See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

SECTION IN CENTRAL  See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

WASHINGTON 250 ft . 4000 ft . . 3500 ft . . C . 3000 ft . . 4000 „ . 0–2000 „ winds also are much affected by the changes of pressure due to the strong See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental changes of temperature . The warmed See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air of summer produces an See also:

• AREA

area of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low pressure in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west-central See also:

• UNITED

United States, which interrupts the See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of high pressure that planetary conditions alone would See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form around the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth about See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude 300; hence there is a tendency of the summer winds to See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow inward from the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Pacific over the Cordilleras toward the continental centre, and from the trades of the torrid See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic up the See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi Valley; conversely in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold air over the lands produces a large area of high pressure from which the winds tend to flow outward; thus repelling the See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly winds of the northern Pacific and greatly intensifying the outflow southward to the Gulf of See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico and eastward to the Atlantic . As a result of these seasonal alternations of temperature and pressure there is something of a See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon tendency See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in the winds of the Mississippi Valley, southerly inflowing winds prevailing in summer and northerly outflowing winds in winter; but the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general tendency to inflow and outflow is greatly modified by the See also:

• RELIEF

relief of the lands, to which we next turn . The See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic effects of relief are seen directly in the ascent of the higher See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges to altitudes where low temperatures prevail, thus preserving See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow patches through the summer on the high summits (over rz,000 ft.) in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, and maintaining snow-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields and moderate-sized glaciers on the ranges in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north . With this goes a general increase of precipitation with See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude, so that a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good rainfall See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map would have its darker shades very generally along the mountain ranges . Thus the heaviest measured rainfall See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the Mississippi is on the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Appalachians; while in the west, where observations are as yet few at high level stations, the occurrence of forests and pastures on the higher slopes of mountains which rise from See also:

• DESERT

desert plains clearly testifies to the same See also:

• RULE

rule .

The mountains also introduce controls over the See also:

• LOCAL

local winds; diurnal warming in summer suffices to cause local ascending breezes which frequently become cloudy by the expansion of ascent, even to the point of forming local See also:

• THUNDER

thunder showers which See also:

• DRIFT (from "drive ")

drift away as they grow and soon dissolve after leaving the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent mountain . Conversely, nocturnal cooling produces well-defined descending breezes which issue from the valley mouths, sometimes attaining an unpleasant strength toward midnight . The mountains are of larger importance in obstructing and deflecting the course of the general winds . The Pacific ranges, See also:

• STANDING

standing transverse to the course of the prevailing westerlies near the Pacific Ocean, are of the greatest importance in this respect; it is largely by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of the barrier that they form that the tempering effects of the Pacific winds are See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt for so See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short a distance inland in winter, and that the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat centre is displaced in summer so far towards the western See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . The rainfall from the stromy westerly winds is largely deposited on the western slopes of the mountains near the Pacific coast, and arid or desert interior plains are thus found See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the See also:

• GREAT

great ocean . The descending winds on the eastern slopes of the ranges are frequently warm and dry, to the point of resembling the See also:

• FOHN (Ger., probably derived through Romansch favongn, favoign, from Lat. favonius)

Fohn winds of the See also:

• ALPS

Alps; such winds are known in the Cordilleran region as See also:

• CHINOOK

Chinook winds . The ranges of the Rocky Mountains in their turn receive some rainfall from the passing winds, but it is only after the westerlies are reinforced by a moist indraft from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic—the result of summer or of cyclonic inflow—that rainfall increases to a sufficient measure on the See also:

• LOWER

lower lands to support See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture without See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation . The region east of the Mississippi is singularly favoured in this way; for it receives a good amount of rainfall, well distributed through the See also:

• YEAR

year, and indeed is in this respect one of the largest regions in the temperate zones that are so well watered . The Great Plains are under correspondingly unfavourable conditions, for their scanty rainfall is of very variable amount . Along the transition belt between plains and prairies the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is peculiarly trying as to rainfall ; one See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of five or ten years may have sufficient rainfall to enable the farmers to gather good crops; but the next series following may be so dry that the crops fail year after year . The cyclonic inflows and anticyclonic outflows, so characteristic of the belt of westerly winds the See also:

• WORLD

world over, are very irregular in the See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

Cord illeran region; but farther eastward they are typically developed by reason of the great extent of open See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . Although of reduced strength in the summer, they still suffice to dominate See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather changes; it is during the approach of a low pressure centre that hot southerly winds prevail; they sometimes reach so high a temperature as to See also:

• WITHER, GEORGE (1588-1667)

wither and blight the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain crops; and it is almost exclusively in connexion with the cloudy areas near and south-east of these cyclonic centres that violent thunderstorms, with their occasional destructive whirling tornadoes, are formed .

With the passing of the low pressure centre, the winds shift to west or north-west, the temperature falls, and all nature is relieved . In winter-time, the cyclonic and anticyclonic areas are of increased frequency and intensity; and it is partly for this reason that many meteorologists have been disposed to regard them as chiefly driven by the irregular flow of the westerly winds, rather than as due to convectional instability, which should have a maximum effect in summer . One of the best indications of actual winter weather, as apart from the arrival of winter by the See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar, is the development of cyclonic disturbances of such strength that the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from their warm, See also:

• SIROCCO

sirocco-like southerly inflow hi front of theircentre, to the " cold See also:

• WAVE

wave " of their See also:

• REAR

rear produces non-periodic temperature changes strong enough to overcome the weakened diurnal temperature changes of the cold See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, a relation which practically never occurs in summer time . A curious feature of the cyclonic storms is that, whether they See also:

• CROSS

cross the interior of the country near the northern or southern boundary or along an intermediate path, they converge towards New See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England as they pass on toward the Atlantic ; and hence that the north-eastern See also:

• PART

part of the United States is subjected to especially numerous and strong weather changes . (W . M . D.) IV.—See also:

• FAUNA

FAUNA AND See also:

• FLORA

FLORA Fauna.—See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

Differences of temperature have produced in North See also:

• AMERICA

America seven transcontinental See also:

• LIFE

life-zones or areas characterized by relative uniformity of both fauna and flora; they are the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic, Hudsonian and See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian, which are divisions of the Boreal Region; the Transition, Upper Austral and Lower Austral, which are divisions of the Austral Region, and the Tropical . The Arctic, Hudsonian and Canadian enter the United States from the north and the Tropical from the south; but the greater part of the United States is occupied by the Transition, Upper Austral and Lower Austral, and each of these is divided into eastern and western subzones by differences in the amount of moisture . The Arctic or Arctic-Alpine See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone covers in the United States only the tops of a few mountains which extend above the limit of trees, such as Mt Katandin in See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, Mt Washington and neighbouring peaks in the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Mountains of New See also:

• HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated HANTS)

Hampshire, and the loftier peaks of the Rocky, Cascade and Sierra See also:

• NEVADA
• NEVADA (a Spanish word meaning " snow-clad " or " snowy land," originally applied to a snow-capped mountain range on the Pacific slope)

Nevada Mountains . The larger animals are rare on these mountain-tops and the areas are too small for a distinct fauna . The Hudsonian zone covers the upper slopes of the higher mountains of New England, New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York and North Carolina and larger areas on the elevated slopes of the Rocky and Cascade Mountains; and on the western mountains it is the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the mountain See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat, mountain See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, Alpine flying-See also:

• SQUIRREL
• SQUIRREL (Fr. ecureuil)

squirrel, See also:

• NUTCRACKER

nutcracker, evening See also:

• GROSBEAK (Fr. Grosbec)

grosbeak and Townsend's See also:

• SOLITAIRE (Fr. for " solitary ")

solitaire . The Canadian zone crosses from See also:

• CANADA

Canada into northern and north-western Maine, northern and central New Hampshire, northern See also:

• MICHIGAN
• MICHIGAN, LAKE
• MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

Michigan, and north-eastern See also:

• MINNESOTA

Minnesota and North Dakota, covers the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green Mountains, most of the See also:

• ADIRONDACKS

Adirondacks and Catskills, the higher slopes of the mountains in See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania, West See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia, Virginia, western North Carolina and eastern See also:

• TENNESSEE

Tennessee, the lower slopes of the northern Rocky and Cascade Mountains, the upper slopes of the southern Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains, and a See also:

• STRIP

strip along the Pacific coast as far south as Cape Mendocino, interrupted, however, by the See also:

• COLUMBIA

Columbia Valley .

