus more easily applied to their respective uses . Of the unboiled salts the first two, corresponding to the Fr. sel de 12 heures and sel de 24 heures, show by their English names the use to which they are applied, and the others merely depend for their quality on the length of time which elapses between successive " drawings, and the temperature of the evaporation . The time varies for the unboiled salts from twelve See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours to three or four See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks, the larger crystals being allowed a longer time to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, and the smaller ones being formed more quickly . The temperature varies from 55° to 180° F . One difference between the manui`acture of salt from rock-salt brine as carried on in See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and on the Continent lies in the use in the latter case of closed or covered pans, except in the making of fine salt, whereas in Britain open ones are employed . With open pans the vapour is See also:

• FREE

free to diffuse itself into the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, and the evaporation is perhaps more rapid . When covered pans are used, the loss of heat by See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation is less, and the salt made is also cleaner .

It has also been proposed to concentrate the brines under diminished pressure . In S . Pick's system a triple effect is obtained by evaporating in these connected vessels, so that the See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam from one heats the. second into which it is led (see See also:

• SOC

Soc. of Eng., 1891, p . 115) . In Britain the brine is so pure that, keeping a small stream of it See also:

• RUNNING

running into the pan to replace the losses by evaporation and the removal of the salt, it is only necessary occasionally (not often) to reject the mother-liquor when at last it becomes too impure with magnesium chloride; but in some works the mother-liquor not only contains more of this impurity but becomes quite brown from organic matter on concentration, and totally unfit for further service after yielding but two or three crops of salt crystals . Some-times, to get rid of these impurities, the brine is treated in a large tub (bessoir) with lime; on settling it becomes clear and colourless, but the dissolved lime forms a skin on its surface in the pan, retards the evaporation and impedes the See also:

• CRYSTALLIZATION

crystallization . At times sodium sulphate is added to the brine, producing sodium chloride and magnesium sulphate by double decomposition with the magnesium chloride . A slight degree of acidity seems more favourable to the crystallization of salt than alkalinity; thus it is a practice to add a certain amount of See also:

• ALUM

alum, 2 to 12 lb per pan of brine, especially when, as in fishery salt, fine crystals are required . The salt is " drawn " from the pan and placed (in the case of boiled salts) in small conical baskets hung See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the pan to drain, and thence moulded in square boxes and afterwards stove-dried, or (in case of unboiled salts) " drawn " in a heap on to the " hurdles," on which it drains, and thence is carried to the -See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store . In most See also:

• EUROPEAN

European countries a tax is laid on salt; and the coarser as well as the finer crystals are therefore often dried so as not to pay See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty on more water than can be helped . The brine used in the salt manufacture in England is very nearly saturated, containing 25 or 26.% of sodium chloride, the utmost water can take up being 27%; and it ranges from 38 to 42 oz. of salt per gallon . In some other countries the brine has to be concentrated before use .

Saltmaking is by no means an unhealthy See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, some slight soreness of the eyes being the only See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection sometimes complained of ; indeed the atmosphere of steam saturated with salt in which the workmen live seems specially preservative against colds, See also:

• RHEUMATISM (from Gr. /56µa, flux)

rheumatism, See also:

• NEURALGIA (Gr. veiipov, nerve, and iXyos, pain)

neuralgia, &c . A See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission was appointed in 1881 to investigate the causes of the disastrous subsidences which are constantly taking place in all the salt districts, and the See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of a remedy . It led to no legislative See also:

• ACTION

action; but the evil is recognized as a See also:

• GRAVE

grave one . At Northwich and Winsford scarcely a' See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house or a See also:

• CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminata, sc. camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace)

chimney stack remains straight . Houses are keyed up with " shaps," " See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face plates " and " bolts," and only kept from falling by leaning on one another . The doors and windows have become See also:

• LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also appears in Span. losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span. losa, the ultimate origin of whic

lozenge-shaped, the walls bulged and the floors crooked . Buildings have sunk--some of them disappearing altogether . Lakes have been formed where there was solid ground before, and incalculable damage done to See also:

• PROPERTY

property in all quarters . At the same time it is difficult to see how this grievance can be remedied without inflicting serious injury, almost ruin, upon the salt trade . The workings in Great Britain represent the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere)

abstraction of rather more than a mass of rock equal to a See also:

• FOOT

foot in thickness spread over a square mile . The table gives the outputs in metric tons of the most important producers in 1900 and 1905 (from See also:

• ROTHWELL

Rothwell, Mineral Industry, 1908) . Salt Production in Metric Tons .

