See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

SECTION OF  See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

ANGLE certum and (B)See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus Re- facing . ticulatum . C shows the See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, similar in both . Of See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete walls faced with burnt bricks no dated example earlier than the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.c. is known . The facing Bi.kk consisted at first of triangular fragments of tiles (tegulae), lacing. broken for the purpose and more or less irregular in shape and See also:

• SIZE

size, but from the latter See also:

• PART

part of the 1st century A.D. onwards triangular bricks were specially manufactured for See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall-facings . This shape was adopted in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to See also:

• PRESENT

present a large See also:

• SURFACE

surface on the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face with little See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure of See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick, and also to improve the See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond with the concrete behind (see fig . 4) . Even party walls of small rooms are not built solid, but have a concrete core faced with brick triangles about 3 in. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . In order to support the facing until the concrete was set, the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman builders used a wooden framing covered with planks on the inside . Sometimes the planks were nailed outside the wooden uprights, as was done with unfaced concrete walls, and then a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of grooves appear in the face of the See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork . Walls faced with opus reticulatum must have been supported temporarily in the same way . The See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the brick facing is a See also:

• GREAT

great help towards deter-See also:

• MINING

mining the date of Roman buildings .

In See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• WORK

work the bricks are thick and the See also:

• JOINTS

joints thin, while in later times the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, so that brickwork of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus and later has more bricks to the See also:

• FOOT

foot than that of the See also:

• FLAVIAN (d. 449)

Flavian See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The length of the bricks as it appears on the face is no See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide to the date, since one or more of the See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp points of the brick triangles were frequently broken off before they were used . Moreover . i The expansion of the See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron through See also:

• RUST (O.E. rust, a word which appears in -many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. roest, Ger. rost); in origin it is allied with " ruddy " and " red," the reddish-brown powdery substance which forms on the surface of iron or steel exposed to atmospheric corrosio

rust, which caused the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone to split, has frequently been a great source of injury to Roman walls, as well as the practice, See also:

• COMMON

common in the middle ages, of breaking into the stones in order to See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract the See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal . ' These two kinds of stone facings are mentioned thus by See also:

• VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO)

Vitruvius (ii . 8), " reticulatum, quo nunc [reign of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus] omnes utuntur, et antiquum, quod incertum dicitur . 'varieties both in quality of workmanship and size of the bricks often occur in work of the same date . In the remains of See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero's See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House great varieties appear, and some of the walls in.the inferior rooms are faced with very irregular and careless brickwork.' See also:

• SPECIAL

Special care and neatness were employed in the rare cases when the wall was not to be covered with See also:

• STUCCO (Ital. stucco, adapted from O.H.G. stucchi, crust, piece, patch, Ger. Stuck, piece, allied to stock)

stucco, which in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble was usually spread over both inside and outside walls . All these circumstances make great caution necessary in judging of See also:

• DATES

dates; fortunately after the 1st century A.D., and in some cases even earlier, stamps impressed on bricks, and especially on the large tiles used for See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches, give clearer indications . The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of the almost universal use of smooth facings either of opus reticulatum or of brick over concrete walls is a very puzzling question; for concrete itself forms an excellent ground for the stucco coating or backing to the marble slabs, while the stucco adheres with difficulty to a smooth facing, and is very liable to fall away . The See also:

• MODERN

modern practice of raking out the joints to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key was not employed by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, but before the See also:

• MORTAR

mortar was hard they studded the face of the wall with marble plugs and iron or See also:

• BRONZE

bronze nails driven into the joints, so as to give a hold for the stucco—a great See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste both of labour and material.' The quality of the mortar varies according to its date: during the 1st and 2nd centuries it is of remarkable hardness—made of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime with a mixture of coarse pozzolana of a See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright red See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour; in the 3rd century it began to be inferior in quality; and the pozzolana used under the later See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire is See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown instead of red . Concrete was at first always made of lumps of tufa; then travertine, See also:

• LAVA

lava, broken bricks and even marble were used, in fact all the chips and fragments of the See also:

• MASON, FRANCIS (1799—1874)
• MASON, GEORGE (1725—1792)
• MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818–1872)
• MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871)
• MASON, JOHN (1586-1635)
• MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859)
• MASON, LOWELL (1792—1872)
• MASON, SIR JOHN (1503–1566)
• MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881)
• MASON, WILLIAM (1725—1797)

mason's yard .

Under Concrete the Empire the concrete used was made with travertine walls and or lava for See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations, with tufa or broken bricks for vaults . walls, and with tufa or See also:

• PUMICE (Lat. purnex, spumex, spuma, froth)

pumice-stone (for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of lightness) for vaults . Massive walls were See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast in a See also:

• MOULD

mould; upright timbers, about 6 by 7 in. thick and 10 to 14 ft. long, were set in rows on each face of the future wall; planks 9 to 10 in. wide were nailed to them, so as to form a case, into which the semi-fluid See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of stones, lime and pozzolana was poured . When this was set the timbers were re-moved and refixed on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the concrete wall; then fresh concrete was poured in; and this See also:

• PROCESS

process was repeated till the wall was raised to the required height . Usually such cast-work was only used for foundations and See also:

• CELLA

cella walls, the upper parts being faced with brick; but in some cases the whole wall to the top was cast in this way and ; %t 4 1. p. u1Fe the brick facing omitted . In strength and dura- FIG . 4.—Example of Marble Lining, from bility no See also:

• MASONRY

masonry, how- the Cella of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple of See also:

• CONCORD
• CONCORD, BOOK OF (Liber Concordiae)

Concord . ever hard the stone or A . Slabs of Phrygian marble . B . large the blocks, could See also:

• PLINTH (Gr. ir)^fvOos, a square tile)

Plinth moulding of Nuruidian ever etge l these walls ,of giallo." C . Slab of cipollino concr when made w hard lava or travertine, (Carystian marble) .

D . Paving for each wall was one and a"u dus " of concrete bedding . perfectly coherent mass, G, G . Iron clamps run with See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to and could only be de- See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix marble lining . H . Bronze clamp . stroyed by a laborious J See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

Cement backing . process like that of See also:

• QUARRYING

quarrying hard stone from its native See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed . Owing to this method of See also:

• BUILDING

building the progress of the work from See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day to day can often be traced by a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the look of the concrete . About 3 ft. appears to have been the See also:

• AVERAGE

average amount of wall raised in a day . Marble linings were fixed very firmly to the walls with long clamps of metal, hooked at the end so as to hold in a hole made in the marble slab . Fig .

4 gives an example, of the time of marble Augustus, fixed against a stone wall . The blocks were mange . usually marked in the See also:

• QUARRY

quarry with a number, and often with with the names of the reigning See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor and the overseer of the quarry . These quarry-marks are often of great value as indications of the date of a building or statue.' See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

Metropolitan Some of the bricks are as much as 21 in. thick, while 1; in. is the usual maximum for Roman bricks . The Roman method of applying stucco to walls with a wooden " See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float " exactly as is done now, is shown in a See also:

• PAINTING

painting from See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii (see See also:

• ANN

Ann . Inst., 1881, pl . H.) . See Bruzza, in Ann . Inst . (1870), pp . 106-204; Hirschfeld, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten (1905), pp . 162 if .

building acts, not unlike those of modern See also:

• LONDON

London, were enacted by several of the emperors . These fixed the materials to be used,• thickness of walls, minimum width of streets, maximum height allowed for houses, &c . After the great See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire in Nero's reign, A.D . 64, an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was passed requiring the See also:

• LOWER

lower storeys of houses to be built with fire-See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof materials, such as See also:

• PEPERINO

peperino or burnt brick . Enormous accumulations of statues and pictures enriched See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome during its period of greatest splendour . In the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, the numerous statues of the republican and even of the See also:

• REGAL

regal See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient period were religiously preserved at a time when, from See also:

• WORKS

works of their archaic character, they must have been regarded See also:

• ART

art, rather as See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of sacred or archaeological See also:

• INTEREST

interest than as works of art (Plin . H.N. xxxiv . 15 if., See also:

• XXXV

xxxv . 19 ff.) . Secondly came the large Graeco-Roman class, mostly copies of earlier See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek works, executed in Rome by Greek artists . To this class belongs most of the finest existing See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture preserved in the Vatican and other museums . Thirdly, countless statues and pictures were stolen from almost every important See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city in See also:

• GREECE

Greece, Magna Graecia, See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and western See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor .

These robberies began early, and were carried on for many centuries . The importations included works of art by all the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief artists from the 5th century downwards . Long lists are given by See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny (H.N. xxxiii.–See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi.), and pedestals exist with the names of See also:

• PRAXITELES

Praxiteles, Timarchus, See also:

• POLYCLITUS

Polyclitus, See also:

• BRYAXIS

Bryaxis and others . These accumulated works of sculpture were of all materials—See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory (See also:

• SUET (M. Eng. sewet, a diminutive of O. Fr. seu, suis, mod. suif, lard, from Lat. sebum, or sebum, tallow, grease, probably allied to sago, soap)

Suet . Tit . 2), of which seventy-four are mentioned in the See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

catalogue of the Breviarium, many hundreds or even thousands of See also:

• SILVER

silver' (Plin . H.N. xxxiii . 151 f.),' while those of gilt bronze and marble must have existed in almost untold See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers (Pans. viii . 46) . Nor were the accumulated stores of Greek paintings much inferior in number; not only were easel pictures by Zeuxis, See also:

• APELLES

Apelles, See also:

• TIMANTHES

Timanthes and other Greek artists taken, but even mural paintings were carefully cut off their walls and brought to Rome secured in wooden frames (Plin . H.N. xxxv . 173, and compare ibid .

154) . The roads were made of polygonal blocks of lava (silex), neatly fitted together and laid on a carefully prepared bed, Roads. similar to that used for See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

mosaic paving (see MOSAIC' and ROADS) . Roads thus made were called viae stroke . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good specimen of Roman road-making, in which the blocks were fitted together with the utmost accuracy, is to be seen in a portion of the Clivus Capi- tolinus in' front of the temple of See also:

• SATURN
• SATURN [SATURNUS]

Saturn (see fig . 5, which also shows the massive travertine curb which bordered the road; sometimes the curb was of lava) . In 190I the See also:

• LATE

late and badly laid See also:

• PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentu;n, a floor beaten or rammed hard, from pavire, to beat)

pavement of the Sacra Via on the ascent of. the See also:

• VELIA (Gr. 'TEktl, later'EXfa)

Velia was removed, and the earlier paving laid See also:

• BARE

bare at a lower level . The See also:

• ORIGINAL

original pavement of the Nova Via was ex ,over. posed in 1904 . Other well-preserved viae stratae are those leading up to the See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

Palatine from the Summa Sacra Via and that which follows the curved See also:

• LINE

line of shops in See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan's See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

forum . The following is a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the chief roads which radiated from Rome:—(1) Via See also:

• APPIA, VIA

Appia issued from the Servian See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte See also:

• CAPENA

Capena and the See also:

• AURELIAN [Lucius DoMITIus AURELIANUS]

Aurelian P . Appia; from it diverged (2) Via See also:

• LATINA, VIA

Latina, which issued from the Aurelian P . Latina; (3) Via See also:

• LABICANA, VIA

Labicana and (4) Via See also:

• TIBURTINA, VIA

Tiburtina issued from the Servian P . Esquilina; from (3) diverged (5) Via See also:

• PRAENESTINA, VIA

Praenestina at the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch of the Claudian See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct, now P .

See also:

• MAGGIORE, LAGO (Lacus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr. Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee)

Maggiore, while (4) passed through the Aurelian P . Tiburtina; (6) Via See also:

• NOMENTANA, VIA

Nomentana and (7) Via See also:

• SALARIA, VIA

Salaria issued from the Servian P . Collina and passed respectively through the Aurelian P . Nomentana and . P . Salaria; (8) Via See also:

• FLAMINIA, VIA

Flaminia issued from the Servian P . Fontinalis, and was called Via Late for the first See also:

• HALF

half-mile or more, 1 Eighty silver statues of Augustus, some equestrian and 'some in quadrigae, are mentioned in the Mon . Anc . 4, 51.then passed through the Aurelian P . Flaminia; (9) Via See also:

• AURELIA, VIA

Aurelia, from the Transtiberine P . Aurelia; (to) Via Portuensis, from the Transtiberine P . Portuensis; (11) Via Ostiensis, from the Servian P .