Among its characteristic mammals and birds are the See also:

• LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. airy, probably connected with X hovewv, to see)

lynx, See also:

• MARTEN
• MARTEN, AMERICAN
• MARTEN, HENRY (1602-1680)
• MARTEN, JAPANESE
• MARTEN, STONE

marten, See also:

• PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig ")

porcupine, northern red squirrel, Belding's and See also:

• KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN (1718-r783)

Kennicott's ground squirrels, varying and snowshoe rabbits, northern See also:

• JUMPING

jumping See also:

• MOUSE

mouse, white-throated See also:

• SPARROW (0. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo)

sparrow, Blackburnian See also:

• WARBLER

warbler, See also:

• AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851)

Audubon warbler, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive-backed See also:

• THRUSH (A. S. Prysce, Icel. priistr, Norw. Trast, O. H. Ger. Drosce, whence the mod. Ger. prossel, to be compared with the analogous English form Throstle,l now almost obsolete, both being apparently diminutives)

thrush, three-toed See also:

• WOODPECKER

woodpecker, spruce See also:

• GROUSE

grouse, and Canada See also:

• JAY (Fr. geai)
• JAY, JOHN (1745-1829)
• JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853)

jay; within this zone in the North-eastern states are a few See also:

• MOOSE

moose and caribou, but farther north these animals are more characteristic of the Hudsonian zone . The Transition zone, in which the extreme southern limit of several boreal See also:

• SPECIES

species overlaps the extreme northern limit of numerous austral species, is divided into an eastern humid or Alleghanian area, a western arid area, and a Pacific coast humid area . The Alleghanian area comprises most of the lowlands of New England . New York and Pennsylvania, the north-east corner of See also:

• OHIO

Ohio, most of the lower See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Michigan, nearly all of See also:

• WISCONSIN (known as " the Badger' state ")
• WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF

Wisconsin, more than See also:

• HALF

half of Minnesota, eastern North Dakota, north-eastern South Dakota, and the greater part of the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to See also:

• GEORGIA

Georgia . It has few distinctive species, but within its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders the southern See also:

• MOLE
• MOLE, LOUIS MATHIEU, COMTE (1781—1855)
• MOLE, MATHIEU (1584—1656)

mole and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-tail See also:

• RABBIT

rabbit of the South meet the northern See also:

• STAR

star-nosed and See also:

• BREWER, JOHN SHERREN (1810-1879)

Brewer's moles and the varying See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare of the North, and the southern bobwhite, See also:

• BALTIMORE
• BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1ST BARON (C. 1580—1632)

Baltimore See also:

• ORIOLE (O. Fr. Oriol, Lat. aureolus)

oriole, bluebird, catbird, chewink, thrasher and See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood thrush are neighbours of the bobolink, solitary vireo and the See also:

• HERMIT

hermit and See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson s thrushes . The Arid Transition life-zone comprises the western part of the Dakotas, north-eastern See also:

• MONTANA

Montana, and irregular areas in Washington, See also:

• OREGON

Oregon, See also:

• IDAHO

Idaho, See also:

• WYOMING

Wyoming, See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, Nevada, See also:

• UTAH

Utah, See also:

• COLORADO

Colorado, See also:

• ARIZONA (from the Spanish-Indian Arizonac, of unknown meaning,—possibly " few springs,"-the name of an 18th-century mining camp in the Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the present border of Arizona)

Arizona, New Mexico and western See also:

• TEXAS

Texas, covering for the most part the eastern See also:

• BASE

base of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains and the higher parts of the Great See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

Basin and the plateaus . Its most characteristic animals and birds are the white-tailed See also:

• JACK

jack-rabbit, pallid See also:

• VOLE

vole, See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

sage See also:

• HEN

hen, See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp-tailed grouse and green-tailed towhee; the large Columbia ground-squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus) is See also:

• COMMON

common in that part of the zone which is west of the Rocky Mountains, but east of the Rockies it is replaced by another species (Cynomys) which closely resembles a small See also:

• PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract. Late Lat. prataria, Lat. pratum, meadow)

prairie See also:

• DOG

dog . The Pacific Coast Transition life-zone comprises the region between the Cascade and Coast ranges in Washington and Oregon, parts of northern California, and most of the California coast region from Cape Mendocino to See also:

• SANTA

Santa See also:

• BARBARA, SAINT

Barbara . It is the home of the Columbia See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black-tail See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, western See also:

• RACCOON
• RACCOON (or RACOON)

raccoon, Oregon spotted See also:

• SKUNK
• SKUNK (probably derived from " Seecawk," the Cree name for the skunk; another form given is " seganku ")

skunk, See also:

• DOUGLAS
• DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522)
• DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721—1807.)
• DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
• DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
• DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (18,3–1861)

Douglas red squirrel, Townsend's chipmunk, tailless sewellel (Haplodon See also:

• RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS
• RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74—14 B.c.)

rufus), See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar species of See also:

• POCKET

pocket gophers and voles, Pacific coast forms of the great-horned, spotted, screech and pigmy owls, sooty grouse, Oregon ruffed grouse, Steller's jay, See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut-backed chickadee and Pacific winter See also:

• WREN (O. Eng. wrcknna, Mid. Eng. wrenne; Icel. rindill)
• WREN, SIR CHRISTOPHER (1632-1723)

wren . The Upper Austral 634 zone is divided into an eastern humid (or Carolinian) area and a western arid (or Upper Sonoran) area . The Carolinian area ex-tends from southern Michigan to northern Georgia and from the Atlantic coast to western See also:

• KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State ")

Kansas, comprising See also:

• DELAWARE

Delaware, all of See also:

• MARYLAND

Maryland except the mountainous western portion, all of Ohio except the north-east corner, nearly the whole of See also:

• INDIANA

Indiana, See also:

• ILLINOIS

Illinois, See also:

• IOWA

Iowa and See also:

• MISSOURI

Missouri, eastern See also:

• NEBRASKA

Nebraska and Kansas, south-eastern South Dakota, western central See also:

• OKLAHOMA (a Choctaw Indian word meaning " red people ")

Oklahoma, northern See also:

• ARKANSAS

Arkansas, See also:

• MIDDLE

middle and eastern See also:

• KENTUCKY

Kentucky, middle Tennessee and the Tennessee valley in eastern Tennessee, middle Virginia and North Carolina, western West Virginia, north-eastern See also:

• ALABAMA

Alabama, northern Georgia, western South Carolina, the See also:

• CONNECTICUT

Connecticut Valley in Connecticut, the lower See also:

• HUDSON
• HUDSON, GEORGE (180o-1871)
• HUDSON, HENRY
• HUDSON, JOHN (1662–1719)

Hudson Valley and the See also:

• ERIE

Erie basin in New York, and narrow belts along the southern and western borders of the lower peninsula of Michigan . It is the northernmost home of the See also:

• OPOSSUM
• OPOSSUM, AUSTRALIAN
• OPOSSUM, RINGTAILED
• OPOSSUM, TASMANIAN (grey and black)

opossum, See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, fox squirrel, See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal See also:

• BIRD

bird, Carolina wren, tufted tit, See also:

• GNAT (0. Eng. gnat)

gnat catcher, summer See also:

• TANAGER

tanager and yellow-breasted chat .

The Upper Sonoran life-zone comprises south-eastern Montana, central, eastern and north-eastern Wyoming, a portion of south-western South Dakota, western Nebraska and Kansas, the western extremity of Oklahoma, north-western Texas, eastern Colorado, south-eastern New Mexico, the Snake plains in Idaho, the Columbia plains in Washington, the Malheur and Harney plains in Oregon, the Great See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake and See also:

• SEVIER, JOHN (1745-1815)

Sevier deserts in Utah, and narrow belts in California, Nevada and Arizona . Among its characteristic mammals and birds are the sage cotton-tail, black-tailed jack-rabbit, Idaho rabbit, Oregon, Utah and Townsend's ground squirrels, sage chipmunk, five-toed See also:

• KANGAROO

kangaroo rats, pocket mice, See also:

• GRASSHOPPER (Fr. sauterelle, `Ital. grillo, Ger. Gras/U:114er, Heuschrecke, Swed. Grdshoppa)

grasshopper mice, burrowing See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl, Brewer's sparrow, Nevada sage sparrow, lazuli See also:

• FINCH
• FINCH (Ger. Fink, Lat. Fringilla)

finch, sage thrasher, See also:

• NUTTALL, THOMAS (1786-1859)

Nuttall's poor-will, See also:

• BULLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1657-c. 1740)

Bullock's oriole and rough-winged See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow . The Lower Austral zone occupies the greater part of the Southern states, and is divided near the 98th See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian into an eastern humid or Austroriparian area and a western arid or Lower Sonoran area . The Austroriparian zone comprises nearly all the Gulf States as far west as the mouth of the Rio Grande, the greater part of Georgia, eastern South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and extends up the lowlands of the Mississippi Valley across western Tennessee and Kentucky into southern Illinois and-Indiana and across eastern and southern Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma into south-eastern Missouri and Kansas . It is the home of the southern fox-squirrel, cotton See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat, ricefield rat, wood rat, See also:

• FREE

free-tailed See also:

• BAT

bat, mocking bird, painted See also:

• BUNTING
• BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with bunt, to sift, or with the Ger. bunt, of varied colour)
• BUNTING, J
• BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858)

bunting, prothonotary warbler, red-cockaded woodpecker, chuckwill's-widow, and the swallow-tailed and Mississippi kites . A southern portion of this zone, comprising a narrow strip along the Gulf Coast from Texas to See also:

• FLORIDA

Florida and up the Atlantic coast to South Carolina, is semi-tropical, and is the northernmost habitation of several small mammals, the See also:

• ALLIGATOR (Spanish el lagarto, " the lizard ")

alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), the ground See also:

• DOVE
• DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube)

dove, white-tailed See also:

• KITE

kite, Florida screech owl and See also:

• CHAP

Chap-See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man s See also:

• NIGHT

night-See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk . The Lower Sonoran zone comprises the most arid parts of the United States: south-western Texas, south-western Arizona and a portion of northern Arizona, southern Nevada and a large part of southern California . Some of its characteristic mammals and birds are the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-eared desert fox, four-toed kangaroo rats, Sonoran pocket mice, big-eared and tiny white-haired bats, road runner, See also:

• CACTUS

cactus wren, See also:

• CANYON (Anglicized form of Span. canon, a tube, pipe or cannon; the Spanish form being also frequently written)

canyon wren, desert thrashers, hooded oriole, black-throated desert sparrow, Texas night-hawk and Gambel's See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail . It is the northernmost home of the See also:

• ARMADILLO

armadillo, See also:

• OCELOT
• OCELOT (Mexican Flalocelotl, literally field-jaguar, from Flalli, field, and ocelotl, tiger, jaguar)

ocelot, See also:

• JAGUAR
• JAGUAR (Fells onca)

jaguar, red and grey See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats, and the spiny pocket mouse, and in southern Texas especially it is visited by several species of tropical birds . There is some resemblance to the Tropical life-zone at the south-eastern extremity of Texas, but this zone in the United States is properly restricted to southern Florida and the lower valley of the Colorado along the border of California and Arizona, and the knowledge of the latter is very imperfect . The area in Florida is too small for characteristic tropical mammals, but it has the true See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile (Crocodilus americanus) and is the home of a few tropical birds . Most of the larger See also:

• AMERICAN

American mammals are not restricted to any one faunal zone .

