See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

COMTE DE See also:

• MAURICE (1521–1553)
• MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539–602)
• MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286)
• MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872)

MAURICE See also:

• SAXE, JOHN GODFREY (1816-1887)
• COMTE DE MAURICE SAXE (1696-1750)

SAXE (1696-1750)  , See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

marshal of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, was the natural son of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus II. of See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony and the countess See also:

• AURORA
• AURORA (perhaps through a form ausosa from Sansk. ush, to burn ; the common idea of " brightness " suggests a connexion with aurum, gold)

Aurora Kenigsmark, and was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• GOSLAR

Goslar on the 28th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1696 . In 1698 the countess sent him to See also:

• WARSAW
• WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie)

Warsaw to his See also:

• FATHER

father, who had been elected See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland in the previous See also:

• YEAR

year, but on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the unsettled See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country the greater See also:

• PART

part of his youth was spent outside its limits . This separation from his father made him See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control and had an important effect on his future career . At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of twelve he was See also:

• PRESENT

present, with the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of See also:

• EUGENE

Eugene, at the sieges of Tournay and See also:

• MONS (Flemish Bergen)

Mons and the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• MALPLAQUET

Malplaquet, but the achievements ascribed to. him in this See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign are chiefly fabulous . A proposal to send him at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of it to a Jesuit See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college at See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels was relinquished on account of the protests of his See also:

• MOTHER

mother; and, returning to the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp of the See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies in the beginning of 1710, he displayed a courage so impetuous as to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call forth from Eugene the friendly admonition not to confound rashness with valour . He next served under See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the See also:

• GREAT

Great against the Swedes . After receiving in 1711 formal recognition from his father, with the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count, he accompanied him to See also:

• POMERANIA (German, Pommern)

Pomerania, and in 1712 he took part in the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of See also:

• STRALSUND

Stralsund . In manhood he See also:

• BORE

bore a strong resemblance to his father, both in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . His grasp was so powerful that he could See also:

• BEND

bend a See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe with his See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and to the last his See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and endurance were scarcely subdued by the illnesses resulting from his many excesses .. In 1714 a See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage was arranged between him and one of the richest of his father's subjects, Johanna See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria, Countess von Loeben, but he dissipated her See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune so rapidly that he was soon heavily in See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, and, having given her more serious grounds of complaint against him, he consented to an annulment of the marriage in 1721 . Meantime, after serving in a campaign against the See also:

• TURKS

Turks in 1717, he had in 1719 gone to See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris to study See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics, and in 1720 obtained a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission as marechal de camp . In 1725 negotiations were entered into for his See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election as See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of' See also:

• COURLAND, or KURLAND

Courland, at the instance of the duchess See also:

• ANNA
• ANNA (Hindustani ana)
• ANNA, BALDASARRE

Anna Ivanovna, who offered him her hand .

He was chosen duke in 1726, but declining marriage with the duchess found it impossible to resist her opposition to his claims, although, with the assistance of £30,000 See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent him by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French actress Adrienne See also:

• LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE (1692-1730)

Lecouvreur, whose See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story forms the subject of See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

Scribe and See also:

• LEGOUVE, GABRIEL JEAN BAPTISTE ERNEST WILFRID (1807–1903)

Legouve's tragedy, he raised ,a force by which he maintained his authority till 1727, when he withdrew and took up his See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in Paris . On the outbreak of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war in 1734 he served under Marshal See also:

• BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES

Berwick, and for a brilliant exploit at the siege at See also:

• PHILIPPSBURG

Philippsburg he was in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August named See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general . On the opening of the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession War in 1741, he took command of a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the army sent to invade See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, and on the 19th See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November surprised See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague during the See also:

• NIGHT

night, and took it by See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault before the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison were aware of the presence of an enemy, a coup de See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main which made him famous throughout See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . After capturing the strong fortress of See also:

• EGER (Czech, Cheb)
• EGER (Ger. Erlau, Med. Lat. Agria)
• EGER, AQIBA (1761–1837)

Eger on the 19th See also:

• APRIL

April 1742, he received leave of See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence, and went to See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia to push his claims on the duchy of Courland, but obtaining no success he returned to his command . His exploits had been the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole redeeming feature in an unsuccessful campaign, and on 26th See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1743 his merits were recognized by his promotion to be marshal of France . From this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time he became one of the first generals of the age . In 1744 he was chosen to command the expedition to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in behalf of the Pretender,which assembled at See also:

• DUNKIRK
• DUNKIRK (Fr. Dunkerque)

Dunkirk but did not proceed farther . After its abortive issue he received an independent command in the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands, and by dexterous manoeuvring succeeded in continually harassing the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior forces of the enemy without risking a decisive battle . In the following year he besieged See also:

• TOURNAI (Flemish Doornik)

Tournai and inflicted a severe defeat on the relieving army of the duke of See also:

• CUMBERLAND
• CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718)
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811)
• CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Cumberland at See also:

• FONTENOY

Fontenoy (q.v.), a battle of which the issue was due entirely to his constancy and cool leadership . During the battle he was unable on account of See also:

• DROPSY (contracted from the old word hydropisy, derived from the Gr. 154w¢; i Swp, water, and appearance)

dropsy to sit on horseback except for a few minutes, and was carried about in a wicker See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot . In recognition of his brilliant achievement the king conferred on him the See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle of See also:

• CHAMBORD
• CHAMBORD, HENRI CHARLES FERDINAND MARIE DIEUDONNE, COMTE DE (182o-1883)

Chambord for See also:

• LIFE

life, and in April 1746 he was naturalized as a French subject . Thenceforward to the end of the war he continued to command in the Netherlands, always with success .

Besides Fontenoy he added Rocoux (1746) and Lawfeldt or Val (1747) to the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of French victories, and it was under his orders that Marshal Lowendahl captured See also:

• BERGEN

Bergen-op-Zoom . He himself won the last success of the war in capturing Maestricht in 1748 . In 1747 the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title formerly held by See also:

• TURENNE, HENRI DE LA TOUR

Turenne, " Marshal general of the King's camps and armies," was revived for him . But on the 3oth of November 1750 he died at Chambord " of a putrid See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever." In 1748 there had been born to him a daughter, one of several illegitimate See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, whose great-granddaughter was See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

Sand . See also:

• SAXE, JOHN GODFREY (1816-1887)
• SAXE, MAURICE, COMTE DE (1696-1750)

Saxe was the author of a remarkable See also:

• WORK

work on the See also:

• ART

art of war, See also:

• MES

Mes Reveries, which though described by See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle as "a See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange military farrago, dictated, as I should think, under See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

opium," is in fact a classic . It was published posthumously in 1757 (ed . Paris, 1877) . His Lettres et memoires choisis appeared in 1794 . His letters to his See also:

• SISTER

sister, the princess of See also:

• HOLSTEIN
• HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837–1909)

Holstein, preserved at See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg, were destroyed by the See also:

• BOMBARDMENT

bombardment of that See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in 1870; See also:

• THIRTY

thirty copies had, however, been printed from the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original . Many previous errors in former See also:

• BIOGRAPHIES

biographies were corrected and additional See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information supplied in Carl von See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber's See also:

• MORITZ, KARL PHILIPP (1757-1793)

Moritz, See also:

• GRAF, ARTURO (1848– )
• GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815–1869)

Graf von Sachsen, Marschall von Frankreich, nach archivalischen Quellen (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1863), in St Rene See also:

• TAILLANDIER

Taillandier's See also:

• MAURICE (1521–1553)
• MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539–602)
• MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286)
• MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872)

Maurice de Saxe, etude historique d'aprbs See also:

• LES

les documents See also:

• DES

des archives de Dresde (1865) and in C . F . Vitzthum's Maurice de Saxe (Leipzig, 1861) .

See also the military histories of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, especially Carlyle's See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick the Great . SAXE-See also:

• ALTENBURG

ALTENBURG (Ger . Sachsen-Altenburg), a duchy in Thuringia, forming an independent member of the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire and consisting of two detached and almost equal parts, separated from each other by a portion of See also:

• REUSS
• REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804–18gr)

Reuss, and bounded on the S. and W. by the See also:

• GRAND

grand duchy of Saxe-See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar-See also:

• EISENACH

Eisenach, on the N. by See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia, and on the E. by the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Saxony . There are in addition twelve small exclaves . The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area is 511 sq. m., of which 254 are in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, or Altenburg, division, and 257 in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, or Saal-See also:

• EISENBERG (Isenberg)

Eisenberg, division . The eastern See also:

• DISTRICT

district, traversed by the most See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly offshoots of the See also:

• ERZGEBIRGE

Erzgebirge and watered by the Pleisse and its tributaries, forms an undulating and fertile region, containing some of the richest agricultural See also:

• SOIL

soil in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . The western district, through which the See also:

• SAALE

Saale flows, is rendered hilly by the foothills of the Thuringian See also:

• FOREST

Forest, and in some measure makes up by its See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods for its comparatively poor soil . The See also:

• MINERAL

mineral See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of Saxe-Altenburg is scanty; See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief mineral, is worked mainly in the eastern district . Nearly 6o% of the entire duchy is occupied by arable See also:

• LAND

land, and about 26% by forests, mainly consisting of conifers . Oats, See also:

• RYE

rye, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat and potatoes are the chief crops . See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

Cattle-raising and horse-breeding are of considerable importance . About 35% of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population are directly sup-ported by See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture .

The manufactures of the duchy arevaried, though none is of first-See also:

• RATE

rate importance; woollen goods, gloves, hats, See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain and earthenware, bricks, sewing-See also:

• MACHINES

machines, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, musical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, sausages and wooden articles are the chief products . See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade in these, and in horses, cattle and agricultural produce, is brisk . The chief seats of trade and manufacture are Altenburg the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, Ronneburg, Schmolln, Gossnitz and Meuselwitz in the Altenburg division; and Eisen-See also:

• BERG (Ducatus Montensis)

berg, Roda and Kahla in the Saal-Eisenberg division . Besides these there are the towns of Lucka, Orlamunde and Russdorf in an exclave . The duchy includes one of the most densely inhabited districts in the Thuringian states . The population in 1905 was 206,508, of whom 200,511 were Protestants and 5449 See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics . In the west division the population is wholly See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic, but in the east there is a strong Wendish or See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, still to be traced in the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners and See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume of the country-See also:

• PEOPLE

people, though these are gradually disappearing . The Altenburg peasants are industrious and prosperous; they are said to be avaricious, but to love See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure, and to gamble for high stakes, especially at the card See also:

• GAME

game of See also:

• SKAT

Skat (q.v.), which many believe to have been invented here . Their holdings are rarely divided, and a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom is the See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance of landed See also:

• PROPERTY

property by the youngest son . They are decreasing in See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers . Saxe-Altenburg is a limited hereditary See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy, its constitution resting on a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of 1831, subsequently modified . The See also:

• DIET

diet consists of 32 members, elected for 3 years; of whom 9 are returned by the highest taxpayers, 11 by the towns and 12 by the country districts .

The See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise is enjoyed by all See also:

• MALES

males over 25 years of age who pay taxes . The duke has considerable See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of initiative and See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto . The executive is divided into four departments, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• FINANCE

finance, the interior, and See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign and ecclesiastical affairs . The See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue and See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure stand at about 230,000 each . There was a public debt in 1909 of £44,370 . Saxe-Altenburg has one See also:

• VOTE

vote in the Reichstag and one in the Bundesrat (federal See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council) . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The district now forming the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg came into the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• MARGRAVE (Ger. Markgraf)

margrave of See also:

• MEISSEN

Meissen about 1329, and later with Meissen formed part of the electorate of Saxony . On the division of the lands of the Wettins in 1485 it was assigned to the Albertine See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the See also:

• FAMILY

family, but in 1554 it passed by arrangement to the Ernestine branch . In 1603 Saxe-Altenburg was made into a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate duchy, but this only lasted until 1672, when the ruling family became See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct and the greater part of its lands was inherited by the duke of Saxe-See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha . In 1825 the family ruling the duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg became extinct and another division of the Saxon lands was made . Frederick (d . 1834) exchanged the duchy of Saxe-See also:

• HILDBURGHAUSEN

Hildburghausen, which he had ruled since 1780, for Saxe-Altenburg, and was the founder of the present reigning See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house .

In See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer to popular demands a constitution was granted to Saxe-Altenburg in 1831, and greater concessions were extorted by the more threatening disturbances of 1848 . In November of this year Duke See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph abdicated and was succeeded by his See also:

• BROTHER

brother George . Under George's son Ernest (1826-1908), who became duke in 1853, a period of reaction began and the result was that the constitution was made less liberal . In 1874 a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long dispute over the public domains was settled, two-thirds of these being assigned to the duke in lieu of a See also:

• CIVIL

civil list . In 1908 Ernest was succeeded by his See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew Ernest (b . 1871) . See Frommelt, Sachsen-altenburghische Landeskunde (Leipzig, 1838–1841); L. von Braun, Erinnerungsblatter aus der Geschichte Altenburgs 1525–1826 (Altenburg, 1876); Malzer, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Landwirtschaft See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Herzogtum Altenburg (See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart, 1907) ; Albrecht, Das Domanenwesen im Herzogtum Saxe-Altenburg (See also:

• JENA

Jena, 1905); and E . See also:

• LOHE, JOHANN KONRAD

Lohe, Altenburgica (Altenburg, 1878) . SAXE-See also:

• COBURG

COBURG-GOTHA (Ger . Sachsen-Koburg-Gotha), a See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign duchy of Germany, in Thuringia, and a constituent member of the German empire, consisting of the two formerly separate duchies of Coburg and Gotha, which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie at a distance of 14 M. from each other, and of eight small scattered exclaves, the most northerly of which, is 70 M. from the most southerly . The total area is 764 sq. m., of which about 224 are in Coburg and S40 in Gotha . The duchy of Coburg is bounded on the S.E., S., and S.W. by See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, and on the other sides by Saxe- See also:

• MEININGEN

Meiningen, which, with part of Prussia, separates it from Gotha .

The considerable exclave of See also:

• KONIGSBERG (Polish Krolewiec)

Konigsberg in Bavaria, ro m. See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, belongs to Coburg . Lying on the south slope of the Thuringian Forest, and in the Franconian See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, the duchy of Coburg is an undulating and fertile district, reaching its highest point in the Senichshohe (1716 ft.) near Mirsdorf . Its streams, the chief of which are the Itz, See also:

• BIBERACH

Biberach, Steinach and Rodach, all find their way into the Main . The duchy of Gotha, more than twice the See also:

• SIZE

size of Coburg, stretches from the south See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of Prussia along the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern slopes of the Thuringian Forest, the highest summits of which (Der See also:

• GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828—1902)

grosse Beerberg, 3225 ft.; Schneekopf, 3179 ft.; and Inselsberg, 2957 ft.) rise within its borders . The more open and level district on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north is spoken of as the " open country " (das Land) in contrast to the wooded hills of the " forest " (der Wald) . The See also:

• GERA

Gera, Horsel, Unstrut and other streams of this duchy flow to the Werra, or to the Saale . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is that of the other central states of Germany, temperate in the valleys and plains and somewhat inclement in the hilly regions . See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries and Population.—In both duchies the chief See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry is agriculture, which employs about 30% of the entire population . According to the returns for 1905, about 5o% of the area was occupied by arable land, ro% by meadow-land and pasture and 30% by forest . In the same year the chief crops were oats, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, rye, wheat, potatoes and See also:

• HAY
• HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Heu, Dutch hooi; the root from which it is derived, meaning " to cut," is also seen in " to hew "; cf. " hoe ")
• HAY, GEORGE (1729—1811)
• HAY, GILBERT
• HAY, JOHN (1838–1905)

hay . A small quantity of See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp and See also:

• FLAX

flax is raised, but a considerable quantity of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit and vegetables is annually produced, and some See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, in the Coburg district of Konigsberg . Cattle-breeding is important, especially in Gotha and the Itz valley in Coburg .

Beehives are numerous and produce excellent See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey, and poultry is reared in large numbers for export . The mineral wealth of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is insignificant, small quantities of See also:

• COAL

coal, lignite, ironstone and millstone being annually raised . There are also See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-See also:

• WORKS

works, and some deposits of See also:

• POTTER, ALONZO (1800-1865)
• POTTER, HENRY CODMAN (1835–1908)
• POTTER, J
• POTTER, JOHN (c. 1674-1747)
• POTTER, PAUL (1625—1654)
• POTTER, PHILIP CIPRIANI HAMBLEY (1792—1871)

potter's See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay . The manufactures of the duchies, especially in the mountainous parts less favourable for agriculture, are tolerably brisk, but there is no large See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial centre in the country . See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron goods and machinery, See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, earthenware, chemicals and wooden articles, including large quantities of toys, are produced; and various branches of textile industry are carried on . Coburg (pop . 1905, 24,289) and Gotha (36,893) are the chief towns of the duchies, to which they respectively give name; the latter is the capital of the See also:

• UNITED

united duchy . There are nine other small towns, and 320 villages and hamlets . See also:

• FRIEDRICHRODA

Friedrichroda and See also:

• RUHLA

Ruhla, the Inselsberg and the Schneekopf and other picturesque points, annually attract an increasing number of summer visitors and tourists . The population in 1905 was 242,432 (117,224 males and 125,208 See also:

• FEMALES

females), or about 290 to the square mile . Of these 71,512 were in Coburg and 170,920 in Gotha; the relative See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density in either duchy being about' equal . In Coburg the people belong to the Franconian and in Gotha to the Thuringian branch of the Teutonic family, and, according to religious confessions, almost the entire population is Lutheran, Roman Catholics only numbering some 3000 and See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews about 700 .

Constitution and See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

Administration.—Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is a limited hereditary monarchy, its constitution resting on a law of 1852, modified in 1874 . For its own immediate affairs each duchy has a separate diet, but in more important and general matters a common diet, formed of the members of the separate diets and See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting at Coburg and Gotha alternately, exercises authority . The members are elected for four years . The Coburg diet consists of eleven members and the Gotha diet of nineteen . The franchise is extended to all male taxpayers of twenty-five years of age and upwards . The See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry has See also:

• SPECIAL

special departments for each duchy, but is under a common See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president . There is a sub-See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department for the control of ecclesiastical affairs, which are locally managed by ephories, twelve in number . The united duchy is represented in the imperial Bundesrat by one member and in the Reichstag by two members, one for each duchy . By treaty with Prussia in 1867 the troops of the duchy are incorporated with the Prussian army . The See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget is voted in either duchy for four years, a distinction being made between domain revenue and See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state revenue . Taking both together the receipts into the See also:

• EXCHEQUER

exchequer on behalf of Coburg were estimated for 1909-1910 at about £roo,000 and those for Gotha at about £200,000, while the common state expenditure amounted to about the same sum . The civil list of the reigning duke is fixed at £15,000 a year, in addition to See also:

• HALF

half the proceeds of the Gotha domains, after £5000 has been deducted and paid into the state exchequer, and half the See also:

• NET

net revenue of the Coburg domains .

Besides the civil list the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha enjoys a very large private fortune, amassed chiefly by Ernest I., who sold the principality of See also:

• LICHTENBERG
• LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799)

Lichtenberg, which the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna had bestowed upon him in recognition of his services in 1813, to Prussia for a large sum of See also:

• MONEY

money . History.—The district of Coburg came into the possession of the family of See also:

• WETTIN

Wettin in the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, and after the Wettins had become See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors of Saxony this part of their lands See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell at the See also:

• PARTITION

partition of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the house . In 1572 Gotha was given to See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Casimir, a son of the Saxon duke John Frederick, but when he died childless in 1633 it passed to another branch of the family . In 1680, as Saxe-Coburg, it was formed into a separate duchy for See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert, one of the seven sons of Ernest I., duke of Saxe-Gotha (d . 1675), but he died childless in 1699, when his possessions were the subject of vehement contentions among the See also:

• COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

collateral branches of the Saxon house . Eventually it was assigned to Albert's youngest brother, John Ernest (d . 1729), who called himself duke of Saxe-Coburg-See also:

• SAALFELD

Saalfeld, and who See also:

• LEFT

left two sons, See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Ernest and See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah, who ruled the land together, the principle of See also:

• PRIMOGENITURE

primogeniture being introduced by the survivor of the two, Francis Josiah . Under this duke and his son and successor, Ernest Frederick, the land was plunged into See also:

• BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banquet table or counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken)

bankruptcy and a commission was appointed to See also:

• MANAGE

manage its finances . The See also:

• MEASURES

measures adopted to redeem the country's See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit were successful, but they imposed much hardship on the people and a rising took place which was only quelled by the aid of troops from electoral Saxony . Duke Francis died in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1806 and was succeeded by his son Ernest, although the country was occupied by the French from 1807 to 1816 . Also an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early possession of the Wettins, Gotha fell at the partition of 1485 to the Albertine branch of the family, but was transferred to the Ernestine branch by the See also:

• CAPITULATION (Lat. capitulum, a little head or division; capitulare, to treat upon terms)

capitulation of See also:

• WITTENBERG

Wittenberg of 1547 . In 1554 it became a separate duchy, its See also:

• LINE

line of rulers being founded by Duke John Frederick, a son of the dispossessed elector of Saxony, John Frederick, and becoming extinct in 1638 .

In r64o Saxe-Gotha came into the possession of Ernest the Pious, and after his See also:

• DEATH

death in 1675 its duke was his eldest son Frederick (d . 169,), whose family, having inherited Altenburg, became extinct in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1825 with the death of Duke Frederick IV . This event was followed in 1826 by a re-See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of the Saxon lands . Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, Saalfeld, exchanged Saalfeld for Gotha, took the title of duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and became the founder of the present ruling house . Ernest II . (1818-1893) succeeded to the duchy in 1844, and during his long reign various reforms were achieved and the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the two parts of the duchy was made closer . This duke had no issue, and the succession passed to the children of his brother Albert, the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

consort . In 1855 his second son, Prince See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred, had been declared See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir to the duchy, and he succeeded his See also:

• UNCLE

uncle in 1893 . When he died without sons in See also:

• JULY

July 1900, the succession having been renounced by his brother, the duke of See also:

• CONNAUGHT
• CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, DUKE OF (1850– )

Connaught and his issue, Saxe-Coburg passed to See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• EDWARD

Edward, duke of See also:

• ALBANY
• ALBANY, DUKES OF
• ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF (1752-1824)

Albany (b . 1884), a nephew of the See also:

• LATE

late duke . For many years there had been trouble between the ruler and the people over the ownership of the extensive See also:

• CROWN

crown lands, it being evidently feared at one time that an English prince might renounce the See also:

• THRONE

throne and yet claim the lands . The See also:

• MATTER

matter was settled by a law of 1905, on the lines mentioned in the earlier See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article .

See Fleischmann, Zur Geschichte des Herzogtums Sachsen-Coburg (Hildburghausen, 1880) ; A . Lotz, Koburgische Landesgeschichte (Coburg, 1892) . SA%E-MEININGEN (Ger . Sachsen-Meiningen), a duchy in Thuringia, forming an independent member of the German empire and consisting chiefly of an irregular See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent-shaped territory, which, with an See also:

• AVERAGE

average breadth of 10 m., stretches for over 8o m. along the south-west slope of the Thuringian Forest . The See also:

• CONVEX

convex See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side rests upon the duchy of Coburg and is in part bounded by Bavaria, while the See also:

• CONCAVE

concave side, turned towards the north, contains portions of four other Thuringian states and Prussia between its horns, which are 46 m. apart . The districts of Kranichfeld, 15 M . N.W., and Kamburg, 22 M . N. of the eastern See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HO