SAXONY  , a See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, ranking among the constituent states of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, fifth in See also:

• AREA

area, third in See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population and first in See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of population, bounded on the S. by Bohemia, on the W. by See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria and the Thuringian states and on the W., N. and E. by See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia . Its frontiers have a See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of 76o m. and, with the exception of the two small exclaves of Ziegelheim in See also:

• SAXE, JOHN GODFREY (1816-1887)
• SAXE, MAURICE, COMTE DE (1696-1750)

Saxe-See also:

• ALTENBURG

Altenburg and Liebschwitz on the border of the principality of See also:

• REUSS
• REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804–18gr)

Reuss, it forms a compact whole of a triangular shape, its See also:

• BASE

base extending from N.E. to S.W., and its See also:

• APEX

apex pointing N.W . Its greatest length is 130 m.; its greatest breadth 93 m., and the See also:

• TOTAL

total area is 5787 sq. m . Except in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, towards Bohemia, where the See also:

• ERZGEBIRGE

Erzgebirge forms at once the limit of the kingdom and of the empire, the boundaries are entirely See also:

• POLITICAL

political . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—Saxony belongs almost entirely to the central See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain region of Germany, only the districts along the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north border and around See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig descending into the See also:

• GREAT

great north-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, however, is not great, and it is more properly described as hilly than as mountainous . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief mountain range is the Erzgebirge, stretching for 90 m. along the south border, and reaching in the Fichtelbergs (3979 ft. and 3953 ft.) the highest elevation in the kingdom . The See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west and south-west See also:

• HALF

half of Saxony is more or less occupied by the ramifications and subsidiary See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of this range, one of which is known from its position as the Central Saxon See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, and another See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• GROUP

group still farther north as the See also:

• OSCHATZ

Oschatz group . The south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of Saxony is occupied by the mountains of Upper See also:

• LUSATIA (Ger. Lausitz)

Lusatia (highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit 2600 ft.), which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• LINK

link between the Erzgebirge and See also:

• RIESENGEBIRGE (Bohemian Krkonose)

Riesengebirge in the great Sudetic chain . North-west from this group, and along both See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe, which divides it from the Erzgebirge,extends the picturesque mountain region known as the Saxon See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland . The See also:

• ACTION

action of See also:

• WATER

water and See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice upon the soft See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone of which the hills here are chiefly composed has produced deep See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges and isolated fantastic peaks, which, however, though both beautiful and interesting, by no means recall the characteristics of Swiss scenery . The highest summit attains a height of 183o ft.; but the more interesting peaks, as the Lilienstein, See also:

• KONIGSTEIN

Konigstein and the Bastei, are lower .

With the trifling exception of the south-east of See also:

• BAUTZEN (Wendish Budissin, " town ")

Bautzen, which sends its See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters by the See also:

• NEISSE

Neisse to the See also:

• ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

Oder, Saxony lies wholly in the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the Elbe, which has a navigable course of 72 M. from south-east to north-west through the kingdom . Comparatively few of the numerous smaller streams of Saxony flow directly to the Elbe, and the larger tributaries only join it beyond the Saxon See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders . The See also:

• MULDE

Mulde, formed of two branches, is the second See also:

• RIVER

river of Saxony; others are the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• ELSTER

Elster, the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Elster, the Pleisse and the See also:

• SPREE

Spree . There are no lakes of any See also:

• SIZE

size, but See also:

• MINERAL

mineral springs are very abundant . The best known is at See also:

• BAD, BCD

Bad Elster in the See also:

• VOGTLAND, or VOIGTLAND

Vogtland . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate of Saxony is generally healthy . It is mildest in the valleys of the Elbe, Mulde and Pleisse and severest in the Erzgebirge, where the See also:

• DISTRICT

district near Johanngeorgenstadt is known as Saxon See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia . The average temperature, like that of central Germany as a whole, varies from 48° to 50° Fahr . ; in the Elbe valley the mean in summer is from 62° to 64° and in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter about 300; in the Erzgebirge the mean temperature in summer is from 550 to 570, and in winter 230 to 24° . The Erzgebirge is also the rainiest district, 272 to 332 in. falling yearly; the amount decreases as one proceeds northward, and Leipzig, with an average See also:

• ANNUAL

annual rainfall of 17 in., enjoys the driest climate . Po ulation.—In 1905 the population of Saxony was 4,508,601, or 7.4% of the total population of the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German empire, on 2.7% of its area . Except the See also:

• FREE

free towns, Saxony is the most densely peopled member of the empire, and its population is increasing at a more rapid See also:

• RATE

rate than is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in any of the larger German states .

