SANSKRIT  , the name applied by See also:

• HINDU

Hindu scholars to the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . The word sarttskrita is the past participle of the verb kar(kr), " to make " (cognate with Latin creo), with the preposition sam, " together " (See also:

• COG

cog. dim, dµos, Eng . " same "), and has probably to be taken here in the sense of " completely formed " or " accurately made, polished, refined "—some noun meaning " speech " (esp. bhasha) being either expressed or understood with it . The See also:

• TERM

term was, doubtless, originally adopted by native grammarians to distinguish the literary language from the uncultivated popular dialects—the forerunners of the See also:

• MODERN

modern vernaculars of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern India—which had See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side by side with it, and which were called (from the same See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root kar, but with a different preposition) Prakrita, i.e. either " derived " or " natural, See also:

• COMMON

common" forms of speech . This designation of the literary See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

idiom, being intended to imply a language regulated by conventional rules, also involves a distinction between the grammatically fixed language of Brahmanical India and an earlier, less settled, phase of the same language exhibited in the Vedic writings . For convenience the Vedic language is, however, usually included in the term, and scholars generally distinguish between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit . I . SANSKRIT LANGUAGE The Sanskrit language, with its old and modern descendants, represents the easternmost See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the See also:

• GREAT

great Indo-Germanic, or See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan, stock of speech . Philological See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research has clearly established the fact that the Indo-See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans must originally have immigrated into India from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . In the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest literary documents handed down by them their See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual advance can indeed be traced from the slopes of eastern Kabulistan down to the See also:

• LAND

land of the five See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers (See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab), and thence to the plains of the Yamuna (See also:

• JUMNA, or JAMUNA

Jumna) and Ganga (See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges) . Numerous See also:

• SPECIAL

special coincidences, both of language and See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology, between the Vedic Aryans and the peoples of See also:

• IRAN

Iran also show that these two members of the Indo-Germanic See also:

• FAMILY

family must have remained in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion for some considerable See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period after the others had separated from them . The origin of See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology See also:

• DATES

dates from the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when See also:

• EUROPEAN

European scholars became accurately acquainted with the ancient language of India .

Before that time classical scholarshad been unable to determine the true relations between the then known See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages of our stock . This fact alone shows the importance of Sanskrit for comparative research . Though its value in this respect has perhaps at times been overrated, it may still be considered the eldest daughter of the old See also:

• MOTHER

mother-See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue . Indeed, so far as See also:

• DIRECT

direct documentary See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence goes, it may be said to be the only surviving daughter; for none of the other six See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal members of the family have See also:

• LEFT

left any literary monuments, and their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original features have to be reproduced, as best they can, from the materials supplied by their own daughter languages: such is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case as regards the Iranic, Hellenic, See also:

• ITALIC

Italic, See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic, See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic and Letto-Slavic languages . To the Sanskrit the antiquity and extent of its literary documents, the transparency of its grammatical structure, the comparatively See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of its See also:

• ACCENT

accent See also:

• SYSTEM

system, and the thorough grammatical treatment it has See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early received at the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of native scholars must ever secure the foremost See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the comparative study of Indo-Germanic speech . The Sanskrit See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet consists of the following sounds: (a) Fourteen vowels, viz: Ten See also:

• SIMPLE

simple vowels : a, d, u, u, r, 3, } (7) ; and Alphabet . Four diphthongs: e, ai, o, au . (b) See also:

• THIRTY

Thirty-three consonants, viz.: Five See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of mutes and nasals: guttural: k kh g gh is palatal : c ch j jh n lingual: t th dh n dental: tth d dh n labial: p ph b bh m; Four semivowels: y r 1 v (w) Three sibilants: palatal i (r), lingual .F (sh), dental s; and A soft aspirate: h . (c) Three unoriginal sounds, viz . visarga (lt), a hard aspirate, See also:

• STANDING

standing mostly for original s or r; and two nasal sounds of less close contact than the See also:

• MUTE (Lat. tnutus, dumb)

mute-nasals, viz. anusvara (rrt) and anunasika (rit) . As regards the vowels, a prominent feature of the language is the prevalence of a-sounds, these being about twice as frequent as all the others, including diphthongs taken Vowels . together (See also:

• WHITNEY, ELI (1765-1825)
• WHITNEY, JOSIAH DWIGHT (1819-1896)
• WHITNEY, WILLIAM COLLINS (1841-1904)
• WHITNEY, WILLIAM DWIGHT (1827-1894)

Whitney) .

The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short vowels e and o from the Sanskrit See also:

• ALPHA

alpha-See also:

• BET

bet, and the fact that Sanskrit shows the a-vowel where other vowels appear in other languages—e.g. bharantam = ¢Epoera, ferentem; jams= yisos, genus—were formerly considered as strong evidence in favour of the more primitive state of the Sanskrit vowel system as compared with that of the See also:

• SISTER

sister languages . See also:

• RECENT

Recent research has, however, shown See also:

• PRETTY

pretty conclusively from certain indications in the Sanskrit language itself that the latter must at one time have possessed the same, or very nearly the same, three vowel-sounds, and that the differentiation of the original a-See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound must, therefore, have taken place before the separation of the languages . Thus, Sans. carati, he walks, would seem to require an original kereti (Gr . 7I-EXEC = queleti, See also:

• LAT

Lat. colit), as otherwise the guttural k could not have changed to the palatal c (see below) ; and similarly Sans. jeinu, See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee, seems to stand for genu (Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv) . Not impossibly, however, this prevalence of pure a-sounds in Sanskrit may from the very beginning have been a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere theoretical or graphic feature of the language, the difference of See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation having not yet been pronounced enough for the early grammarians to have See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt it necessary to clearly distinguish between the different shades of a-sounds . The vowels and o, though apparently simple sounds, are classed as diphthongs, being contracted from original di and au respectively, and liable to be treated as such in the phonetic modifications they have to undergo before any vowel except a . As regards the consonants, two of the five series of mutes, the palatal and lingual series, are of secondary See also:

• CON

Con-(the one of Indo-Iranian, the other of purely See also:

• INDIAN

Indian) sonants. growth . The palatals are, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, derived from original gutturals, the modification being generally due to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of a neighbouring palatal sound i or y, or e (a) . The surd aspirate ch, in words of Indo-Germanic origin, almost invariably goes back to original sk: e.g. chid- (chind-) = scindo, extl"w: chaya = shalt (O.E. scin, shine) ; Sans. gacchati =130aKec . The palatal sibilant s (pronounced sh) likewise originated from a guttural mute k, but one of somewhat different phonetic value from that represented by Sanskrit k or c . The latter, usually designated by kz (or q), is frequently liable to labialization (or dentalization) in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, probably owing to an original pronunciation kw (qu) : e.g. katara=,rorepos, uter; while the former (k') shows invariably s in Greek, and a sibilant in the Letto-Slavic and the Indo-Iranian languages: e.g . :See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man (See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun) = Kl1wv (KVV), cans, Ger .

Hund; da:an= See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias, decem, Goth. taihun . The non-original nature of the palatals betrays itself even in Sanskrit by their inability to occur at the end of a word—e.g. acc. vacam=Lat. vocem, but nom. vak=vox—and by otherwise frequently reverting to the guttural state . The linguals differ in pronunciation from the dentals in their being uttered with the tip of the tongue turned up to the See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome of the See also:

• PALATE (Lat. palatum, possibly from the root of pascere, to feed)

palate, while in the utterance of the dentals it is pressed against the upper See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth, not against the upper gums as is done in the See also:

• ENGLISH

English dentals, which to See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus sound more like their own linguals . The latter, when occurring in words of Aryan origin, are, as a rule, modifications of original dentals, usually accompanied by the loss of an r or other adjoining consonant; but more commonly they occur in words of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign, probably non-Aryan, origin . Of See also:

• REGULAR

regular occurrence in the language, however, is the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of dental is into lingual n, and of dental s into lingual s, when preceded in the same word by certain other letters . The See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination ks seems sometimes to stand for ks (? kst) as in Sans. aksa, Gr . &See also:

• EWE

Ewe, See also:

• AXLE (in Mid. Eng. axel-tre, from O. Norweg. oxull-tre, cognate with the O. Eng. exe or eaxe, and connected with Sansk. dksha, Gr. a wv, and Lat. axis)

axle; Sans. dakshina, Gr . SE tos (but Lat. See also:

• DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821—1890)
• DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747—1806)

dexter); sometimes for kt, e.g . Sans. kshiti, Gr . ,riots (but Sans. kshiti = Gr . 40ioss) ; Sans. takshan, Gr . 7&See also:

• TOW

TOW .

The sonant aspirate h is likewise non-original, being usually de-rived from original sonant aspirated mutes, especially gh, e.g. hamsa=xis (for xays), anser, Ger . See also:

• GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839)

Gans; aham=Eywv, ego, Goth. ik . The contact of final and initial letters of words in the same See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence is often attended in Sanskrit with considerable euphonic modifica-Phonetic tions; and we have no means of knowing how far the changes. practice of the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular language may have corresponded to these phonetic theories . There can be no doubt, how-ever, that a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• DEAL

deal in this respect has to be placed to the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of grammatical reflection; and the very facilities which the primitive structure of the language offered for grammatical See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis and an insight into the principles of See also:

• INTERNAL

internal modification may have given the first impulse to See also:

• EXTERNAL

external modifications of a similar See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . None of the cognate languages exhibits in so transparent a manner as the Sanskrit the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal principle of Indo-Germanic word-formation by the addition of inflectional endings—either case-endings or See also:

• PERSONAL

personal terminations (themselves probably original roots)—to stems obtained, mainly by means of suffixes, from monosyllabic roots, with or without internal modifications . There are in Sanskrit declension three See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers and seven cases, not counting the vocative, viz. nominative, See also:

• ACCUSATIVE (Lat. accusativus, sc. casus, a translation of the Gr. aletartKI vrrwves, the case concerned with cause and effect, from atria, a cause)

accusative, instru- See also:

• MENTAL

mental mental (or sociative), See also:

• DATIVE (Lat. dativus, giving or given, from dare, to give)

dative, See also:

• ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. cases, from ablatum, taken away)

ablative, genitive and locative . As a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact, all these seven cases &ton. appear, however, only in the singular of a-stems and of the pronominal declension . Other noun-stems have only one case-See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form for the ablative and genitive singular . In the plural, the ablative everywhere shares its form with the dative (except in the personal pronoun, where it has the same ending as in the singular), whilst the dual shows only three different case-forms—one for the nominative and accusative, another for the instrumental, dative, and ablative, and a third for the genitive and locative . The declension of a-stems corresponding to the first and second Latin declensions is of especial See also:

• INTEREST

interest, not so much on account of its being predominant from the earliest time, and becoming more and more so with the development of the language, but because it presents the greatest number of alternative forms, which See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply a kind of test for determining the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of literary productions, a test which indeed has already been applied to some extent by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL (1850- )

Lanman, in his excellent Statistical Account of Noun See also:

• INFLEXION (from Lat. inflectere, to bend)

Inflexion in the Veda . These alternative case-forms are : i. asas and as for the nominative plural masc. and See also:

• FERN (from O. Eng. fearn, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch varen, and Ger. Farn; the Indo-European root, seen in the Sanskrit parna, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. rmep6 , feather, rTepis, fern)

fern.: e.g. ofvasas and asvas=equi (equae) . The forms in asas—explained by See also:

• BOPP, FRANZ (1791-1867)

Bopp as the sign of the plural as applied twice, and by See also:

• SCHLEICHER, AUGUST (1821-1868)

Schleicher as the sign of the plural as added to the nominative singular—occur to those in as (i.e. the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary plural sign as added to the a-See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem) in the ligveda in the proportion of i to 2, and in the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar parts of the Atharvaveda in that oft to 25, whilst the ending as alone remains in the later language .

2. a and See also:

• ANI (anc. Abnicum)

ani for the nominative and accusative plural of neuters: as yuga, yugani=Ovyb., juga . The proportion of the former ending to the latter in the Rik is ii to 7, in the Atharvan 2 to 3, whilst the classical Sanskrit knows only the second form . 3. ebhis and ais for the instrumental plural masc. and neuter, e.g. devebhis, devais . In the Rik the former forms are to the latter in the proportion of 5 to 6, in the Atharvan of i to 5, while in the later language only the contracted form is used . The same con-See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

traction is found in other languages; but it is doubtful whether it did not originate independently in them . 4. a and au for the nominative and accusative dual masc., e.g. ubha, ubhau=ap¢w . In the Rik forms in a outnumber those in du more than eight times; whilst in the Atharvan, on the contrary, those in au (the only ending used in the classical language) occur five times as often as those in a . 5. a and ena (end) for the instrumental singular masc. and neut., as See also:

• ELAND (= elk)

eland, danena=dono . The ending ena is the one invariably used in the later language . It is likewise the usual form in the Veda; but in a number of cases it shows a final See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long vowel which, though it may be entirely due to metrical requirements, is more probably a relic of the normal instrumental ending a, preserved for prosodic reasons . For the simple ending a, as compared with that in ena, Professor Lanman makes out a proportion of about t to 9 in the Rigveda (altogether 114 cases) ; while in the peculiar parts of the Atharvan he finds only i i cases . 6. am and anam for the genitive plural, e.g .

(asvam), asvandm ='br rwv, equum (equorum) . The form with inserted nasal (doubt-. less for anam, as in Zend aspanam), which is exclusively used in the later language, is also the prevailing one in the There are, however, a few genitives of a-stems in original am (for a-am), which also appear in Zend, Professor Lanman enumerating a dozen in-stances, some of which are, however, doubtful, while others are merely conjectural . The Sanskrit verb system resembles that of the Greek in variety and completeness . While the Greek excels in nicety and definite- ness of modal distinction, the Sanskrit surpasses it in Verb primitiveness and transparency of formation . In this system. See also:

• PART

part of the grammatical system there is, however, an even greater difference than in the noun inflection between the Vedic and the classical Sanskrit . While the former shows, upon the whole, the full See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of modal forms exhibited by the Greek, the later language has practically discarded the subjunctive See also:

• MOOD

mood . The Indo-Aryans never succeeded in working out a clear formative distinction between the subjunctive and indicative moods; and, their syntactic requirements becoming more and more limited, they at last contented themselves, for modal expression, with a See also:

• PRESENT

present optative and imperative, in addition to the indicative tense-forms, and a little-used See also:

• AORIST (from Gr. abpOrror, indefinite)

aorist optative with a special " precative " or benedictive " meaning attached to it . Another part of the verb in which the later language differs widely from Vedic usage is the See also:

• INFINITIVE

infinitive . The language of the old See also:

• HYMNS

hymns shows a considerable variety of case-forms of verbal abstract nouns with the See also:

• FUNCTION

function of infinitives, a certain number of which can still be traced back to the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent language, as, for instance, such dative forms as jiv-vise=vrv-ere; sdh-adhyai=fxeoOat; da.'-mane =Sbµevau; da'-See also:

• VANE (formerly spelt " fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. Feline, Du. vaan, Fr. girouette, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wellerfahne)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1589-1654)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662)

vane =Soivai . Further, ji-she, "to conquer," for ji-se, apparently an aorist infinitive with the dative ending (parallel to the See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical forms, such as yudh-e, "to fight," drs'-e, "to see "), thus corresponding to the Greek aorist infinitive Auoas (but cf. also Latin da-re, for dase, es-se, &c.) . The classical Sanskrit, on the other hand, practically uses only one infinitive form, viz. the accusative of a verbal noun in tu, e.g. sthatum, etum, corresponding to the Latin supinum datum, See also:

• ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

item . But, as in Latin another case, the ablative (data), of the same abstract noun is utilized for a similar purpose, so the Vedic language makes two other cases do See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty as infinitives, viz. the dative in lave (e.g. ddtave, and the anomalous etavdi) and the gen.-abl. in tos (ddios) .

A prominent feature of the later Sanskrit syntax is the so-called gerund or indeclinable participle in See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea, apparently the instrumental of a stem in See also:

• LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825–1909)

lea (probably a derivative from that in tu), as well as the gerund in ya (or tya after a final short radical vowel) made from See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound verbs . The old language knows not only such gerunds in tea, using them, however, very sparingly, but also corresponding dative forms in tvaya (yuktvaya) and the curious contracted forms in hi' (krtvt, " to do ") . And, besides those in ya and tya, it frequently uses forms with a final long vowel, as bhid-ya, i-tya, thus showing the former to be shortened instrumentals of abstract nouns in i and ti . The Sanskrit verb, like the Greek, has two voices, active and See also:

• MIDDLE

middle, called, after their See also:

• PRIMARY

primary functions, parasmai-pada, " word for another," and atmane-pada, " word for one's self." While in Greek the middle forms have to do duty also for the passive in all tenses except the 'aorist and future, the Sanskrit, on the other hand, has developed for the passive a special present-stem in ya, the other tenses being supplied by the corresponding middle forms, with the exception of the third See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person singular aorist, for which a special form in i is usually assigned to the passive . The pre§ent-stem system is by far the most important part of the whole verb system, both on account of frequency of actual occurrence and of its excellent state of preservation . It is with regard to the different ways of present-stem formation that the entire stock of assumed roots has been grouped by the native grammarians under ten different classes . These classes again naturally fall under two divisions or " conjugations," with this characteristic difference that the one (corresponding to Gr. conj. in w) retains the same stem (ending in a) throughout the present and imperfect, only lengthening the final vowel before terminations beginning with v or m (not final) ; while the other (corresponding to that in at) shows two different forms of the stem, a strong and a weak form, according as the accent falls on the stem-syllable or on the personal ending: e.g . 3 sing. badra-ti, 4Epea—2 pl. bhara-tha, 'Epere: but a-ti, slat —i-tha, ire (for hi): t sing. See also:

• STENO, NICOLAUS (1631-1686)

steno-mi, arbpvvµa—I pl. strnu-mds (oTbpsugss) . As several of the personal endings show a decided similarity to personal or See also:

• DEMONSTRATIVE

demonstrative pronouns, it is highly probable that, as might indeed be a priori expected, all or most of them are of See also:

• PRO

pro-nominal origin—though, owing to their exposed position and consequent decay, their original form and identity cannot now be determined with certainty . The active singular terminations, with the exception of the second person of the imperative, are unaccented and of comparatively See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance; while those of the dual and plural, as well as the middle terminations, have the accent, being apparently too heavy to be supported by the stem-accent, either because, as Schleicher supposed, they are composed of two different pronominal elements, or otherwise . The treatment of the personal endings in the modifying, and presumably older, conjugation may thus be said somewhat to resemble that of enclitics in Greek . In the imperfect the present-stem is increased by the See also:

• AUGMENT (Lat. augere, to increase)

augment, consisting of a prefixed d .

Here, as in the other tenses in which it appears, it has invariably the accent, as being the distinctive See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element (originally probably an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent demonstrative adverb " then ") for the expression of past time . This shifting of the word-accent seems to have contributed to the further reduction of the personal endings, and thus to have caused the formation of a new, or secondary, set of terminations which came to be appropriated for secondary tenses and mocds generally . As in Greek See also:

• POETRY

poetry, the augment is frequently omitted in Sanskrit . The mood-sign of the subjunctive is a, added to (the strong form of) the tense-stem . If the stem ends already in ei, the latter becomes lengthened . As regards the personal terminations, some persons take the primary, others the secondary forms, while others again may take either the one or the other . The first singular active, however, takes ni instead of mi, to distinguish it from the indicative . But besides these forms, showing the mood-sign a, the subjunctive (both present and aorist) may take another form, without any distinctive modal sign, and with the secondary endings, being thus identical with the augmentless form of the preterite . The optative invariably takes the secondary endings, with some peculiar See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations . In the active of the modifying conjugation its mood-sign is ya, affixed to the weak form of the stem: e.g. root assyam = Lat. siem, sim (where Gr., from See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy to part, &c., shows irregularly the strong form of the stem, slip, for See also:

• EA(nar...), (p.s„,.,.)
• EA(psr...), (p, „...)• (pqr...)

Ea-cif-v: as in 1st sing. of verbs in w, it also has irregularly the primary ending, Xstaocµ=S. rece-y-am); while in the a-conjugation and throughout the middle the mood-sign is i, probably a contraction of yes: e.g. See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad.res=4 pocs . Besides the ordinary perfect, made from a reduplicated stem, with distinction between strong (active singular) and weak forms, and a partly peculiar set of endings, the later language makes large use of a periphrastic perfect, consisting of the accusative of a feminine abstract noun in a (-am) with the reduplicated perfect forms of the See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary verbs kar, " to do," or as (and occasionally bhu), " to be." Though more particularly resorted to for the derivative forms of conjugation—viz. the cotisative (including the so-called tenth conjugational class), the desiderative, intensive and denominative—this perfect-form is also commonly used with roots beginning with prosodically long vowels, as well as with a few other isolated roots . In the I.igveda this formation is quite unknown, and the Atharvan offers a single instance of it, from a causative verb, with the auxiliary kar .

In the Vedic See also:

• PROSE

prose, on the other hand, it is rather frequent,' and it is quite common in the later language . In addition to the ordinary participles, active and middle, of the reduplicated perfect—e.g. jajan-vdn, yeyov- ,s: bubudh-and, srE,rve-µivo—there is a secondary participial formation, obtained by affixing the possessive suffix vat (vant) to the passive past participle: e.g. krta-vant, lit . " having (that which is) done." A secondary participle of this kind occurs once in the Atharvaveda, and it is occasionally met with in the Brahmanas . In the later language, however, it not only is of rather frequent occurrence, but has assumed quite a new function, viz. that of a finite perfect-form; thus krtavan; krtavantas, without any auxiliary verb, mean, not " having done," but " he has done," " they have done." The original Indo-Germanic future-stem formation in sya, with primary endings—e.g. dasydti=biaaec (for 66aerc)—is the ordinary tense-form both in Vedic and classical Sanskrit—a preterite of it, with a conditional force attached to it (ddasyat), being alffo common to all periods of the language . Side by side with this future, however, an See also:

• ANALYTIC (the adjective of " analysis," q.v.)

analytic tense-form makes its appearance in the Brahmanas, obtaining wider currency in the later language . This periphrastic future is made by means of the nominative singular of a nomen agentis in See also:

• TAR

tar (datar, nom. data=Lat. dator), followed by the corresponding present forms of as . " to be " (data-'smi, as it were, datums sum), with the exception of the third persons, which need no auxiliary, but take the respective -iominatives of the noun . The aorist system is somewhat complicated, including as it does augment-preterites of various formations, viz. a radical aorist, sometimes with reduplicated stem—e.g. dstham=&aT77v: srudhi =IAA; ddudrot; an a-aorist (or thematic aorist) with or without reduplication—e.g. dricas=eXcaes: dpaptam, cf . Ire¢vov; and several different forms of a sibilant-aorist . In the older Vedic language the radical aorist is far more common than the a-aorist, which becomes more frequently used later on . Of the different kinds of sibilant-aorists, the most common is the one which makes its stem by the addition of s to the root, either with or without a connecting vowel i in different roots: e.g. root ji—1 sing. djaisham, 1 pl. sijaishma; dkramisham, dkramishma . A limited number of roots take a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double aorist-sign with inserted connecting vowel (sish for See also:

• SIS (anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or Flavias)

sis)—e.g. dyasisham (cf. See also:

• SCRIP

scrip-sis-ti) ; whilst others—very rarely ' It also shows occasionally other tense-forms than the perfect of the same periphrastic formation with kar.in the older but more numerously in the later language—make their aorist-stem by the addition of sa—e.g. ddikshas =rbect;as .

As regards the syntactic functions of the three preterites—the imperfect, perfect and aorist—the classical writers make virtually no distinction between them, but use them quite indiscriminately . In the older language, on the other hand, the imperfect is chiefly used as a narrative tense, while the other two generally refer to a past See also:

• ACTION

action which is now See also:

• COMPLETE

complete—the aorist, however, more frequently to that which is only just done or completed . The perfect, owing doubtless to its reduplicative form, has also not infrequently the force of an iterative, or intensive, present . The Sanskrit, like the Greek, shows at all times a considerable See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power and facility of noun-See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . But, while in the older language, as well as in the earlier literary products of the Word-classical period, such combinations rarely exceed the formation. limits compatible with the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of inflectional speech, during the later, artificial period of the language they gradually become more and more excessive, both in See also:

• SIZE

size and frequency of use, till at last they absorb almost the entire range of syntactic construction . One of the most striking features of Sanskrit word-formation is that regular interchange of light and strong vowel-sounds, usually designated by the native terms of See also:

• GUNA

guna (quality) and vriddhi (in-crease) . The phonetic See also:

• PROCESS

process implied in these terms consists in the raising, under certain conditions, of a radical or thematic light vowel i, u, r, 1, by means of an inserted a-sound, to the diphthongal (guna) sounds ai (Sans. e), au (Sans. b), and the combination ar and al respectively, and, by a repetition of the same process, to the (vriddhi) sounds di, au, dr, and al respectively . Thus from root vid, " to know," we have See also:

• VIDA, MARCO GIROLAMO (c. 1489-1566)

vida, " knowledge," and therefrom vaidika; from yuj, y6ga, ya%i.gika . While the interchange of the former kind, due mainly to accentual causes, was undoubtedly a common feature of Indo-Germanic speech, the latter, or vriddhi-change, which chiefly occurs in secondary stems, is probably a later development . Moreover, there can be no doubt that the vriddhi-vowels are really due to what the term implies, viz. to a process of " increment," or vowel-raising . The same used to be universally assumed by comparative philologists as regards the relation between the guna-sounds ai (e) and au (o) and the respective simple is and u-sounds . According to a more recent theory, however, which has been very generally accepted, we have rather to look upon the heavier vowels as the original, and upon the lighter vowels as the later sounds, produced through the absence of stress and See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch .

The grounds on which this theory is recommended are those of logical consistency . In the analogous cases of interchange between r and at., as well as l and al, most scholars have indeed been wont to regard the syllabic r and F as weakened from original ar and al, while the native grammarians represent the latter as produced from the former by increment . Similarly the verb as (is), " to be," loses its vowel wherever the radical syllable is unaccented, e.g. dsti, Lat. est—smds, s(u)See also:

• MUS

mus; opt. syam, Lat. slim (sim) . On the strength of these analogous cases of vowel-modification we are, therefore, to accept some such See also:

• EQUATION (from Lat. aequatio, aequare, to equalize)

equation as this: dSmi: SmdS=i4ssosiam: bp(a)Kov=Xelirw: Xmas =imi (40: imds (iµev for i)siv) _,EGyw : 4uyels = d6hmi (I See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk) : duhmds . Acquiescence in this equation would seem to involve at least one important See also:

• ADMISSION

admission, viz. that original root-syllables contained no simple is and u-vowels, except as the second element of the diphthongs ai, ei, oi; an, eu, ou . We ought no longer to speak of the roots vid, " to know," dik, " to show, to bid," dhugh, " to milk," yug, " to join," but of veid, deik, dhaugh or dheugh, yeug, &c . See also:

• NAY, or NEY

Nay, as the same See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law would apply with equal force to suffixal vowels, the suffix nu would have to be called nau or neu ; and, in explaining, for instance, the irregularly formed SEIKVVµc, 5EIKYUp.ep, we might say that, by the affixion of See also:

• VEIL (O.Fr. veile, mod. voile, from Lat. velum, cloth, awning, sail)

veil to the root fists, the present-stem awed, was obtained (SLKveu)lc), which, as the stress was shifted forward, became I plur . SeKVVµEa(c),—the subsequent modifications in the radical and formative syllables being due to the effects of " analogy " (cf . G . See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer, Griech . Gramm., § 487) . Now, if there be any truth in the " See also:

• AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally to fasten together with glue)

agglutination " theory, according to which the radical and formative elements of Indo-Germanic speech were at one time independent words, we would have to be prepared for a pretty liberal allowaiice, to the parent language, of diphthongal mono-syllables such as deik neu, while simple combinations such as dik nu could only See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring up after See also:

• SEPARATE

separate syllable-words had become See also:

• UNITED

united by the force of a common accent .

But, whether the agglutinationists be right or wrong, a theory involving the priority of the diphthongal over the simple sounds can hardly be said to be one of great prima facie See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability; and one may well ask whether the requirements of logical consistency might not be satisfied in some other, less improbable, way . Now, the analogous cases which have called forth this theory turn upon the loss of a radical or suffixal a (i), occasioned by the shifting of the word-accent to some other syllable, e.g. See also:

• ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

ace. matdram, instr. mitres; aeroµa,, E7rTGt17p,: SEpeojscm , lbp(a)eov: dsmi, smds . Might we not then assume that at an early See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of noun and verb inflection, through the giving way, under certain conditions, of the stem-a (i), the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of stem-gradation, as an element of inflection, came to establish itself and ultimately to extend its See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere over stems with is and u-vowels, but that, on See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting here with more resistance' than in the a (e)-vowel, the stem-gradation then took the shape of a raising of the simple vowel, in the " strong " cases and verb-forms, by that same a-element which constituted the distinctive element of those cases in the other variable stems ? In this way the above equation would still hold good, and the corresponding vowel-grades, though of somewhat different See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

genesis, would yet be strictly analogous . At all events in the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the present writer, the last word has not yet been said on the important point of Indo-Germanic vowel-gradation . The accent of Sanskrit words is marked only in the more important Vedic texts, different systems of notation being used in different See also:

• WORKS

works . Our knowledge of the later accentuation of words is entirely derived from the statements of grammarians . As in Greek, there are three accents, the udatta (" raised," i.e. acute), the anudatta (" not raised," i.e. See also:

• GRAVE

grave), and the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea rite (" sounded, modulated," i.e. circumflex) . The last is a combination of the two others, its proper use being confined almost entirely to a vowel preceded by a semivowel y or v, representing an original acuted vowel . Hindu scholars, however, also include in this term the accent of a grave syllable preceded by an acuted syllable, and itself followed by a grave . The Sanskrit and Greek accentuations present numerous coincidences . Although the Greek rule, confining the accent within the last three syllables, has frequently obliterated the original likeness, the old features may often be traced through the later forms .

Thus, though augmented verb-forms in Greek cannot always have the accent on the augment as in Sanskrit, they have it invariably as little removed from it as the accentual restrictions will allow; e.g. dbharam, €¢Epov: dbharama, 4EpoMcv: dbharamahi, /Ep6µsOa . The most striking coincidence in noun declension is the accentual distinction made by both languages between the " strong " and " weak " cases of monosyllabic nouns—the only difference in this respect being that in Sanskrit the accusative plural, as a rule, has the accent on the case-ending, and consequently shows the weak form of the stem; e.g. stem See also:

• PAD

pad, See also:

• ROS, or DE
• ROS, SIR RICHARD (b. 1429)

roS: pddam, r66a: padds, ro56s: padi, vat: pddas, r6bss: padds, r6Sas: paddm, roHwv: parti , rout .. In Sanskrit a few other classes of stems (especially present participles in See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

ant, at), accented on the last syllable, are See also:

• APT

apt to yield their accent to heavy vowel (not consonantal) terminations; compare the analogous accentuation of Sanskrit and Greek stems in tar: pitdram, rarfpa: pitre, See also:

• CARP

carp& : pitdras, raTEpES: piteshu, rarp(i)oi . The vocative, when heading a sentence (or See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse-See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division), has invariably the accent on the first syllable; otherwise it is not accented . Finite verb-forms also, as a rule, lose their accent, except when standing at the beginning of a sentence or verse-division (a vocative not being taken into account), or in dependent (mostly relative) clauses, or in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with certain particles . Of two or more co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate verb-forms, however, only the first is unaccented . In See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing Sanskrit the natives, in different parts of India, generally employ the particular See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character used for writing their own vernacular. written The character, however, most widely understood and characters . Eemployed uropean See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of Sanskrit works used (unless invariably printed in See also:

• ROMAN

Roman letters) is the Nagari, or " See also:

• TOWN

town-script," also commonly called Devanagari, or ntigari of the gods . The origin of the Indian alphabets is still enveloped in doubt . The oldest hitherto known specimens of Indian writing are a number of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, containing religious edicts in See also:

• PALI

Pali (the See also:

• PRAKRIT (prakrta, natural)

Prakrit used in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Buddhist scriptures), issued by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• ASOKA

Asoka (Piyadasi) of the Maurya See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, in 253–251 B.c., and scattered over the See also:

• AREA

area of northern India from the vicinity of See also:

• PESHAWAR

Peshawar, on the north-west frontier, and See also:

• GIRNAR

Girnar in See also:

• GUJARAT

Gujarat, to Jaugada and Dhauli in Katak, on the eastern See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . The most western of these inscriptions—those found near Kapurdagarhi or Shahbazgarhi, and Mansora—are executed in a different alphabet from the others . It reads from right to left, and is usually called the Arian Pali alphabet, it being also used on the coins of the Greek and Indo-Scythian princes of Ariana; while the other, which reads from left to right, is called the Indian Pali alphabet .

The former—also called Kharoshthi or Gandhara alphabet (lipi)—which is manifestly derived from a Semitic (probably Aramaean) source, has left no traces on the subsequent development of Indian writing . The Indo-Pali (or Brahmi) alphabet, on the other hand, from which the modern Indian alphabets are derived, is of more uncertain origin . The similarity, however, which several of its letters present to those of the old Phoenician alphabet (itself probably derived from the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. iepos, sacred, and'yXv ni, carving)

hieroglyphics) suggests for this alphabet also the probability of a Semitic origin, though, already at Asoka's time, the See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians had worked it up to a high degree of perfection and wonder- ' We might compare the different treatment in Sanskrit of an and in bases (murdhdni-murdhnd ; vadini-vadina) ; for, though the latter are doubtless of later origin, their inflection might have been expected to be influenced by that of the former . Also a comparison of such forms as (devd) devdnam (See also:

• AGNI

agni) agnindm, and (dhenii) dhenundm, tells in favour of the is and u-vowels, as regards power of resistance, inasmuch as it does not require the accent in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to remain intact.fully adapted it to their peculiar scientific ends . The question as to the probable time and channel of its introduction can scarcely be expected ever to be placed beyond all doubt . The See also:

• LATE

late Professor Baler has, however, made it very probable that this alphabet was introduced into India by traders from See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia about 800 B.C . At all events, considering the high state of perfection it exhibits in the Maurya and Andhra inscriptions, as well as the wide area over which these are scattered, it can hardly be doubted that the See also:

• ART

art of writing must have been known to and practised by the Indians for various purposes long before the time of Asoka . The fact that no. reference to it is found in the contemporary literature has probably to be accounted for by a strong reluctance on the part of the Brahmans to commit their sacred works to writing . As regards the See also:

• NUMERAL (from Lat. numerus, a number)

numeral signs used in India, the Kharoshthi inscriptions of the early centuries of our era show a numerical system in which the first three numbers are represented by as many See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical strokes, whilst 4 is marked by a slanting See also:

• CROSS

cross, and 5–9 by 4(+) 1, &c., to 4(+)4(+)I; then special signs for Io, 20 and too, the intervening multiples of to being marked in the vigesimal See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, thus 50 =20(+)20(+)I0 . This system has been proved to be' of Semitic, probably Aramaic, origin . In the Brahmi inscriptions up to the end of the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of our era, another system is used in which 1–3 are denoted by as many See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal strokes, and thereafter by special syllabic signs for 4–9, the decades 10–90, and for too and 1000 . This system was most likely derived from See also:

• HIERATIC

hieratic See also:

• SOURCES

sources of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt .

The decimal system of See also:

• CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab. sifr, void)

cipher notation, on the other hand, which is first found used on a Gujarat inscription of A.D . 595, seems to See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean invention of Indian astronomers or mathematicians, based on the existing syllabic (or word) signs or equivalents thereof . The first two Sanskrit grammars published by Europeans were those of the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian Jesuit Wesdin, called See also:

• PAULINUS (d. 644)
• PAULINUS, GAIUS SUETONIUS (1st century A.D.)

Paulinus a Sancto Bartholomaeo (See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, 1790–1804) . These were followed by those of H . C . See also:

• COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS (1765-1837)

Colebrooke (1805; based on Panini's system), See also:

• CAREY, HENRY (d. 1743)
• CAREY, HENRY CHARLES (1793-1879)
• CAREY, WILLIAM (1761-1834)

Carey (18o6), See also:

• WILKINS, GEORGE (ii. 1607)
• WILKINS, JOHN (1614-1672)
• WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR (1862– )
• WILKINS, SIR CHARLES (1749?-1836)

Wilkins (1808), See also:

• FORSTER, FRANCOIS (179o-,872)
• FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868)
• FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794)
• FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876)
• FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886)
• FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886)

Forster (1810), F . Bopp (1827), H . H . See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson, Th . See also:

• BENFEY, THEODOR (1809-1881)

Benfey, &c . These, as well as those of Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Monier See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams and F . Kielhorn, now most widely used, deal almost exclusively with classical Sanskrit; whilst that of W .

D . Whitney treats the whole language historically; as does also J . Wackernagel's not yet completed Altindische Grammatik . The first Sanskrit See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary was that of H . H . Wilson (1819; 2nd ed., 1832), which was followed by the great Sanskrit-See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Worterbuch, published at St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg in 7 vols. by Professors See also:

• BOHTLINGK, OTTO VON (18'5—1004)

Bohtlingk and See also:

• ROTH, JUSTUS LUDWIG ADOLF (1818-1892)

Roth . Largely based on this great See also:

• THESAURUS (Gr. B17o-avp6s)

thesaurus are the Sanskrit-English dictionaries by See also:

• SIR

Sir M . Williams (2nd ed., 1899), Th . Benfey, A . A . See also:

• MACDONELL, JAMES (1841-1879)

Macdonell, &c . On the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the Indian alphabets, cf .

G . Buhler, Indische Palaographie (1896); A . C . See also:

• BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE (1840–1882)
• BURNELL, ROBERT (d. 1292)

Burnell, Elements of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Indian See also:

• PALAEOGRAPHY (Gr. aaXalbs, ancient, and ypal6ew, to write)

Palaeography (2nd ed., 1878), R . Cust's rt sumE in Jour . See also:

• ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

Roy . As . See also:

• SOC

Soc., N.s. vol. xvi . II . SANSKRIT LITERATURE The history of Sanskrit literature labours under the same disadvantage as the See also:

• POLITICAL

political history of ancient India from the See also:

• TOTAL

total want of anything like a fixed See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology . In that vast range of literary development there is scarcely a See also:

• WORK

work of importance the date of which scholars have fixed with See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute certainty . The original composition of most Sanskrit works can indeed be confidently assigned to certain general periods of literature, but as to many of them, and these among the most important, scholars have but too much See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt whether they have come down to us in their original shape, or whether they have not undergone alterations and additions so serious as to make it impossible to regard them as genuine witnesses of any one phase of the development of the Indian mind .

Nor can we expect many important See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological data from new materials brought to light in India . Though by such discoveries a few isolated spots may be lighted up here and there, the real task of clearing away the mist which at present obscures our view, if ever it can be cleared away, will have to be performed by patient research and a more See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical examination of the multitudinous writings which have been handed down from the remote past . In the following See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch it is intended to take a rapid view of the more important works and writers in the several departments of literature . In accordance with the two great phases of linguistic development referred to, the history of Sanskrit' literature readily divides itself into two principal periods—the Vedic and the classical . These periods partly overlap, and some of the later Vedic work are included in that period on account of the subjects with which they deal, and for their archaic See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, rather than for any just claim to a higher antiquity than may have to be assigned to the oldest works of the classical Sanskrit . Aacentuatton . I . THE VEDIC PERIOD' The term veda—i.e . " knowledge," (sacred) " See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore "—embraces a See also:

• BODY