Trigemina and the Aurelian P . Ostiensis; (12) Via Ardeatina, from the Servian P . Naevia and the Aurelian P . Ardeatina . Remains of Prehistoric Rome . It is evident from See also:

• RECENT

recent discoveries that the site of Rome was inhabited at a very early period.2 See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

Flint implements and remains of the Bronze See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age have been found on the Aventine and elsewhere; and from the Early Iron Age onwards we have a continuous archaeological See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, owing to the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of ancient See also:

• BURIAL

burial-places . In 1902 a very early See also:

• NECROPOLIS

necropolis was brought to See also:

• LIGHT

light at the S.E. corner of the temple of See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus and See also:

• FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERIA

Faustina, some 17 ft. below the level of the Forum . The See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves contain either the ashes of cremated bodies placed in a large See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel (dolio), or skeletons buried either in a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench (fossa), a. tufa See also:

• SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. vapsorg yos, literally " flesh-eating," from vapt, flesh, ¢ayeiv, to eat)

sarcophagus or a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree-See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk . The See also:

• CREMATION (Lat. cremare, to burn)

cremation graves are the earlier, and none are later than the 6th century, while the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest may be of the 9th; the pottery and other objects placed in the graves belong to the Early Iron Age . It is clear that this See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery is earlier than the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the Palatine and Quirinal settlements in one city (see below, p . 759) . Other early cemeteries have been discovered on the Quirinal and Esquiline, which were in use from the beginning of the Iron Age down to the beginning of the historic period .

The large necropolis on the Esquiline is cut in two by the Servian " wall, which is evidently of later date . The later tombs contain objects of See also:

• ETRUSCAN

Etruscan, Phoenician and Greek manufacture . There is no doubt that the earliest See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement bearing the name of Rome was on the Palatine See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill,3 which was both easy of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence and possessed the means of communica- The See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don with its neighbours in the proximity of the Palatine See also:

• TIBER (anc. Tiberis; Ital. Tevere)

Tiber . The name See also:

• ROMA

Roma is said to mean " See also:

• RIVER

river," city• but thnis is uncertain . The Palatine is roughly square in out-line, and the Roman antiquarians sometimes applied the name Roma Quadrata to the earliest settlement; but the See also:

• TERN (Norsk taerne, tende or tende; Swedish tarna; Dutch Stern1)

tern seems more properly to have applied to a See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary connected with the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the city . The ideal boundary of the city was formed by the Pomerium (see See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro, L.L. v . 143; Liv . 1 . 44; Dionys. i . 88), whose original course is traced by See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus (Ann. xii . 24) . It passed along the foot of the hill (per ima montis Palatini), the angle-points being given by the Ara See also:

• MAXIMA

Maxima in the Forum Boarium, the Ara Consi in the See also:

• CIRCUS (Lat. circus, Gr. Kipeos or Kptxot, a ring or' circle; probably " circus " and " ring " are of the same origin)

Circus See also:

• MAXIMUS
• MAXIMUS, ST (c. 58o-662)

Maximus, the Curiae Veteres (near the arch of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine) and the Sacellum Larum (at the N. angle) .

But this was of course not a defensible site, and the extent of the fortified city can only be determined by the traces of its early walls . These enable us to fix its line along the whole valley of the Velabrum, on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the hill, and along the valley of the Circus Maximus as far as the so-called Paedagogium, about half-way' on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . Considerable remains of this fortification exist near the west angle of the hill . These show that the natural strength given by the cliff was increased by artificial means . The wall was set neither at the top nor at the foot of the hill, but more Ancient than half-way up, a level See also:

• TERRACE (Fr. terrace, terrasse, from It. terraccia, terrazzo, Lat. terra, earth)

terrace or shelf all See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round being fortift- cut in the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock on which the See also:

• BASE

base of the wall stood . Above cations." that the hill was cut away into a cliff, not quite perpendicular but slightly " battering " inwards, to give greater stability to the wall, which was built up against it, like a retaining wall, reaching to the top of the cliff, and probably a few feet higher . The stones used in this wall are soft tufa, a warm brown in colour, and full of masses of charred See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood . The cutting to form the steep cliff probably supplied part of the material for the wall; and ancient quarries, afterwards used as reservoirs for See also:

• WATER

water, exist in the mass of rock on which the so-called temple of See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor stands . It has been asserted that these tufa blocks are not cut but split with wedges; this, however; is not the case . Tufa does not split into rectangular masses, but 2 On the prehistoric remains of Rome and See also:

• LATIUM

Latium, see Pinza in Monumenti antichi pubblicati per cure della reale Accademia dei Lin,cei, vol. xv., 1905; also See also:

• COMM

Comm . See also:

• BONI (Bone)

Boni's reports on the necropolis adjoining the Forum in the Notizie degli scavi, and Modestor, Introduction a l'histoire romaine (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1907) . a The " primacy of the Palatine " has been disputed by See also:

• CARTER, ELIZABETH (1717-1806)

Carter (Amer .