The growth of the population since 1815, when the kingdom received its See also:

• PRESENT

present limits, has been as follows: (1815) 1,178,802; (183o) 1,402,066; (1840) 1,706,275; (1864) 2,344,094; (1875) 2,760,586; (1895) 3,787,688; (1900) 4,202,216 . The preponderating See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial activity of the kingdom fosters the tendency of the population to concentrate in towns, and no German See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, with the exception of the Hanseatic towns, has so large a proportion of See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban population, this forming 52.97 % of the whole . The See also:

• PEOPLE

people of Saxony are chiefly of pure See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic stock; a proportion are Germanized Slays, and to the south of Bautzen there is a large See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of above 50,000 See also:

• WENDS

Wends, who retain their See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar customs and See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . The following table shows the area and population of the whole kingdom and of each of the five chief governmental districts, or Kreishauptmannschaften, into which it is divided: Governmental Area nlEng . Pop . 1900 . Pop . 1905 . Density e sq . . sq . See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden . 1674 1,216,489 1,284,397 767.2 Leipzig .

1378 1,060,632 1,146,423 832 Bautzen . 953 405,173 426,420 447.4 See also:

• CHEMNITZ
• CHEMNITZ (or KEMNITZ), MARTIN (1522-1586)

Chemnitz 799 792,393 851,130 1065.2 See also:

• ZWICKAU

Zwickau 983 727,529 800,231 814.1 Total 5787 4,202,216 4,508,601 779.1 The chief towns are Dresden (pop . 1905, 514,283), Leipzig (502,570), Chemnitz (244,405), See also:

• PLAUEN

Plauen (105,182), Zwickau (68,225), See also:

• ZITTAU

Zittau (34,679), See also:

• MEISSEN

Meissen (32,175), See also:

• FREIBERG, or FREYBERG

Freiberg (30,869), Bautzen (29,372), See also:

• MEERANE

Meerane (24,994), See also:

• GLAUCHAU

Glauchau (24,556), See also:

• REICHENBACH
• REICHENBACH, GEORG VON (1772–1826)

Reichenbach (24,911), See also:

• CRIMMITZSCHAU, or KRIMMITSCHAU

Crimmitzschau (23,340), See also:

• WERDAU

Werdau (19,476), See also:

• PIRNA

Pirna (19,200) . Communications.—The roads in Saxony are numerous and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . The first railway between Leipzig and Dresden, due entirely to private enterprise, was opened in See also:

• PART

part in See also:

• APRIL

April 1837, and finished in 184o, with a length of 71 M . In 185o there were 25o; in 187o, 685; in 188o, 1184; and in 1905, 1920 m., together with 25 m. of private See also:

• LINE

line, all worked by the state . There are no canals in the kingdom, and the only navigable river is the Elbe . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—Saxony is one of the most fertile parts of Germany, and is agriculturally among the most advanced nations of the See also:

• WORLD

world . The lowest lands are the most productive, and fertility diminishes as we ascend towards the south, until on the See also:

• BLEAK, or BLICK (Alburnus lucidus)

bleak See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of the Erzgebirge cultivation ceases altogether . Saxon agriculture, though dating its origin from the Wends, was See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long impeded by antiquated customs, 'while the See also:

• LAND

land was subdivided into small parcels and subjected to vexatious rights . But in 1834'a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law was passed providing for the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the scattered lands belonging to each proprietor, and that may be considered the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of See also:

• MODERN

modern Saxon agriculture . The richest See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain districts are near Meissen, See also:

• GRIMMA

Grimma, Bautzen, See also:

• DOBELN

Dobeln and Pirna .

The chief See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop is See also:

• RYE

rye, but oats are hardly second to it . See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

Wheat and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley are grown in considerably less quantity . Very large quantities of potatoes are grown, especially in the See also:

• VOGT, KARL CHRISTOPH (1817-1895)

Vogt-land . See also:

• BEET

Beet is chiefly grown as feeding stuff for See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, and not for See also:

• SUGAR

sugar . See also:

• FLAX

Flax is grown in the Erzgebirge and Lusatian mountains, where the manufacture of See also:

• LINEN

linen was at one See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time a flourishing domestic See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry . Saxony owes its unusual See also:

• WEALTH

wealth in See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit partly to the care of the elector See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus I., who is said never to have stirred abroad without fruit seeds for See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution among the peasants and farmers . Enormous quantities of cherries, plums and apples are annually See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the trees See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round Leipzig, Dresden and Colditz . The cultivation of the See also:

• VINE

vine in Saxony is respectable for its antiquity, though the yield is insignificant . See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

Wine is said to have been grown here in the 11th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; the Saxon vineyards, chiefly on the banks of the Elbe near Meissen and Dresden, have of See also:

• LATE

late years, owing to the ravages of the See also:

• PHYLLOXERA (Gr. 4suXXov, leaf, and Erlpbs, dry)

phylloxera, become almost See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . Live Stock.—The breeding of horses is carried on to a very limited extent in Saxony . Cattle rearing, which has been an industry since the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the Wends in the 6th century, is important on the extensive pastures of the Erzgebirge and in the Vogtland . In 1765 the See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Xaver imported 300 See also:

• MERINO

merino See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep from See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, and so improved the native breed by this new See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain that Saxon sheep were eagerly imported by See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign nations to improve their flocks, and " Saxon electoral See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool " became one of the best brands in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market .

Sheep farming, however, has considerably declined within the last few decades . See also:

• SWINE

Swine furnish a very large proportion of the flesh See also:

• DIET

diet of the people . Geese abound particularly round Leipzig and in Upper Lusatia, poultry about Bautzen . See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

Bee-keeping flourishes on the heaths on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the Elbe . See also:

• GAME

Game and See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish.—Game is fairly abundant; See also:

• HARES

hares and partridges are found in the plains to the north-west, capercailzie in the neighbourhood of See also:

• THARANDT

Tharandt and See also:

• SCHWARZENBERG
• SCHWARZENBERG, KARL PHILIPP, PRINCE ZU (1771-1820)

Schwarzenberg, and See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer in the forests near Dresden . The Elbe produces excellent See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike, See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon and eels, its tributaries See also:

• TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout in considerable quantities, while the marshy ponds lying on the; See also:

• LEFT

left bank furnish a good See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of See also:

• CARP

carp, a fish held in great esteem by the inhabitants . Forests.—The forests of Saxony are extensive and have long been well cared for both by See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government and by private proprietors . The famous school of forestry at Tharandt was founded in 1811 . The Vogtland is the most densely wooded portion of the kingdom, and next comes the Erzgebirge . About 857,000 acres, or 85% of the whole See also:

• FOREST

forest land, are planted with conifers; and about 143,000 acres, or 15%, with See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous trees, among which beeches and birches are the commonest . About 35 % of the total belongs to state . See also:

• MINING

Mining.—See also:

• SILVER

Silver was raised in the 12th century, and argentiferous See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead is still the most valuable ore See also:

• MINED

mined; See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• COBALT (symbol Co, atomic weight 59)

cobalt See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank next, and See also:

• COAL

coal is one of the chief exports .

See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

Copper, See also:

• ZINC

zinc and See also:

• BISMUTH

bismuth are also worked . The country is divided into four mining districts: Freiberg, where silver and lead are the chief products; Altenberg, where tin is mainly raised; See also:

• SCHNEEBERG

Schneeberg, yielding cobalt, See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel and ironstone; and Johanngeorgenstadt, with ironstone and silver mines . There were,-in 1907, 143 mines, including coal, in operation, employing 31,455 hands . The total value of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal raised in Saxony in 1907 was £7,036,000; in 1870 it was £314,916 . The coal is found principally in two See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field:, one near Zwickau, and the other in the governmental district of Dresden . See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown coal or See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite is found chiefly in the north and north-west, but not in sufficiently large quantities to be exported; the total value of the output in 1907 was nearly £3,500,000 . See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

Peat is especially abundant on the Erzgebirge . Immense quantities of bricks are made all over the country . Excellent sandstone for See also:

• BUILDING

building is found on the hills of the Elbe . See also:

• FINE

Fine See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay occurs near Meissen, and coarser varieties else-where . A few See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious stones are found among the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern mountains . See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—The central-European position of the kingdom has fostered its See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce; and its manufactures have been encouraged by the abundant water-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power throughout the kingdom .

Nearly one-half of the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive power used in Saxon factories is supplied by the streams, of which the Mulde, in this respect, is the chief . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Leipzig fairs, and the enlightened policy of the rulers of the country, have also done much to develop its commercial and industrial resources . Next to agriculture which supports about 20% of the population, by far the most important industry is the textile . Saxony carries on 26 % of the whole textile industry in Germany, a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share far in excess of its proportionate population . Prussia, which has more than nine times as many inhabitants, carries on 45%, and no other state more than 8 % . The chief seats of the manufacture are Zwickau, Chemnitz, Glauchau, Meerane, See also:

• HOHENSTEIN (Hohenstein-Ernstthal)

Hohenstein, See also:

• KAMENZ

Kamenz, Pulsnitz and See also:

• BISCHOFSWERDA

Bischofswerda . The centre of the See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton manufacture (especially of cotton See also:

• HOSIERY

hosiery) is Chemnitz; cotton-muslins are made throughout the Vogtland, See also:

• RIBBONS

ribbons at Pulsnitz and its neiKhbourhood . Woollen See also:

• CLOTH

cloth and buckskin are See also:

• WOVEN

woven at Kamenz, Bischofswerda and See also:

• GROSSENHAIN

Grossenhain, all in the north-east, woollen and half-woollen underclothing at Chemnitz, Glauchau, Meerane and Reichenbach; while Bautzen and See also:

• LIMBACH

Limbach produce woollen stockings . Linen is manufactured chiefly in the mountains of Lusatia, where the looms are still to some extent found in the homes of the weavers . The coarser kinds only are now made, owing to the keen See also:

• ENGLISH

English competition in the finer varieties . See also:

• DAMASK

Damask is produced at See also:

• GROSS

Gross-Schonau and Neu-Schonau . See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

Lace-making, discovered or introduced by See also:

• BARBARA, SAINT

Barbara Uttmann in the latter half of the 16th century, and now fostered by government See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, was long .an important domestic industry among the villages of the Erzgebirge, and has attained to a great industry in Plauen .

See also:

• STRAW

Straw-plaiting occupies 6000 hands on the mountain slopes between Gottleuba,and Lockwitz . Waxcloth is manufactured at Leipzig, and artificial See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers at Leipzig and Dresden . ' Stoneware and earthenware are made at Chemnitz, Zwickau, Bautzen and Meissen, porcelain (" Dresden See also:

• CHINA

china ") at Meissen, chemicals in and near Leipzig . Dobeln, Werdau and See also:

• LOSSNITZ

Lossnitz are the chief seats of the Saxon See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade; cigars are very extensively made in the See also:

• TOWN

town and district of Leipzig, and hats and pianofortes at Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz . See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

Paper is made chiefly in the west of the kingdom, but does not keep See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with the demand . Machinery of all kinds is produced, from the sewing-See also:

• MACHINES

machines of Dresden to the See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-locomotives and marine-engines of Chemnitz . The last-named See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, though the centre of the iron-manufacture of Saxony, has to import every See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound of iron by railway . The leading See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch is the machinery used in the industries of the country—mining, paper-making and See also:

• WEAVING

weaving . The very large See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing trade of Leipzig encourages the manufacture of printing-presses in that See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . In 1902–1903 Saxony contained 6o1 active breweries and 572 distilleries . The smelting and refining of the metal ores is also an important industry . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal exports are wool, woollen, cotton, linen goods, machinery, china, pianofortes, cigarettes, flannels, stockings, curtains and lace, cloth from Reichenbach and Zittau, watches of superlative value from Glashiitte and toys from the Vogtland .

Constitution.—Saxony is a constitutional See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy and a member of the German empire, with four votes in the Bundesrath (federal See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council) and twenty-three in the Reichstag (imperial diet) . The constitution rests on a law promulgated on the 4th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1831, and subsequently amended . The See also:

• CROWN

crown is hereditary in the Albertine line of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of See also:

• WETTIN

Wettin, with reversion to the Ernestine line, of which the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Saxe-See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar is now the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . The See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king enjoys a See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of 3,674,927 marks or about £185,000, while the appanages of the crown, including the payments to the other members of the royal house, amount to £29,544 more . The legislature (Standeversammlung) is bicameral—the constitution of the co-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers being finally settled by a law of 1868 amending the enactment of 1831 . The first chamber consists of the adult princes of the See also:

• BLOOD

blood, two representatives of the•Lutheran and one of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, a representative of Leipzig university, the proprietor (or a See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy) of the Herrschaft of Wildenfels, a proprietor of the mediatized domains, two of Standesherrschaften, one of those of four estates in See also:

• FEE

fee, the See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent at Leipzig, a deputy of the collegiate institution at See also:

• WURZEN

Wurzen, 12 deputies elected by owners of nobiliar estates, ten landed proprietors and five other members nominated by the king and the burgomasters of eight towns . The second chamber consists of 43 members from the towns and 48 from the country, elected for six years . All male citizens twenty-five years old and upwards who pay 3 marks per annum in taxes have the See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage; and all above See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age who pay 30 marks in annual taxes are eligible as members of the lower house . With the exception of the hereditary and some of the ex-officiO members of the first chamber, the members of the diet are entitled to an See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance for their daily expenses, as well as their travelling expenses . The executive consists of a responsible See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry (Gesammt Ministerium), with the six departments of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• FINANCE

finance, See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home affairs, See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, public See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship and See also:

• EDUCATION

education, and foreign affairs . The See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of the royal See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household does not belong to the See also:

• CABINET

cabinet . The constitution also provides for the formation of a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of privy council (Staatsrat), consisting of the cabinet ministers and other members appointed by the king .

For administrative purposes Saxony is divided into five Kreishauptmannschaf ten, or governmental departments, subdivided into twenty-seven Amtshauptmannschaften . The cities of Dresden, Leipzig, Chemnitz, Flauen and Zwickau, form departments by themselves . The supreme See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of law for both civil and criminal cases is the Oberlandesgericht at Dresden, subordinate to which are seven other courts in the other principal towns . The German imperial See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code was adopted by Saxony in 1879 . Leipzig is the seat of the supreme court of the German empire . The Saxon See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army is modelled on that of Prussia . It forms the XII. and XIX. army See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps in the imperial German army, with head-quarters at Dresden and Leipzig respectively . Church.—About 94 % of the inhabitants of Saxony are Protestants; about 12,500 are See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, and about 4.7 %, including the royal See also:

• FAMILY

family, are Roman Catholics . The Evangelical-Lutheran, or State, church has as its head the minister de evangelicis so long as the king is Roman Catholic; and its management is vested in the Evangelical See also:

• CONSISTORY (Lat. consistorium, literally, a standing place, hence meeting place, waiting or audience chamber)

Consistory at Dresden . Its representative See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly consisting of . 35 clergymen and 42 laymen is called a See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod (Synode) . The Reformed Church has consistories in Dresden and Leipzig .

The Roman Catholic Church has enjoyed the patronage of the reigning family since 1697, though it was only the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of See also:

• POSEN
• POSEN (Polish Poznan)

Posen in 1806 which placed it on a level with the See also:

• LUTHERANS

Lutherans . By the peace of See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague, which transferred Upper Lusatia to Saxony in 1635, stipulations were made in favour of the Roman Catholics of that region, who are ecclesiastically in the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter of St See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter at Bautzen, the See also:

• DEAN (Lat. decanus, derived from the Gr. 8eaa, ten)
• DEAN, FOREST OF

dean of which has ex-officio a seat in the first chamber of the diet . The other districts are managed by an apostolic See also:

• VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute)

vicar at Dresden, under the direction of the minister of public worship . Two nunneries in Lusatia are the only conventual establishments in Saxony, and no others may be founded . Among the smaller religious sects the Moravian Brethren, whose chief seat is at See also:

• HERRNHUT

Herrnhut, are perhaps the most interesting . In 1868 civil rights were declared to be See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of religious See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

confession . Education.—Saxony claims to be one of the most highly educated countries in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and its See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of schools and See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities were among the earliest in Germany . Of the four universities founded by the Saxon See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors at Leipzig, See also:

• JENA

Jena, See also:

• WITTENBERG

Wittenberg, later transferred to See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle, and See also:

• ERFURT

Erfurt, now extinct, only the first is included in the present kingdom of Saxony . The endowed schools (Furstenschulen) at Meissen and Grimma have long enjoyed a high reputation . There are over 4000 schools; and education is compulsory . Saxony is particularly well-equipped with technical schools, the textile industries being especially fostered by numerous schools of weaving, See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery and lace-making; but the mining See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy at Freiberg and the school of forestry at Tharandt are probably the most widely known . The conservatory of See also:

• MUSIC

music at Leipzig enjoys a world-wide reputation; not less the See also:

• ART

art collections at Dresden .

Finance.—The Saxon See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period embraces a space of two years . For 1908–1909 the " See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary " See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget showed an income of £17,352,833, balanced by the See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure . The chief See also:

• SOURCES

sources of income are taxes, state-See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways and public forests and domains . The chief expenditure was on the See also:

• INTEREST

interest and sinking fund of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt . The national debt, incurred almost wholly in making and buying railways and telegraphs, and carrying out other public See also:

• WORKS

works, amounted at the end of 1909 to £44,841,880 . See the annual Jahrbuch See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur Statistik See also:

• DES

des Konigreichs Sachsen (Dresden) ; P . E . See also:

• RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884)
• RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808–1879)
• RICHTER, EUGEN (1839–1906)
• RICHTER, HANS (1843– )
• RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762–1807)
• RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH (1763–1825)

Richter, Literatur des See also:

• LANDES

Landes and Volkskunde des Konigreichs Sachsen (Dresden, 1903); Zemmrich, Landeskunde des Konigreichs Sachsen (Leipzig, 1906); and Pelz, Geologic des Konigreichs Sachsen (Leipzig, 1904) . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The name of Saxony has been borne by two distinct blocks of territory . The first was the district in the north-west of Germany, inhabited originally by the See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons, which became a duchy and attained its greatest size and prosperity under See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion in the 12th century . In 118o it was broken up, and the name of Saxony disappeared from the greater part of it, remaining only with the districts around See also:

• LAUENBURG

Lauenburg and See also:

• WITTEN

Witten-See also:

• BERG (Ducatus Montensis)

berg . Five centuries later Lauenburg was incorporated with See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover, and Wittenberg is the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of modern Saxony, the name being thus transferred from the west to the east of Germany .

In 1423 Meissen and Thuringia were See also:

• UNITED

united with Saxe-Wittenberg under See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick of Meissen, and gradually the name of Saxony spread over all the lands ruled by this prince and his descendants . The earlier Saxony was the district lying between the Elbe and the See also:

• SAALE

Saale on the east; the See also:

• EIDER
• EIDER (Icelandic, idur)

Eider on the north and the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine on the west, with a fluctuating boundary on the south . During the 8th century it was inhabited by the Saxons (q.v.), and about this time was first called Saxonia, and afterwards Saxony . For many years the Saxons had been troublesome to the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks, their neighbours to the east and south, and the intermittent See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns undertaken against them by See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXAND