See also:

• SEADIAH (or SAADIA; in Arabic Said) BEN JOSEPH (892-942)

SEADIAH (or SAADIA; in Arabic Said) See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

BEN See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

JOSEPH (892-942)  was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in A.D . 892 at Dilaz in the Fayyum, whence he is often called al-Fayyumi . Although he is justly regarded as the greatest figure in the See also:

• LITERARY

literary and See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval Judaism, nothing certain is known of his See also:

• FATHER

father or of his See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• LIFE

life . Even the names of his teachers, generally recorded in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of Jewish scholars, are unknown, with the exception of a certain See also:

• ABU

Abu Kathir, who is himself obscure, and See also:

• LEFT

left no writings . Saadia's literary See also:

• WORK

work is in fact the more remarkable since it suddenly appears at a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when learning seemed to be dead both in See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West . Since the completion of the See also:

• TALMUD

Talmud very little of any literary importance, if we except certain midrashim, had been produced among the orthodox (Rabbanite) See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, although the Babylonian See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools at Sura and Pumbeditha continued to enjoy a somewhat intermittent prosperity . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, learning was cultivated among the See also:

• QARAITES, or KARAITES

Qaraites (q.v.; see also See also:

• HEBREW

HEBREW LITERATURE), a See also:

• SECT

sect of Jews who rejected the oral tradition, restricting their practice to the ordinances of scripture (migra) . It even seemed for a time as if conservative See also:

• HERESY

heresy would prevail against progressive orthodoxy . In Saadia, however, the Rabbanites found a powerful See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion . Almost his first work, written at the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of twenty-three, was an attack on the teaching of 'See also:

• ALLAN, DAVID (1744–1796)
• ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810–1882)
• ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782–1850)

Allan, the founder of Qaraism, who lived in the 8th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . This, like most of Saadia's polemical writings, is no longer extant, but we can gather something of its contents from references in the author's other See also:

• WORKS

works, and from the statements of his opponents . The controversy turned largely on the See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar, which of course involved the See also:

• DATES

dates of festivals, and, since the Rabbanite calendar had come down from See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient times, opened up the whole question of oral tradition and the authority of the Talmud .

The conflict raged for many years, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief representative of the other See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side being See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

ben Yeruliam, a virulent if not successful opponent . It was not, however, the only controversy in which Saadia was engaged . In 922 Ben See also:

• MEIR

Meir, a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of importance in See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, attempted to make alterations in the calendar, against the authority of the Babylonian schools . Saadia, who was then at Baghdad, warned him of his errors, refuted him in a work called Sefer ha-Mo'adim (the See also:

• BOOK

Book of the Festivals), and finally procured his See also:

• EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis, common)

excommunication by See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David ben Zakkai, the See also:

• EXILARCH

exilarch or See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Jewish community in Babylonia . The vigorous See also:

• ACTION

action of Saadia seems to have brought him more prominently to the See also:

• NOTICE

notice of the exilarch, and that at a time of more than usual difficulty . The See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable rivalry of the two schools of Sura and Pumbeditha, as the recognized authorities in matters of See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, had degenerated into See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy and contention . The See also:

• GAON (Heb. for " Excellency," plural Geonim)

Gaon (q.v.) or See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

President of Pumbeditha, taking See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of his own position and of a vacancy in the Gaonate of Sura, wished to abolish the See also:

• RIVAL

rival school . The exilarch, however, no doubt in recognition of his See also:

• RECENT

recent services, appointed Saadia as Gaon of Sura, although it was against the usual See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom to appoint a person who was not a member of the school . Unfortunately this step did not See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . Pumbeditha was jealous: the exilarch was weak and not very scrupulous . See also:

• MONEY

Money had to be raised not only for the support of the schools, but also to buy See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, and Saadia was not the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to connive at the corruption and oppression practised by the exilarch to raise it . Within two years matters had come to a crisis, and the exilarch dismissed Saadia, while Saadia retorted by declaring the exilarch deposed (930) .

After three years of contention David succeeded in sufficiently bribing the new and needy See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

Caliph (Qahir, 932–934; see See also:

• CALIPHATE

CALIPHATE, § 19), who definitely forbade Saadia to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as Gaon . The next four years, spent in retirement at Baghdad, were devoted to literary labours, which had no doubt been impossible during the previous years of trouble, and in fact it was at this time that most of Saadia's work was produced . Eventually a reconciliation was effected with David, favoured probably by the new Caliph Radi (934–940; see CALIPHATE, § 20), and Saadia was reinstated as Gaon of Sura in 938 . Under his See also:

• RULE

rule the school attained the highest reputation among the Jewish communities of East and West—but it was not of See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long duration . His See also:

• HEALTH

health had been impaired by the strenuous life he had Ied, and in his later years he suffered from See also:

• MELANCHOLIA

melancholia . In 942 he died, two years after the exilarch . That some of the many works of Saadia, in spite of their merits, have been neglected, and others partly or entirely lost, is not as surprising as it appears at first sight . They were for the most See also:

• PART

part written in Arabic, the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular of the Jews in the East, so that after the break-up of the Babylonian schools in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the iith century, they would only be studied in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, the new centre of Jewish learning, and in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . After the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Arabic practically ceased to be used by them for literary purposes, and in the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe (except perhaps in S . See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy) it was never understood . Even some Hebrew works, of See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• INTEREST

interest to us now, must have been regarded at the time as of purely temporary value, such as e.g. the Sefer ha-M0'adim, fragments of which have only recently been recovered in the Geniza at See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo . The See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Qaraite works'. against 'Allan, See also:

• IBN

Ibn Sakawaihi and Ben Zap., the Kitab at-tamyiz, Kitab al-Shara'i, Kitdb al-'Ibbur (calendar) and a book on anthropomorphisms, all in Arabic, are now lost and only known from quotations .

So also are the refutafion of the sceptic IJivi of See also:

• BALKH

Balkh, and the Sefer `Orayoth (on prohibited See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage, against-Qaraites) . Of the Sefer ha-MO`adim and Sefer ha-Galiti 1 An excellent See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of these is given by Poznanski in the Jewish Quarterly See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, x . 238 if.(against David ben Zakkai), both in Hebrew, some fragments have been recovered recently . Closely allied to his polemical writings are his exegetical works . He translated most of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible into Arabic, and commented on at least some of the books . The memorial edition2 contains (I) the version of the See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch (1893), (3) of See also:

• ISAIAH
• ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF

Isaiah (1896), (5) of See also:

• JOB

Job (1899), (6) of See also:

• PROVERBS, BOOK OF (Heb. Mishle Slzelomoh, " Proverbs of Solomon," abridged by the later Jews to Mishle; Septuagint, irapotpiai or II. EaX.; Lat. Vulg. Parabolae sal. and Liber proverbiorum)

Proverbs (1894), the last three with commentary . The See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the 5 Meghilloth, and of See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel (with commentary), usually ascribed to Saadia, is not really by him, but a genuine translation of Daniel, with commentary, exists in See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript . There is also ascribed to him a midrashic work on the See also:

• DECALOGUE (in patristic Gr. 7] SercaXoyos, sc. (3i(3)tos or vopoGevia)

Decalogue . These all, no doubt, exhibit the defects necessary to the time in which their author lived . But it must be remembered that Saadia was a See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer . IIayyuj, the father of Hebrew See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar, was not yet born, nor had the scientific and See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative study of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language begun . In this respect Saadia contributed little to the subject .

Moreover, he shows a tendency, See also:

• COMMON

common at all times and perhaps due to a particular theory of See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration, to get more out of the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text than it contains, and to interpret it in accordance with preconceived philosophical opinions . At the same time both See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations and commentaries are remarkable for their great learning, See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound sense and an honest endeavour to arrive at the true meaning of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original . They were thus admirably suited for their purpose, which was, like the earlier Targums and the later work of See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses Mendelssohn, to render the sacred text more intelligible to the faithful generally and to check the growth of See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error . The grammatical work called Agron, a sort of See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary, is now lost, as are also the Kutub al-Lughah and perhaps other See also:

• TREATISES

treatises on Hebrew grammar . The explanation of the 70 (really 90) hapaxlegomena in the Bible is still extant, and a poem on the number of letters in the Bible . On Talmudic subjects again little is preserved beyond the Kitab al-Mawarith, which was published as vol. ix. of the U uvres completes, together with the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• TREATISE

treatise in Hebrew on the 13 Middoth or canons of exegesis of R . See also:

• ISHMAEL (a Hebrew name meaning " God hears ")

Ishmael and some Responsa mostly in Hebrew . The translation of the Mishna, the introduction to the Talmud and other works of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind are known only by repute . Of the Siddur or arrangement of the See also:

• LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. X€Zros, public, and Epyov, work; )Aetrovpy6s, a public servant)

liturgy by Saadia, a large part exists in a single manuscript at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, and several fragments have been recovered from the Cairo Geniza . Numerous other liturgical poems, or parts of them, have been obtained from the same source, and several have been published in See also:

• PERIODICALS

periodicals . His Azharoth, a poetical enumeration of the 613 precepts, in Hebrew, is included in vol. ix. of the tEuvres completes . His philosophical works are (I) a commentary on the Sefer Vezira, a mystical treatise ascribed to the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham, which, as the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Kabbala, had great See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on Jewish thought, and was the subject of numerous commentaries; (2) the Kitab al-Amandt w`al-I`tigadat (Book of Beliefs and Convictions), written in 933, called, in the Hebrew translation by See also:

• JUDAH

Judah ibn Tibbon, Emfinoth we-De`oth .

Its See also:

• SYSTEM

system is based on See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation, the two being not opposed, but mutually complementary . It is thus concerned, as the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title implies, with the rational foundation of the faith, and deals with creation, the nature of See also:

• GOD

God, revelation, See also:

• FREE

free will, the soul, the future life and the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the See also:

• MESSIAH (Dan. x. 25, 26)

Messiah . It shows a thorough knowledge of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, on whom much of the See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument is based, and incidentally refutes the views of Christians, Moslems, Brahmins and sceptics such as IIivi . From its nature, however, the work, although of great interest and value, never had the same wider influence as that of Ibn Gabirol (q.v.) . The Arabic text was published by S . Landauer (See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, i88o), the Hebrew version at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople in 1562 and frequently since . 2 (Euvres completes de R . Saadia, ed. by J . See also:

• DERENBOURG, JOSEPH (1811-1895)

Derenbourg (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1893 ff.) . religionsphilosophische Lehre Saadja Gaons," in Baeumker's Beitrage, iv . 4 (See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster, 1903) (containing a See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German translation of part iii. of the Kitab al-Atria-nett) ; A . Harkavy, Studien, v .

(St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, 1891) (in Hebrew); S . Schechter, Saadyana (See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, 1903) (texts from the Geniza, repr. from the Jewish Quarterly Review) . (A .