Jour . Arch., 1908, p . 181), who thinks that the first city was that of the Four Regions (see below) formed by the Etruscan See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings . Li . . . QiI,~IVII1 to au'tl~iidfln i~lhllii1]IT~Iri gym."~i 111 e. a. a. z . ,.o would be shattered to pieces by a See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge; moreover, distinct See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool-marks can be seen on all the blocks whose surface is well pre-served and in the quarries themselves . See also:

• CHISELS

Chisels from one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth to three-fourths of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch in width were used, and also a sharp-pointed pick or See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer . The wall is about to ft. thick at the bottom, and Increases in thickness above as the scarped cliff against which it is built recedes . It is built of blocks laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers, varying in thickness from 22 to 24 in., in length from 3 to 5 ft. and in width from 19 to 22 in . These blocks are carefully worked on their beds, but the face is See also:

• LEFT

left rough, and the See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical joints are in some cases open, spaces of nearly 2 in. being left between See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block and block; in other cases the vertical joints are worked true and See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close like the beds . No mortar was used .

At two points on the side of the Velabrum winding passages are excavated in the tufa cliff, the entrance to which was once closed by the ancient wall . One of these in early times (before water in abundance was brought to the Palatine on aqueducts) was used as a See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir to collect surface water, probably for use in case of See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege; circular shafts for buckets are cut downwards through the rock from the top of the hill . A similar rock-cut cistern with vertical shafts, of very early date, exists at See also:

• ALBA

Alba Longa . Opposite the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of S . Teodoro a series of buttresses belonging to the early wall exists, partly concealed by a long line of buildings of the later years of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic and the early Empire, to make See also:

• ROOM

room for which the greater part of the then useless wall was pulled down, and only fragments left here and there, where they could be worked into the walls of the later houses . The age of the walls here described cannot be determined with certainty, but their resemblance to the remains of the " Servian " wall, especially in the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of " headers and stretchers " and the dimensions of the blocks, makes it certain that they do not differ greatly in date from that work . The chief technical difference lies in the open vertical joints found in some cases; but too much stress should not be laid on this feature . There are, however, at the western angle of the hill some remains of an earlier fortification, constructed with blocks of See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey-See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green tufa, smaller in size than those of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main wall . A few courses have been preserved, owing to the fact that at the angle of the hill this wall was encased first of all by that described above and afterwards by concrete substructures of imperial date . The technique is See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive, as the blocks are of irregular size and are not laid in courses of " headers and stretchers "; the nearest parallel is supplied by the foundations of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus . These remains are shown by See also:

• DELBRUCK, HANS (1848— )
• DELBRUCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON

Delbruck, Der Apollotempel auf dem Marsfelde, pl. iii., cf. p . 13 f Pliny ($.N .

Iii . 66) tells us that the city of See also:

• ROMULUS

Romulus had three See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates (cf . Serv . Ad . Aen. i . 222); and three approaches to the See also:

• OATES, TITUS (1649-1705)

Oates of Palatine city can be traced . One is the so-called Scalae Roma Caci, a long sloping ascent cut through the rock (see Quadrata. fig . 17) from the side of the Circus Maximus; some remains of the early wall still exist along the sides of this steep ascent or See also:

• STAIRCASE

staircase . The upper part of this has remains of a See also:

• BASALT

basalt pavement, added in later times, probably covering the more ancient rock-cut steps . The name of the See also:

• GATE

gate which led at this point into the Palatine city is unknown . The only two gates whose name and position can be (with any degree of See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability) identified are the Porta Romanula and the Porta Mugonia . The former of these is called Porta See also:

• ROMANA

Romana by See also:

• FESTUS (? RuFUS or RUFIUS)
• FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS

Festus (ed .

See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, p . 262), who states that it was at the foot of the Clivus Victoriae (see fig . 17) and was so called by the Sabines of the Capitol because it was their natural entrance to Roma Quadrata (see also Varro, L.L. v . 16 (who only mentions the two gates named above), vi . 24) . It would thus have been at the foot of the hill in the Velabrum (see below, p 600); but Varro says that it was approached by steps from the K . Via,' which would place it at the N. angle of the Palatine . The stairs connecting the Nova Via with the Clivus Victoriae still exist . Doubtful traces of the Porta Mugonia (see Sol. i . 24) have been discovered where a basalt paved road leads up into the Palatine from the Summa Sacra Via and the Summa Nova Via, which join near the arch of See also:

• TITUS
• TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS
• TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO

Titus; exposure to See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather has now destroyed the soft tufa blocks of which this gate was built . This is probably the " vetus porta Palatii " of See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy (i . 12), through which the Romans fled when defeated by the Sabines .