1900 . 1905 . Austria 330,277 343,375 France 1,088,634 1,130,000 Germany 1,514,027 1,777,557 See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary . 189,363 195,410 India 1,021,426 1,212,600 Italy 367,255 437,699 See also:

• JAPAN

Japan 669,694 483,506 Russia 1,768,005 1,844,678 Spain 450,041 493,451 United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom 1,873,601 1,920,149 United States . . 2,651,278 3,297,285 See F . A . Furer, Salzbergbau- and Salinenkunde (Braunschweig, 1900) ; J . O . Freiherr von Buschmann, Das See also:

• SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Sala: dessen Vorkommen and Verwertung (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, vol . 1, 1909, vol . 2, 1906) . (X.) Ancient See also:

• HISTORY

History and Religious Symbolism.—Salt must have been quite unattainable to See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive man in many parts of the world .

Thus the Odyssey (xi . 122 seq.) speaks of inlanders (in See also:

• EPIRUS, or EPEIRUS

Epirus') who do not know the sea and use no salt with their See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food . In some parts of America, and even of India (among the See also:

• TODAS

Todas), salt was first introduced by Europeans; and there are still parts of central See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa where the use of it is a luxury•'confined to the rich . Indeed, where men live mainly on See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk and flesh, consuming the latter raw or roasted, so that its salts are not lost, it is not necessary to add sodium chloride, and thus we understand how the Numidian nomads in the time of See also:

• SALLUST [Gams SALLUSTIUS CRlspus] (86–34 B.c.)

Sallust and the See also:

• BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins of See also:

• HADRAMUT

Hadramut at the present day never eat salt with their food . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, cereal or See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• DIET

diet calls for a supplement of salt, and so does boiled See also:

• MEAT

meat . The important part played by the mineral in the history of commerce and See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion depends on this fact; at a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of progress salt became a necessary of See also:

• LIFE

life to most nations, and in many cases they could procure it only from abroad, from the sea-See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, or from districts like that of See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra where salty incrustations are found on the surface of the soil . Sometimes indeed a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of salt was got from the ashes of saline See also:

• PLANTS

plants (e.g. by the Umbrians, See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, Met. ii. p . 459), or by pouring the water of a brackish stream over a See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire of (saline) See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting the ashes, as was done in ancient Germany (Tac . See also:

• ANN

Ann. xiii . 57), in See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul and in Spain (Plin . H.N. xxxi . 7 .

82 seq.) ; but these were imperfect surrogates . Among inland peoples a salt See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring was regarded as a special See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift of the gods . The Chaonians in Epirus had one which flowed into a stream where there were no See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish; and the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend was that Heracles' had allowed then forefathers to have salt instead of fish (Arist. ut supra) . The Germans waged See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war for saline streams, and believed that the presence of salt in the soil invested a district with See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar sanctity and made it a place where prayers were most readily heard (Tac. ut sup.) . That a religious significance was attached to a substance so highly prized and which was often obtained with difficulty is no more than natural . And it must also be remembered that the habitual use of salt is intimately connected with the advance from nomadic to agricultural life, i.e. with precisely that step in See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization which had most influence on the cults of almost all ancient nations . The gods were worshipped as the givers of the kindly fruits of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, and, as all over the world " See also:

• BREAD

bread and salt " go together in common use and common phrase, salt was habitually associated with offerings, at least with all offerings which consisted in whole or in part of cereal elements . This practice is found alike among the Greeks and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans and among the Semitic peoples (Lev. ii . 13) ; See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer calls salt " divine," and See also:

• PLATO

Plato names it " a substance dear to the gods " (See also:

• TIMAEUS (c. 345—c. 250 B.e.)

Timaeus, g . 6o; cf . See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch, Sympos. v . 1o) .

As covenants were ordinarily made over a sacrificial meh1, in which salt was a necessary See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, the expression " a See also:

• COVENANT
• COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later convenant, from convenir, to agree, Lat. convenire)

covenant of salt " (Numb. xviii . 19) is easily understood ; it is probable, however, that the preservative qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of an enduring compact, and influenced the choice of this particular element of the covenant See also:

• MEAL

meal as that which was regarded as sealingan See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation to fidelity . Among the ancients, as among Orientals down to the present day, every meal that included salt had a certain sacred character and created a See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of piety and See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

guest friendship between the participants . Hence the Greek phrase &).as icai rp6. rei'as arapaIiatvecv, the Arab phrase " there is salt between us," the expression " to eat the salt of the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace " (See also:

• EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help ")
• EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF
• EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [I Esdras]

Ezra iv . 14, R.V.), the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian phrase namak hardm, " untrue to salt," i.e. disloyal or ungrateful, and many others . Both early in the history of the Roman See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army and in later times an See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance of salt was made to See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and men . In imperial times, however, this salarium was an allowance of See also:

• MONEY

money for salt (see See also:

• SALARY

SALARY) . It has been conjectured that some of the oldest trade routes were created for See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic in salt; at any See also:

• RATE

rate salt and See also:

• INCENSE

incense, the chief economic and religious necessaries ot the ancient world, See also:

• PLAY

play a great part in all that we know of the ancient highways of commerce . Thus one of the oldest roads in Italy is the Via See also:

• SALARIA, VIA

Salaria, by which the produce of the salt pans of See also:

• OSTIA

Ostia was carried up into the See also:

• SABINE, SIR EDWARD (1788-1883)

Sabine See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus's See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan route uniting the salt-oases of the Libyan desert (iv . 181 seq.) makes it See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain that this was mainly a salt-road, and to the present day the caravan trade of the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara is largely a trade in salt . The salt of Palmyra was an important element in the vast trade between the Syrian ports and the Persian Gulf (see PALMYRA), and long after the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of the great See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was past " the salt of Tadmor " retained its reputation (Mas'udi viii .

398) . In like manner the ancient trade between the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean and the coasts of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Russia was largely dependent on the salt pans at the mouth of the See also:

• DNIEPER

Dnieper and on the salt fish brought from this district (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. iv . 53; Dio Chrys . 437) . In Phoenician commerce salt and salt fish—the latter a valued delicacy in the ancient world—always formed an important See also:

• ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

item. i'he vast salt mines of northern India were worked before the time ot - lexander (See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo v . 6, xv . 1, 30) and must have been the centre of a wide-spread trade . The economic importance of salt is further indicated by the almost universal prevalence in ancient and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval times, and indeed in most countries down to the present day, of salt taxes or of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government monopolies, which have not often been directed, as they were in ancient See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, to enable every one to procure so necessary a condiment at a moderate See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price . In See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental systems of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation high imposts on salt are seldom lacking and are often carried out in a very oppressive way, one result of this being that the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is See also:

• APT

apt to reach the consumer in a very impure See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state largely mixed with earth . " The salt which has lost its savour " (Matt. v . 13) is simply the earthy residuum of such an impure salt after the sodium chloride has been washed out . Cakes of salt have been used as money in more than one part of the world—for example, in See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia and elsewhere in Africa, and in See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet and adjoining parts .

See the testimony of Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo (bk. ii. ch . 48) and See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel See also:

• YULE
• YULE, SIR HENRY (182o-1889)

Yule's See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note upon analogous customs elsewhere and on the use of salt as a medium of See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange in the Shan markets down to our own time, in his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of Polo ii . 48 seq . In the same See also:

• WORK

work interesting details are given as to the importance of salt in the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial system of the Mongol emperors (ii. zoo seq.) . (W . R .