SCHOOLS  . As is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with so many of the institutions of See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, so with schools; the name, the thing, the See also:

• MATTER

matter, the method have been derived from See also:

• GREECE

Greece through See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . A See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune has converted the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek word o-xoM7, which originally meant leisure, particularly the " retired leisure that in See also:

• TRIM

trim gardens takes his See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure " of men, into the proper See also:

• TERM

term for the modern school . Greek Schools.—The term and the institution date, not from the See also:

• GREAT

great or what may be called the Hellenic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of Greece, but from the later Macedonian or Hellenistic See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account given by K . I . See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

Freeman in his Schools of Hellas (1907) may be summed up in the statement, " There were no schools in Hellas." That is, there were no schools in our sense, where, during boyhood and youth, boys spent their whole See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in a continuous course of instruction . There were professional teachers of three kinds: (I) the grammatistes, who taught See also:

• READING

reading, with See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing and perhaps See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic, in the grammateion; (2) the citharistes, who taught See also:

• MUSIC

music, i.e. playing and singing to the See also:

• CITHARA (Assyrian chetarah; Gr. KcOhpa; Lat, cithara; perhaps Heb. kinura, kinnor)

cithara—it is significant that there was no word for the music school; (3) the paedotribes, who taught gymnastic, See also:

• WRESTLING (O. Eng. wrcestlian)

wrestling, See also:

• BOXING (M.E. box, a blow, probably from Dan. bask, a buffet)

boxing, See also:

• RUNNING

running, See also:

• JUMPING

jumping, throwing the See also:

• JAVELIN

javelin, &c., in the palaistra . To these teachers the boys were taken by slaves, called boy-leaders (aau5aywyoi, whence our pedagogues), as single pupils, and they were taught not in classes but singly . That all boys did not go through all three schools is clear . For we hear of See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates, when he was grown up, repairing to a See also:

• LYRE (Gr. Xupa)

lyre-school to learn music, because he thought his See also:

• EDUCATION

education was not See also:

• COMPLETE

complete without it . Roughly, the age for the See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar-school and See also:

• SONG

song-school was 7 to 14, for the gymnastic school 12 to 18 .

A certain amount of literature was imparted, as, especially in the song-school, See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer and other See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early poets, the very Bibles of Hellas, were learnt by See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart . In later days, under the See also:

• SOPHISTS (from Gr. codtoris, literally, man of wisdom)

Sophists, and Socrates, " the greatest of the Sophists," 450-400 B.C., something approaching to secondary education was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . But it was wholly unorganized, though a similar See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of labour between See also:

• SEPARATE

separate private tutors took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as in See also:

• PRIMARY

primary education . The orators or rhetoricians taught See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory, and the learning that was considered necessary to the See also:

• POLITICAL

political orator, a smattering of Greek See also:

• HISTORY

history, constitutional See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and elementary See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic . The philosophers, such as See also:

• PROTAGORAS (c. 481-411 B.C.)

Protagoras, discoursed vaguely on natural See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, " things in the heavens above and the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth beneath," and divinity, " whether there are gods or not," See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics and See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, or any subject which attracted them, while the lawyers, in the same unsystematic way, taught what law was necessary in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state where the constitution was at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance majorities in a See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of 30,000 See also:

• PEOPLE

people, and trials at law were settled by 600 jurymen-See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges . The orators and sophists were popular lecturers, here to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day and gone to-morrow . There was no co-ordination between them, no See also:

• REGULAR

regular curriculum, and the youths wandered from one to another as their own or their parents' prejudices and purses dictated . In the next See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation, the orators and the philosophers, by settling down in fixed places, began to establish something more like schools . See also:

• PLATO

Plato, though like his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master Socrates he taught without asking fees, was the first to give a regular educational course extending over three or four years, and in a fixed place, the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy . The gymnasium was originally a See also:

• PARADE (Fr. parade, an adaptation from Ital. parada; cf. Span. parada, from Lat. parade, to prepare, equip, furnish)

parade or practice ground for the See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia or conscript See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of the state, which derived its name from the exercises being in that See also:

• CLIMATE

climate performed naked (yuµvbs) . At the age of 15 or 16 the boys See also:

• LEFT

left the See also:

• PALAESTRA (Gr. aaXaiarpa)

palaestra, or private gymnasium, for this public training school, maintained at the public expense, preparatory to their See also:

• ADMISSION

admission as youths (h nj(3ot), to take the See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath of citizenship and undergo two years' compulsory training in regiments on the frontier . After those two years were over, they still required continuous exercise to keep themselves in training; consequently men of all ages, from 16 to 6o, were to be found in the gymnasium .

Though the gymnasium was See also:

• FREE

free, the teachers and trainers In gymnastics were paid, and as the poorer citizens had to See also:

• EARN

earn their own living, the Athenian gymnasium, like the modern university, was for educational purposes chiefly frequented by the well-to-do . So the Academy became a fashionable lounge, and here developed the walking and talking clubs, which became the Platonic or See also:

• ACADEMIC

Academic Schools . Logic and ethics, built on a See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of See also:

• GEOMETRY

geometry and mathematics, seem to have been the See also:

• STAPLE

staple subjects . An inner circle met, and dined together in Plato's private See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house and See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden, See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the Academy . Plato devised the house and garden to his successor See also:

• SPEUSIPPUS (4th century B.C.)

Speusippus, who passed them on to See also:

• XENOCRATES

Xenocrates . They thus became the first endowment of the first endowed See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college, which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew very See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and lasted till the disestablishment and disendowmerit of the old learning by Justinian in A.D . 529 . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil of Plato for twenty years, set up a school of his own in the See also:

• LYCEUM

Lyceum, another public gymnasium, where he lectured twice a day, in the See also:

• MORNING

morning esoterically to the inner circle of regular attendants, in the afternoon to the public . From these two institutions three nations of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe have derived three different terms for a school, the Germans their gymnasium, the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French their lyc6e, and the Scotch their academy . Yet neither of the originals was a school in any real sense of the word . In the days of their founders they were like discussion forums; at the most, courses of lectures . In later years, the gilded youth who flocked to See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens from the whole See also:

• GRECO, EL

Greco-See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• WORLD

world were enrolled among the See also:

• EPHEBI (Gr. i ri, and On, i.e. " those who have reached puberty ")

ephebi, and the so-called "university of Athens" was evolved (See also:

• DUMONT
• DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT (1809-1857)
• DUMONT, FRANCOIS (1751-1831)
• DUMONT, JEAN (d. 1726)
• DUMONT, PIERRE ETIENNE LOUIS (1759-1829)

Dumont, L'Ephebie attique) .

Meanwhile the intellectual See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony of Greece had for a time passed with the political hegemony from Athens to See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria . It is to the Alexandrines, either to Antiodorus or to Eratosthenes, c . 250 (J . E . See also:

• SANDYS, FREDERICK (1832-1904)
• SANDYS, GEORGE (1578-1644)
• SANDYS, SIR EDWIN (1561-1629)

Sandys, Hist. of Classical Scholarship, 7), that grammar, as a term and a science, which included See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism and scholarship, and the grammar school are due . The earliest extant See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on grammar is by See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius of See also:

• THRACE

Thrace (See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born c . 146), a pupil of the Homeric critic, See also:

• ARISTARCHUS

Aristarchus . It defines grammar as "the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical knowledge of the usage of writers of See also:

• POETRY

poetry and See also:

• PROSE

prose" and includes exegesis or explanation of the author in the widest sense as well as See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere verbal or syntactical grammar . It was from the term thus understood that the grammar school (scola grammaticalis), the term which described the typical secondary school from that day to 1869, derived its See also:

• DENOTATION (from Lat. denotare, to mark out, specify)

denotation and its See also:

• CONNOTATION

connotation . For a true conception of the history of secondary schools it cannot be repeated too often and too emphatically that to this day the true See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of the greatest See also:

• ENGLISH

English "public schools" is grammar school . See also:

• WINCHESTER
• WINCHESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Winchester and See also:

• ETON

Eton are the grammar schools of the colleges of the Blessed See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary of Winchester and of Eton respectively, and See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster is the grammar school of the collegiate See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of St See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter, Westminster . Throughout the thirteen centuries which intervened between Dionysius Thrax and Dr See also:

• KENNEDY
• KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL (1804-1889)
• KENNEDY, THOMAS FRANCIS (1788-1879)
• KENNEDY, WALTER (c. 1460–c. 1508)

Kennedy, Dionysius's grammar was the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard See also:

• WORK

work and the foundation, directly or indirectly, of all other grammars, while the grammar school has always meant, and, in the hands of the better class of teachers, has always been, not a gerund-grinding See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine, but a place for the training and exercise of the mind by the study of literature .

The word " school," as well as the word " grammar," seems to be due to Alexandria . Plato in the See also:

• LAWS

Laws had spoken of a learned discussion or teaching, the product of leisure, as a schole . But it does not appear that the word was transferred to the place where such discussion took place before the Alexandrian See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch . The first known use of it in that sense seems to be in Dionysius See also:

• HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum)

Halicarnassus' See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

Letter to Ammaeus, c . 30 B.C . But as See also:

• PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; cf. Asin. Prol. 11)

Plautus (c . 210) uses the corresponding Latin term, ludus literarius, some two centuries earlier, we may safely infer that he used it, not on the principle of ludus a non ludendo, but as a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of grammar school . Roman Schools.—At Rome schools began with intercourse with Greeks . According to Suetonius, the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian's secretary, who wrote The School Masters (De grammaticis) about A.D . 140, literary teaching and the science of grammar began with Livius Andronicus, a Greek from Magna Graecia in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, who, being brought to Rome as a slave in 272 B.C., became a freed See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, translated the Odyssey into Latin, and taught both Greek and Latin . See also:

• ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.c.)

Ennius, the first Latin poet, was also See also:

• HALF

half-Greek, and came to Rome in 209 B.C., where he also taughtboth See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages . According to See also:

• PLUTARCH
• PLUTARCH (Gr. llXoi rapxos) (c. A.D. 46–120)

Plutarch (Quaest .

Rom . 59) the first grammar school (grammatodidaskaleion) was opened by Spurius Carvilius, a freedman of Carvilius, who was the first Roman to See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce his wife . Like master, like See also:

• MAIL

mail . These two innovations in morals and See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners took place about 230 B.C . According to Suetonius, See also:

• CRATES

Crates of Mallus in See also:

• CILICIA

Cilicia, who about 169 B.C. came to Rome as See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador from Attalus, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• PERGAMUM, or PERGAMTS (mod. Bergama)

Pergamum, a great centre of learning, and was kept there by a broken See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg, occupied himself in giving lectures . His example was soon followed by See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans . Schools of grammar, in which, even as See also:

• LATE

late as See also:

• CICERO

Cicero's time, the Laws of the Twelve Tables were the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-See also:

• BOOK

book and were learnt by heart, were kept by Greeks or freedmen . These seem to have been of the nature of elementary schools . But at Rome, as at Athens, the working-classes were for the most See also:

• PART

part slaves; and elementary schools were like English preparatory schools rather than public elementary schools . The teachers were called litteratores, a translation of the Greek ypaµµarwQrai . Schools of See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric, which were more like secondary schools, were also opened after the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of that of Isocrates at Athens . Their teachers were called litterati, corresponding to the Greek ypaµµarucoi .

Suetonius says that " the early litteratores also taught rhetoric, and we have many of their See also:

• TREATISES

treatises which include both sciences." In 92 B.C. schools of Latin rhetoric were put down as an innovation . Yet among the treatises written by See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato, the praiser of the past at the expense of the See also:

• PRESENT

present, was one on public speaking, the chief See also:

• RULE

rule in which was " take care of the sense, and the sounds will take care of themselves." Cicero learned to declaim both in Greek and Latin, and the Gracchi had studied rhetoric under Greek teachers . Neither the gymnasium or palaestra, nor the music school, flourished at Rome . As at Athens, so at Rome the boys were sent to school in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of a slave, a pedagogus, comes or custos . But it would seem that at Rome the pedagogus, generally a Greek slave, often himself gave elementary instruction . In See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro's much-debated phrase, " Educat nutrix, instituit pedagogus, docet ma ister," " the See also:

• NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier " nourice," adapted through the French from Lat. nutrix, nu/rite, to nourish)

nurse brings up, the See also:

• PEDAGOGUE

pedagogue instils the elements, the master teaches." Magister, which in English became "maister" and then " master," remained the term for the teacher of the public school from that day to this, though attempts were made at the time of the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation to introduce the Greek word didascalus in its place . The Roman school was very much like the modern school . All the methods of See also:

• TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist)

torture which have made the service of the See also:

• MUSES, THE (Gr. Mo6o-at, the thinkers)

Muses for most boys a veritable See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery were in full See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue . Instruction was now in a See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, and grammar became prominent . Early rising, loud speaking and hard flogging were in the ascendant . See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

Martial curses the master of a neighbouring school whose shouts and blows woke him up at See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

crow . See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace assures us that he admires the old Latin poets in spite of their having been flogged into him by the pedagogus, See also:

• ORBILIUS, PUPILLUS

Orbilius, whose name has become proverbial .

The staple of instruction in the Roman schools was the See also:

• WORKS

works of the poets, Greek and Latin, Homer and See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil, See also:

• HESIOD

Hesiod and See also:

• AESOP (Gr. Aivwvros)

Aesop, See also:

• MENANDER
• MENANDER (342–291 B.C.)
• MENANDER (MILINDA)

Menander and See also:

• TERENCE

Terence . Horace says (Ep. i . 19 . 4o) " that he was not thought worthy of going the See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round of the schoolmasters' desks "; but it was a See also:

• FATE

fate not See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long delayed, and the writings of the poets of the See also:

• SILVER

silver age, See also:

• LUCAN

Lucan and See also:

• STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS (c. A.D. 45-96)

Statius, became school-books in their own lifetimes . Our knowledge of the Roman curricula is mainly due to See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian's Institutio oratoria, c . A.D . 91 . See also:

• FABIUS

Fabius Quintilianus, born on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• EBRO (anc. Iberus or Hiberus)

Ebro, was not only the son of a man who kept a rhetoric school, but himself kept one, and is said by St See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome to have been the first who kept a public school, in the sense that he was the first who received a See also:

• STIPEND

stipend from the emperor . In endeavouring to create the perfect orator, Quintilian discusses the whole of education from the See also:

• CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with " crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English Dictionary)

cradle upwards . It is clear from him that the grammar school had trenched on the rhetoric school . The latter was then restricted to actual oratory, the rules and practice of public speaking, whjle the grammar school gave much the same teaching as English grammar schools did until 185o . The first definitely endowed school we hear of is one founded by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny the younger, a pupil of Quintilian, at his native place See also:

• COMO (anc. Comum)
• COMO, LAKE OF (the Lacus Larius of the Romans, and so sometimes called LARIO to the present day, though in the 4th century it is already termed Lacus Comacinus)

Como .

In a letter to the historian See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus (iv . 12) he informs him that he found a Como boy was at school at See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, because there were no teachers at Como, whereupon he lectured the parents on the " small additional expense " a day-school at Como would be, compared to the cost of boarding boys at Milan . He therefore offered to find a third of the cost, and would have found the whole did he not " fear that such an endowment might be corrupted . . . to private interests, which he saw happen in many places where teachers are hired by the public " (preceptores publice conducuntur) . The choice of the master he left to the parents . Later historians say that the emperor See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus See also:

• PIUS

Pius (138–161) assigned offices and salaries (honores et salaries) for rhetoricians throughout the provinces; and that See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus did the same, and also established exhibitions for poor boys, with the See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation, curiously repeated a thousand years later in the statutes of All Souls College and of Eton, modo ingenuos, i.e. provided only that they should be free-born . There were complaints that the masters were See also:

• ILL

ill-paid . The only definite statement as to tuition fees appears to be a See also:

• LINE

line of Horace (Sat. i . 6 . 76), who says his See also:

• FATHER

father took him to school at Rome as he did not care to send him where the sons of his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country neighbours went, at 8 asses a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month, said to represent 4d. a month, See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to " about a See also:

• SHILLING

shilling "; even this is founded on a disputed reading . Quintilian made a fortune by his school, but See also:

• JUVENAL (DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS) (c. 60-140)

Juvenal calls him in this respect a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white crow . As in modern times the winning See also:

• JOCKEY

jockey, so then the victorious charioteer, received more pay for a single See also:

• RACE

race than the master for a whole See also:

• YEAR

year's labours .

Grammar and rhetoric schools spread throughout the Roman world and continued substantially unchanged in method and subject to the days of See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory the Great and See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine the apostle of the English . The Confessions of St Augustine of See also:

• HIPPO

Hippo, a school-master at See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage, Rome and Milan, before his See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism in the year 387, and the poems of his contemporary See also:

• AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (c. 310-395)

Ausonius, educated in the grammar school at See also:

• TOULOUSE
• TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737)

Toulouse, and himself a schoolmaster at See also:

• BORDEAUX

Bordeaux before becoming See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect of See also:

• ILLYRIA

Illyria and of See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul, show that the schools were much the same in the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century as in the first . Ausonius celebrated in See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse all the Bordeaux schoolmasters, some coming from schools at Athens, See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse and See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth, one the son of a Druid at See also:

• BAYEUX

Bayeux, others schoolmasters from See also:

• POITOU

Poitou, See also:

• NARBONNE

Narbonne, Toulouse, who went to See also:

• LERIDA

Lerida and other places in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain . Ausonius had for his pupil the emperor See also:

• GRATIAN (FLAvrus GRATIANUS AUGUSTUS)

Gratian, who in 376 established a legal See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff for schoolmasters' salaries . " In every See also:

• TOWN

town which is called a See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

metropolis, a See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor shall be elected . The rhetoric master (rhetor) was to have at least 24 annonae (an See also:

• ANNONA (from Lat. annul, year)

annona being a year's See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages of a working man) ; while the grammar masters were to receive half that . But at See also:

• TRIER (French Troves)

Trier, then the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the Western See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, the rhetor was to have 30, the Latin grammarian 20, and the Greek grammarian, if one can be found, 12 annonae (See also:

• COD

Cod . Theod. xiii . 3 . 11) . The works of See also:

• ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX (A.D. 474–521)

Ennodius, See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• PAVIA (anc. Ticinum, q.v.)

Pavia, 513-521, preserve many school declamations delivered in Milan school . The same century saw See also:

• PRISCIAN [PRISCIANUS CAESARIENSIS]

Priscian, a schoolmaster at Constantinople, compose the Latin grammar, which, itself for the most part a mere translation from Greek, reigned without a See also:

• RIVAL

rival till the Reformation, and is represented by over woo See also:

• MSS

MSS .

Venantius See also:

• FORTUNATUS
• FORTUNATUS, VENANTIUS HONORIUS CLEMENTIANUS (530-609)

Fortunatus, educated in the grammar school at Treviso, wrote in 570 a See also:

• LIFE

life of St See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin of See also:

• TOURS

Tours in three books of See also:

• HEXAMETER

hexameter verse, and lives of See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints and bishops . His era was one of transition, and marks the passing of the schools from See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular to ecclesiastical See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control . His contemporary See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope Gregory rates See also:

• DESIDERIUS

Desiderius, " bishop of Gaul," at See also:

• VIENNE
• VIENNE, COUNCIL OF

Vienne (Ep. xi . 54), because " as we cannot relate without shame, it has come to our knowledge that your brotherhood teaches grammar to certain persons: which we take all the worse as it converts what we formerly said in your favour to lamentation and See also:

• MOURNING (from the verb " to mourn," to be sorrowful, 0. Eng. murnan; cf. O.H.G. mornen, Goth. maurnan, to be anxious, O.N. morna, to pine away; by some referred to root seen in Gr. jdptpva, sorrow, by others to root mer-, to die)

mourning, since the praise of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ cannot See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie in one mouth with the praise of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter . Consider yourself what a See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime it is for bishops to recite what would be improper for religiously minded laymen "—words which are an See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of a sentiment of Jerome at his worst . This letter is the more remarkable, because it ends with commending to Desiderius the monks whom Gregory was sending with Laurence the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest and See also:

• MELLITUS (d. 624)

Mellitus the See also:

• ABBOT (from the Hebrew ab, a father, through the Syriac abba, Lat. abbas, gen. abbatis, O.E. abbad, fr. late Lat. form abbad-em changed in 13th century under influence of the Lat. form to abbat, used alternatively till the end of the 17th century; Ger. Ab
• ABBOT, EZRA (1819-1884)
• ABBOT, GEORGE (1603-1648)
• ABBOT, ROBERT (1588?–1662?)
• ABBOT, WILLIAM (1798-1843)

abbot to Augustine of Canter-See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

bury, thus bringing the grammar-school-teaching bishop into See also:

• DIRECT

direct connexion with the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of the English, and- the foundation of the first English school . English Schools.—St Augustine of See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury landed in See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent in 596, and the king of Kent, Ethelbert, was christened two years later . He " did not defer giving his teachere a settled See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in his metropolis of Canterbury, with such possessions as were necessary for their subsistence," says See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

Bede . We may therefore attribute the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the Church of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and the first English school to the year 598 . For as nowadays the first thing modern missionaries do is to establish a school, so did Augustine . Indeed a school was even more necessary then . Now the Scriptures are always translated into the native See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue, and services conducted in it .

But in those days the converted See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen, to understand the church service and to read the Scriptures, had to learn Latin and begin with Latin grammar; and indeed as the See also:

• KYRIE (in full kyrie eleison, or eleeson, Gr. Kvpte MEssvov; cf. Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. xv. 22, &c., meaning " Lord, have mercy ")

kyrie, the creed and the gloria were still rendered in Greek, if he was thoroughly to comprehend it he had to learn some Greek . The first actual mention of Canterbury school is in 631 . See also:

• SIGEBERT (d. 575)

Sigebert of See also:

• ESSEX
• ESSEX, ARTHUR CAPEL
• ESSEX, EARLS OF
• ESSEX, KINGDOM OF
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX
• ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, 2ND2 EARL OF (1566-1601)
• ESSEX, WALTER DEVEREUX, IST2 EARL OF (1541–1576)

Essex, Bede tells us (Eccl . Hist. iii . 18, ed . Plummer,p . 162), while in See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile in Gaul, was baptized . " On his return, as soon as he obtained the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom (of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons), wishing to imitate what he had seen well done in Gaul, he founded a grammar school (scolam in qua pueri litteris erudirenlur), with the assistance of Bishop See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix, whom he had received from Kent, who provided them with ushers and masters (pedagogos et magistros) after the manner of the Canterburians (more Canluariorum)." If the last words are translated Kentish folk the meaning is the same, as naturally the first and chief school of the Kentish folk was at Canterbury . Felix was a Burgundian, who had come over to See also:

• HONORIUS
• HONORIUS, FLAVIUS (384-423)

Honorius, one of the last survivors of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• BAND

band of Augustine, who became See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop in 627 . The East Saxon see was placed at Dunnoc, now See also:

• DUNWICH

Dunwich, and the school there has been claimed by patriotic See also:

• SUFFOLK
• SUFFOLK, CHARLES BRANDON, 1ST DUKE OF (c. 1484–'545)
• SUFFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• SUFFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1561-1626)
• SUFFOLK, WILLIAM DE LA POLE

Suffolk historians as the first school in England . Though long before the See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest Dunwich had ceased to be an episcopal see, being deposed in favour of See also:

• THETFORD

Thetford, while half of it was swallowed up by the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, yet, when between 1076 and ro83 the priory of See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

Eye was founded by See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• MALET, LUCAS

Malet, he appropriated to it all the churches of Dunwich " the See also:

• TITHES

tithes of the whole town both of See also:

• MONEY

money and See also:

• HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE

herrings . . . the school also of the same town." So the school of Sigebert and Felix was still existing 400 years afterwards .

It afterwards perished at the See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the priory, to which it had been handed over . As the model must be older than the copy, Canterbury school must be allowed the primacy over Dunwich . Being spoken of as an existing institution, with no See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion that it was then newly established, we need not doubt that it was founded by St Augustine as part of the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral establishment of Christ Church, Canterbury . This church was not then monastic, but like all other cathedrals, a college of priests, the monks being placed apart, outside the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city walls in the See also:

• ABBEY (Lat. abbatia; from Syr. abba, father)
• ABBEY, EDWIN AUSTIN (1852– )

abbey, first called St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's, afterwards known as St Augustine's . Enthusiastic " Grecians" have attributed Canterbury school rather to the Greek archbishop, the See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore, who reached Canterbury on the 27th of May 669 . " Soon after" he "travelled through the whole English parts of the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island," and first established a See also:

• UNITED

united church of England, being " the first archbishop whom the whole English church consented to obey." He travelled with Hadrian, a Latin-See also:

• AFRICAN

African monk, who had been first offered the archbishopric, and was sent by the pope to look after Theodore " lest after the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of Greeks he should introduce something against the true faith." " Because both were abundantly learned in sacred and profane literature, they collected crowds of disciples, and streams of saving knowledge daily flowed from them, as together with See also:

• HOLY

holy See also:

• WRIT (O. Eng. gewrit, writ, from writan, to write)