The Palatine settlement was the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus around which, by a series of expansions, the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical city of Rome See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up . The first step Growth was the amalgamation of Roma Quadrata with the villages Greatly on the neighbouring spurs of the Esquiline and Caelian . Rome . This gave See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to the community of the Seven Hills, whose existence is proved by the survival of the festival known as the Septimontium, celebrated on the 11th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December (Fest . 340; Macrob. i . 16, 6) . The seven hills were not those See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in later nomenclature, but the following:—(1) Palatium and (2) Cermalus, the two summits of the Palatine; (3) Velia, the See also:

• SADDLE (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Sattel, Dut. zadel, also in Russ. siedlo and Lat. sella, for sedla; it is not derived directly from Lat. sedile, which means a chair, but all the words are to be referred to the root sad-, which gives

saddle between the Palatine and Esquiline; (4) See also:

• OPPIUS, GAIUS

Oppius and (5) Cispius, the two westernmost spurs of the Esquiline, together with (6) Fagutal, the extreme See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest of the Oppius; (7) Sucusa (confused by later writers with Subura), the eastern See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur of the Caelian . Varro (L.L. v . 48) mentions the murus terreus Carinarum, which may have belonged Novalia," See also:

• MSS

MSS . • " Navalia " has been conjectured.to the defences of this community, since the N.W. slope of the Oppius See also:

• BORE

bore the name Carinae ; but there is no proof that the Septimontium was a walled city . The next See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the development of Rome was marked by the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the city into four regions, ascribed by tradition to Servius Tullius,' who was said to have formed the four city tribes, corresponding with the regions: (t) Suburana, including the Caelian and the valley between that hill and the Esquiline; (2) Esquilina, the Oppius and Cispius; (3) Collina, the Quirinal and Viminal; (4) Palatina, including the Palatine and Velia . The third region was an addition to the City of the Seven Hills; the new city was, in fact, formed by the union of the old Latin settlement with a See also:

• SABINE, SIR EDWARD (1788-1883)

Sabine community on the Quirinal .

The Capitol was the citadel, but was not included in the city (hence the phrase urbs et Capitolium) . Tradition likewise assigned to Servius Tullius 3 the construction of the great wall which embraced not merely the four regions but a considerably extended See also:

• AREA

area, including the Aventine . Liae of Excavations have done much to determine the line of the Servtaa Servian wall, especially the great works undertaken in laying wall . out a new See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the city on the Quirinal, Esquiline and Viminal, which have laid bare and then mor.1y destroyed long lines of wall, especially along the agger . Beginning from the Tiber, which the Servian wall touched at a point near the present See also:

• PONTE (Ital. for " bridge ")

Ponte Rotto, and separating the Forum Holitorium (outside) from the Forum Boarium (inside), it ran in a straight line to the Capitoline hill, the two crests of which, the Capitolium and the Arx, with the intermediate valley the See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

Asylum, were surrounded by an earlier fortification, set (Dionys. ix . 68) furl XO4ioic . sal AErpaIS 6. ror6µots In this space there were two gates, the Porta Flumentana, next the river (see Cie . Ad Att. vii . 3; Liv. xxxv . 19, 21); and the Porta Carmentalis close to the Capitolium.4 From the Capitoline hill the wall passed to the Quirinal along a spur of elevated ground, after-wards completely cut away by Trajan . Close to the Capitol was the Porta Fontinalis, whence issued the Via Lata . Remains of the wall and foundations of the gate exist in Via di Marforio . After passing Trajan's forum, we find remains of the walls on the slope of the Quirinal .

A piece di the wall has been exposed in the new Via Nazionale, and also an archway under the Palazzo See also:

• ANTONELLI, GIACOMO (1806-1876)

Antonelli, which may represent the Porta Sanqualis (see Festus, ed . Muller, p . 343) . The Porta Salutaris (Festus, pp . 326-327) was also on the Quirinal, probably on the slope between the Trevi See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain and the royal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace . Its position is indicated by the existence of some tombs which give the line of the road . On the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-west of the Quirinal was the Porta Quirinalis (Festus, p . 254), probably near the " Quattro See also:

• FONTANE, THEODOR (1819-1898)

Fontane." In the See also:

• BARBERINI

Barberini palace gardens, and especially in those of the See also:

• VILLA

Villa Barberini (Horti Sallustiani), extensive remains of the wall have been recently exposed and destroyed,-which was also the See also:

• FATE

fate of that See also:

• FINE

fine piece of wall that passed under the new See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• FINANCE

finance, with the Porta Collina, which was not on the line of the present road, but about 50 yds. to the south (see Dionys. ix . 68; See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo iv. p . 234) . Thus far in its course from the Capitol the wall skirted the slopes of hills, which were once much more abrupt than they are now; but from the Porta Collina to the Porta Esquilina it crossed a large See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of level ground; and here its place was taken by the great agger-described below . About the middle of it the Porta Viminalis was found in 1872; it stood, as Strabo (iv. p .

234) says, ,hr zfvtu ref.; XW arc, and from it led a road which passed through the Porta Chiusa (ancient name unknown) in Aurelian's wall . Foundations of the Porta Esquilina were found in 1875 close behind the arch of See also:

• GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS

Gallienus . The, further course of the wall across the valley of the Colosseum is the least known part of the See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit . Hence the- wall skirts the slopes-of the 'Caelian (where, as is probable, it was pierced by the Porta Caelemontanaand Porta Querquetulana) to the valley along which the Via Appia passed through the Porta Capena, near the church of S . Gregorio . Its line along the Aventine is fairly distinct; and near S . Balbina and in the Vigna Torlonia are two of the best-preserved pieces (see below) . There were three gates on the Aventine,—the Porta Naevia on the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern height, P . Raudusculana in the central depression, and P . Lavernalis on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• SUMMIT

summit . Under the Aventine it appears to have touched the river near the existing foundations supposed to be those of the Pons Sublicius . The Porta Trigemina was close by the See also:

• BANK

bank .

Hence to our starting-point the river formed the defence of the city, with its massive See also:

• QUAY
• QUAY, MATTHEW STANLEY (1833-1904)

quay wall . The wall is built of blocks of tufa, usually the softer kinds, but varying according to its position, as in most cases the stone used was that quarried on the spot . In restorations a good Iis coadeal of peperino is used . The blocks average from 23 to stroctlon . 24 in . In thickness—roughly 2 Roman feet--and are laid in alternate courses of headers and stretchers . The method of construction varied according to the nature of the ground Varro, L.L. v . 46-54 . 3 Livy i . 44; See also:

• DION

Dion . See also:

• HAL

Hal. iv . 13 .

The wall is, however, said to have been planned and partly executed by Tarquinius See also:

• PRISCUS

Priscus (Liv. i . 36, 38; Dion . Hal. iii . 37) ; and the fortification of the Aventine is ascribed to Ancus See also:

• MARTIUS, CARL FRIEDRICH PHILIPP VON (1794—1868)

Martius (Dion . Hal. iii . 43) . 4 See Sol. i . 13; Liv. ii . 49, See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 47, See also:

• XXV

xxv . 7. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 37; Ascon .

Ad . Cie. in Toga, p . 81 . 590 traversed by the fortification . Where the wall followed the face of the cliffs, as for instance on the Capitol and Quirinal, it was raised on an artificial shelf after the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion employed on the Palatine (vide supra) . In other places, where the slope was gentler, the wall was formed of See also:

• RUBBLE

rubble with revetments of opus quadratum, e.g. on the Aventine; finally, where the ground was See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, as on the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of the Esquiline, a ditch was dug and an See also:

• EMBANKMENT

embankment formed by the upcast; this agger, as it was called, was then faced with retaining walls of opus quadratum . The length of the agger on the Esquiline is put by See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius (ix . 68) at 7 stadia, which agrees, roughly speaking, with the discoveries made in 1876-1879, when the railway station was built and the new quarters laid out . The See also:

• TOTAL

total length was about 4225 ft., the thickness of wall and agger about 5o ft., while the ditch was too Roman ft. in width and 30 in See also:

• DEPTH

depth . There is, however, a difference in technique between the inner and See also:

• OUTER

outer retaining walls of the agger . The inner wall is built of greenish tufa in blocks of irregular size, while in the outer brown tufa is employed and the blocks are of