The bison, although now nearly See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct, formerly roamed over nearly the entire region between the Appalachian and the Rocky Mountains . The black See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear and See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver were also widely distributed . The Virginia deer still ranges from Maine to the Gulf states and from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains . The grizzly bear, cougar, See also:

• COYOTE

coyote, prairie dog and See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope are still found in several of the Western states, and the grey See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf is common in the West and in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan . Flora.—The Alpine flora, which is found in the United States only on the tops of those mountains which rise above the limit of trees, consists principally of a variety of See also:

• PLANTS

plants which See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom as soon as the snow melts and for a short season make a brilliant display of See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours . The flora of the Hudsonian and the Canadian zone consists largely of white and black spruce, tamarack, See also:

• CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn, are derived from the Lat. canna, reed, vessel)

canoe-See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch, See also:

• BALSAM (from Gr. f &X raµov, through Lat. balsamum, contracted by popular use to O. Fr. basme, mod. Fr. bdme; Eng. balm)

balsam-See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, balsam-See also:

• FIR

fir, See also:

• ASPEN

aspen and grey See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine . In the Alleghanian Transition zone the chestnut, See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, oaks and hickories of the South are interspersed among the See also:

• BEECH

beech, birch, See also:

• HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found in any other language, and the origin is unknown)

hemlock and See also:

• SUGAR

sugar See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple of the North . In the Western Arid Transition zone the flora consists largely of the true sage See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush (See also:

• ARTEMISIA
• ARTEMISIA (159o-1642)

Artemisia tridentala), but some tracts are covered with forests of yellow or See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull pine (Pinus ponderosa) . The Pacific coast Transition zone is noted for its forests of See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

giant[See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

POPULATION conifers, principally Douglas fir, See also:

• SITKA (formerly New Archangel)

Sitka spruce, Pacific See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar and Western hemlock . Here, too, mosses and ferns grow in profusion, and the sadal (Gaultheria shallon), See also:

• THIMBLE

thimble See also:

• BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT (1852-1899)
• BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND
• BERRY, JOHN, DUKE OF (1340-1416)
• BERRY, or BERRI

berry (Rubus nootkamus), See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon berry (Rubus spectabilis) and See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil's See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club . (Fatsia horrida) are characteristic shrubs . In the Carolinian zone the See also:

• TULIP (Tulipa)

tulip See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, sycamore, sweet See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum, See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose See also:

• MAGNOLIA

magnolia, short-See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf pine and sassafras find their northernmost limit Sage brush is common to both the western arid Transition zone and the Upper Sonoran zone, but in suitable soils of the latter several greasewoods (Artiplex confertifolia, A. canescens, A. nuttalli, Tetradymia canescens, Sarcobatus vermicuiatus and Grayia spinosa) are characteristic species, and on the mountain slopes are some See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut pines (piiion) and junipers .

The Austroriparian zone has the long-leaf and loblolly pines, magnolia and live See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak on the uplands, and the bald See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress, tupelo and See also:

• CANE

cane in the swamps; and in the semi-tropical Gulf' trip are the See also:

• CABBAGE

cabbage See also:

• PALMETTO

palmetto and Cuban pine; here, too, See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island cotton and tropical fruits are successfully cultivated . The Lower Sonoran zone is noted for its cactuses, of which there is a great variety, and some of them grow to the height of trees; the See also:

• MESQUITE, or HONEY LOCUST

mesquite is also very large, and the See also:

• CREOSOTE, CREASOTE

creosote See also:

• BUSH

bush, acacias, yuccas and agaves are common . The Tropical belt of southern Florida has the royal See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm. coco-nut palm, See also:

• BANANA

banana, See also:

• JAMAICA

Jamaica See also:

• DOGWOOD (i.e. wood of the dog-tree; referred by the New English Dictionary to " dog," apparently as indicating inferiority; but by others connected with " (lag," " dagger," and by Prior with A.S. dolt, a brooch-pin)

dogwood, manchineel and See also:

• MANGROVE

mangrove; the Tropical belt in the lower valley of the Colorado has giant cactuses. desert acacias, palo-verdes and the Washington or See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan-leaf palm . Almost all of the United States east of the 98th meridian is naturally a See also:

• FOREST

forest region, and forests See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the greater part of the Rocky Mountains, the Cascades, the Sierra Nevadas and the Coast Range, but throughout the belt of plains, basins and deserts west of the Rocky Mountains and on the Great Plains east of the Rocky Mountains there are few trees except along the watercourses, and the prevailing type of vegetation ranges from bunch grass to sage brush and cactuses according to the degree of aridity and the temperature . In the eastern forest region the number of species decreases somewhat from south to north, but the entire region differs from the densely forested region of the Pacific Coast Transition zone in that it is essentially a region of See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous or hardwood forests, while the latter is essentially one of coniferous trees; it differs from the forested region of the Rocky Mountains in that the latter is not only essentially a region of coniferous trees, but one where the forests do not by any means occupy the whole area, neither do they approach in See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density or economic importance those of the eastern See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the country . Again, the forests of most of the eastern region embrace a variety of species, which, as a rule, are very much intermingled, and do not, unless quite exceptionally, occupy areas chiefly devoted to one species ; while, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the forests of the west—including both Rocky Mountain and Pacific coast divisions—exhibit a small number of species, considering the vast area embraced in the region; and these species, in a number of instances, are extraordinarily limited in their range, although there are cases in which one or two species have almost exclusive See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of extensive areas . V.—POPULATION AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical Growth of the Nation.—The achievement of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence found the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of the United States owning the entire country between the Gulf and the Great Lakes, excepting only Florida, as far to the west as the Mississippi; but the actual settlements were, with a few See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor exceptions, confined to a strip of territory along the Atlantic See also:

• SHORE

shore . The See also:

• DEPTH

depth of See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, from the coast inland, varied greatly, ranging from what would be involved in the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere occupation of the shore for fishing purposes to a See also:

• BODY

body of agricultural occupation extending back to the base of the great Atlantic See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain, and averaged some 250 M .l Westward, beyonc the general See also:

• LINE

line of continuous settlement, i In the Statistical See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1900 the reader will find for each decennial census since 1790 a map showing the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of population, w'th indication of the density of settlement, and an elaborate explanatory See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text . In Orin See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

Grant Libby's Geographical Distribution of the See also:

• VOTE

Vote of the Thirteen States on the Federal Constitution, 1787–1788 (University of Wisconsin, See also:

• MADISON
• MADISON, JAMES (1751–1836)

Madison, 1894), along ,with a valuable map interesting facts are given regarding the social and economic characteristics of different sections . were four extensions of population through as many gaps in ; See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito years moved more than 500 m westward, almost exactly the Appalachian barrier, constituting the four See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main paths along the 39th parallel of latitude: 9.5 degrees of See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

longitude, along which See also:

• MIGRATION

migration westward first took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place: the See also:

• MOHAWK

Mohawk Valley in New York, the upper See also:

• POTOMAC

Potomac, the Appalachian Valley, and around the southern base of the Appalachian See also:

• SYSTEM

system . Four outlying See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups beyond the mountains, with perhaps a twentieth part of the See also:

• TOTAL

total population of the nation, -one about See also:

• PITTSBURG
• PITTSBURG, or PITTSBURGH

Pittsburg, one in West Virginia, another in northern Kentucky, and the last in Tennessee: all determined in situation by See also:

• RIVER

river highways-See also:

• BORE

bore See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to the qualities of strength and courage of the American See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer . Finally, there were in 1790 about a See also:

• SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear ")

score of small trading or military posts, mainly of See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French origin, scattered over the then almost unbroken See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness of the upper Mississippi Valley and region of the Great Lakes .

Twelve decennial censuses taken since that time (1800-191o) have revealed the extraordinary spread of population over the See also:

• PRESENT

present area of the country (see CENSUS : United States) . The large percentage of the population, particularly Continental United States, exclusive of See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska . Population enumerated . Areas (excluding See also:

• WATER

water), in square See also: