See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

SENATE (See also:

• LAT

Lat. senatus, from See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit See also:

• SANA (Send'a)

sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element appears in senor, seigneur, See also:

• SENESCHAL (the O. Fr. form, mod. senechal, of the Low Lat. senescalcus, a word of Teutonic origin, meaning " old or senior servant," Goth. sini- old; cf. Lat. senex and stalks, servant; Du Cange's derivation from seneste, flock, herd, must be rejected)

seneschal)  literally the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of old men,' originally the heads of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief families, and hence, in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, the upper See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council in a governmental See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The Latin word corresponds with the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• GEROUSIA (Gr. yepovo'ia, Doric yepwta)

gerousia (q.v.), the name of the similar See also:

• BODY

body at See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta; it must not be used of the Cleisthenic council (see See also:

• BOULE (Gr. 0ovXi ,, literally " will," " advice "; hence a " council ")

BouLE) at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, which was in all respects a different body . The Athenian See also:

• AREOPAGUS ("Apews Ilayos)

Areopagus (q.v.) represents the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate . The word is applied primarily to the aristocratic Roman assembly (see below) . It is also used to designate the second chamber in the legislatures of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and the See also:

• UNITED

United States, as also in those of the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate states composing the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union; in the See also:

• BRITISH

British legislature it is represented by the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of Lords . By See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title is used for the governing bodies of various educational institutions, e.g. in the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities of See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge and See also:

• LONDON

London, and also in certain See also:

• AMERICAN

American colleges and universities, where it denotes an advisory body composed of representatives of the students as well as members of the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty . So in the Scottish colleges the governing body is the Senatus Academicus . In Scottish See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, the lords of session (i.e. See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges) are called senators of the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice, which is itself spoken of as a senate . The See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Roman Senate . (A) See also:

• HISTORY

History.— The senate or council of elders formed the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest and most permanent See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the Roman constitution . The authorities are unanimous in ascribing the origin of the senate to monarohy See also:

• ROMULUS

Romulus, who See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose out See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo of the best of his subjects to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form his advising body . They are, however, far from unanimous in their See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the subsequent history of the senate down to the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic .

The only facts on which they are all agreed are that in 509 B.C. it already contained 300 members, and that a distinction already existed within it between patres maiorum gentium and minorum gentium (See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy i . 35; Cic . De See also:

• REP, REPP, or REPS

rep.-ii . 20 . 35; Dionys. ii . 47) . Moreover, with one exception they agree in asserting that throughout the monarchical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the senate consisted entirely of See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians . There is undoubtedly some connexion between the increase in the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of the senate by the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of new members and the distinction between two classes of patres . The most probable view seems to be that the rise in the number of the senators was due to the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation of fresh elements into the patrician community, with a consequent increase of genies; and that the new clans, out of which new members came into the senate, were the genies minores . The exclusively patrician See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the senate at this period seems an inevitable inference from all that we know of the See also:

• POLITICAL

political position of the See also:

• PLEBS (from the root seen in Lat. plenus, full; cf. Gr. 7rXit9os)

plebs at the ' With the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age is conjoined that of See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and experience, worthy of respect and qualified to decide; cf. the Anglo-Saxon Witanagemot, the assembly of the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise men . Originally the members were the advisers of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, and their spirit was generally aristocratic and conservative . See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, and the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of See also:

• ZONARAS, JOANNES (JOHN)

Zonaras to the cont?ary is universally I discredited .

The See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of senators depended entirely upon the king . They were not appointed for See also:

• LIFE

life, but at the See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure of the king who summoned them . It is possible that a king might See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change his advisers during his reign, and a new king could certainly abstain from summoning some of those convened by his predecessors.' The See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the senate at this time were very indefinite . Tradition ascribes to it the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the See also:

• INTERREGNUM (Lat. inter, between, and regnum, reign)

interregnum and a See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of sanctioning acts of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state (patrum auctoritas), to which it is difficult to give any significance for this See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early period . It seems also to have possessed a customary right of controlling See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign policy, for the ancient See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of the Fetiales refers to the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of the patres (Livy i . 32) . From the senate also must have been chosen the delegates appointed by the king either to be his executive representative when he was absent in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field (praefectus urbi), or to assist him in See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction (Ilviri perduellionis, quaestores parricidii) . The abolition of See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy, and the substitution of two annually elected consuls did not at first bring any important under the change in the position of the senate . It was the See also:

• CON

con- Republic. suiting body of the consuls, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting only at their pleasure, and owing its appointment to them, and remained a power distinctly secondary to the magistrates, as it had been formerly to the king . The magistrates at this time were chosen entirely from the patrician houses, and the senate See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long remained a stronghold of patrician See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice . Tradition ascribes to the first consuls some change in the class from which senators were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn, but various accounts of the change arc given (Livy ii. r; See also:

• FESTUS (? RuFUS or RUFIUS)
• FESTUS, SEXTUS POMPEIUS

Festus, p . 254; Dionys. v .

13; cf . Tac . See also:

• ANN

Ann . Xi . 25) . Whatever the exact nature of the change, we may be certain that plebeians were not introduced into the senate at this time . Such a change is utterly improbable at the crisis of a patrician coup d'etat, such as the See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of the Tarquins certainly was; and there is no evidence for the existence of a plebeian senator before the See also:

• YEAR

year 401 B.C . The statement that some modification in the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original principle of selection was made in this year is invariably introduced as an explanation of the title patres conscripti, which is held to imply a distinction of See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank within the senate, as derived from the formula of See also:

• SUMMONS (Fr. semonce, from semonner or semondre, Lat. summonere, summonitio)

summons " qui patres, qui conscripti (estis)." 2 But either this formula is not as early as 509 B.C. or the See also:

• TERM

term conscripti does not refer only to plebeians . In one respect the substitution of consuls for See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings tended to the subordination of the chief magistrates to the senate . The consuls held See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office only for one year, while the senate was a permanent body; in experience and See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige its individual members were often superior to the consuls of the year . It was therefore, improbable that the See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate would venture to disregard the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of his consilium, especially as he himself would pass Into the senate at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of his year of office, according to a recognized See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom which was gradually modifying the theoretical freedom of choice that the consuls possessed with regard to their consilium . It was probably in their capacity of ex-magistrates that plebeians first entered the senate; for the first plebeian senator mentioned by Livy, P .

See also:

• LICINIUS

Licinius Calvus, was also the first plebeian consular See also:

• TRIBUNE (med. Lat. tribune, from classical Lat. tribunal)

tribune . This is hardly likely to be See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere coincidence . Of the two See also:

• STANDING

standing powers which the senate inherited from the monarchy, the interregnum and the patrum auctoritas, the first had become even rarer of exercise than before; for if either See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul existed to nominate a successor, interregnum could not be resorted to . The patrum auctoritas, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into a definite right claimed by the senate to give or withhold its consent to any legislative or elective See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of the See also:

• COMITIA

comitia, which could not be valid without such consent . The control, too, which it had long exercised over foreign policy must have increased the importance of the senate in a period of See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant warfare with the nations of Italy . But in the early republic the senate remained primarily ' For other views on this point see Dionys. ii . 12, who maintains that the senators were elected by the clans, and T . See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii . 844, 854, who maintains an automatic See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of the early senate . 2 For another view, however, see See also:

• WILLEMS, FLORENT JOSEPH MARIE (1823–1905)
• WILLEMS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1793-'t846)

Willems, Le Sena', i. p . 37 seq.an advising body, and had as yet assumed no definite executive powers . In the last two centuries of the republic we find that a See also:

• GREAT

great change has taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the position of the senate .

It is now a self-existent, automatically constituted body, See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of the magistrates, a recognized See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the constitution and the wielder of extensive powers . Its self-existence could only be secured by a transference of the selection of the senate from the magistrate to some other authority, and was actually effected by entrusting the selection to the recently instituted college of censors . The censorship was instituted in 443 B.C., and some time before the year 311 it was placed in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of the lectio senates . Conditions of selection had also been imposed by 311, which made the constitution of the senate practically automatic . Ex-See also:

• CURULE (Lat. currus, " chariot ")

curule magistrates were now admitted as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of course, together with any other persons who had done conspicuous public service in the See also:

• LOWER

lower grades of the magistracy or the higher ranks of the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army; and for some time before See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla's dictatorship little power of choice can really have rested with the censors . L . See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius Sulla, while abolishing the censorship (immediately revived), also secured an entirely automatic composition for the senate by increasing the number of quaestors, and enacting that all ex-quaestors should pass at once into the senate . This enactment provided for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance even of the increased number of 600 senators, twenty quaestorians passing into the senate every year . The senate's powers had now extended far beyond its two ancient prerogatives of appointing an interrex, and ratifying decisions of the comitia . The first of these powers, as has been shown above, had fallen into See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical disuse, and the second had for some See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason become a mere form by the last See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of the republic . It is improbable that the change was entirely the result of the lex Publilia of 287 B.C., which decreed that the senate should exercise its auctoritas before the voting instead of after, though this law may have formed See also:

• PART

part of a See also:

• PROCESS

process very imperfectly known to us by which senatorial control of legislation in this form was gradually nullified . But the senate had acquired a far more effective control over the popular See also:

• VOTE

vote through the observance of certain unwritten rules regulating the relation between senate and magistrates .

It was generally understood that the magistrate should not question the See also:

• PEOPLE

people on any important matter without the senate's consent, nor refuse to do so at its See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request; that one magistrate should not employ his See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto to quash the act of another except at the senate's bidding, nor refuse to do so when directed . Such was the situation which had developed out of the tendency noticed above for the magistrate to be advised by his council in all important matters . Again, the earlier control of foreign policy developed into a definite claim put forward by the senate and recognized by the constitution to conduct all negotiations with a foreign power and See also:

• FRAME

frame an See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance which should merely be offered to the people for ratification . For the organization of a new Roman See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province even this formal ratification was dispensed with, and a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission of senators alone aided the victorious general in the organization of his conquests . The senate also held an important power in its right to distribute See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres of See also:

• RULE

rule among the various magistrates . It seems also to have had entire control over the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external relations of the See also:

• FREE

free cities which were scattered through-out the provinces, but formed no administrative parts of those provinces, holding their rights by See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter for which they depended upon the senate . The control of See also:

• FINANCE

finance was also entirely in the senate's hands . Three circumstances had combined to bring about this result . The censors, who were only occasional officials, were entrusted with the leasing of the public revenues; the senate not only directed the arrangements made by them, and received appeals against oppressive contracts, but also con-trolled any See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial assignments that had to be made during the vacancy in the censorship . Again, the details of public See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure had been in very early times entrusted to the quaestors, who, when the magistracies were multiplied, occupied an entirely subordinate position; this strengthened the position of the senate as the natural director of a See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young and inexperienced magistrate . Thirdly, the general control exercised by the senate over provincial affairs implied its direction of the income derived from the provinces, which in the later republic formed the chief See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the state . It had also claimed a right, unchallenged till the time of Tiberius See also:

• GRACCHUS

Gracchus, of granting occupation and decreeing See also:

• ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another)

alienation of public lands, or of accepting or rejecting gifts and bequests to the state .

Every See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of state finance was therefore in its hands . In matters of criminal jurisdiction the senate claimed the right to set free by its See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree in See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of emergency the full powers of coercitio contained in the imperium of a magistrate, but limited normally in See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital cases by successive See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal . The exercise of this right amounted to a See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial law, and had the effect of giving the consul the same powers of See also:

• SUMMARY

summary jurisdiction which had resided in the dictatorship . It was only resorted to in cases of See also:

• SPECIAL

special urgency, such as the epidemic of poisoning in 331 B.C . (Livy viii . 18), the prevalence of Bacchanalian See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence in the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city in 186 B.C . (id. xxxix . 18) and the formidable preponderance of the revolutionary tribune Tiberius Gracchus in 133 B.C . The See also:

• ACTION

action of the senate on this last occasion evoked a vigorous protest from the people, on the ground that the senate was not acting on behalf of the state against its enemies, but in the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of one party in the state against the other; and a law of C . Gracchus subsequently forbade any such exercise of capital jurisdiction on the part of a magistrate, whether authorized by the senate or not . The senate continued, however, to make use of this decree, and the question of its right to do so was one of the chief points at issue in the final struggle between the senatorial and democratic parties . The best known instance of this decretum ultimum in the last century of the republic is that of 63 B.C., when See also:

• CICERO

Cicero took summary action against the Catilinarians, and justified his action on the plea that this decree had authorized him to do so .

The senate also exercised a See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police control in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome in sudden emergencies . It dissolved by a decree passed in 64 B.C. a number of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds which had become the centres of political disturbance, and framed decrees from time to time dealing with See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

bribery and corruption . The chief feature of the democratic revolution at Rome which occupied the century following the tribunate of T . Gracchus was an uncompromising opposition to the See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of these extensive powers by the senate . Sulla's enactments in 81 B.C., which aimed at restoring its ascendancy, show clearly how much power it had already lost; and his attempts to reinstate it were See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived (see RoME: History II . " The Republic ") . The Gracchi and See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar alike found themselves obliged to override senatorial See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative in the interests of progressive legislation, and though the senate, owing to its strong hold over the magistracy, succeeded repeatedly in dealing See also:

• DEATH

death to its opponents, it never regained the popular confidence; and the practical extinction of the old senate in 49 B.C. was hardly lamented . Caesar's revision of the senatorial See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list and his increase of the senate to 900 was a return to the old practice by which kings and the early magistrates had chosen their own body Under the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire. of councillors . And though after this revision Sulla's arrangement for the automatic replenishing of the senate was restored, yet the growing See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence exercised by Caesar and his successors over elections secured their control over the personnel of the senate . Still, the senate was regarded in the early principate as the great representative of republican institutions, and See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus took elaborate pains to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide his authority with the senate . In legislation, indeed, the senate was supreme under the principate . The legislative powers of the comitia became very gradually See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct; but long before they had disappeared senatus consulta had come to take the place of leges in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary matters, and with this prerogative of the senate the princeps never directly interfered .

Jurisdiction remained largely in the hands of the republican courts, but such cases as did not come under their See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance were divided between princeps and senate . The senate, moreover, was See also:

• LEFT

left at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the ordinary See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of Rome and Italy, together with those provinces which, not requiring any military force nor presenting special administrative difficulties, were left to the care of the Roman people . It also retained control of the public See also:

• TREASURY

treasury (see See also:

• AERARIUM (from Lat. aes, in its derived sense of " money ")

AERARIUM), while Caesar administered his own treasury (fiscus) . It gradually became the electing body for the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual magistracies; and, as entrance to it was still won chiefly through the magistracy, co-optation became practically the principle of admission . But the power the senate theoretically possessed of creating and deposing a princeps was, formally at least, the chief of its prerogatives at this time, though considerably limited in practice . It had, on the other hand, lost all its control of foreign administration, which had once been the See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark of its power; and though occasionally consulted by the princeps, it was entirely subordinate to him in this See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department . It was clearly to the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the early Caesars to pay an apparent deference to the senate, and so give to their rule an See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of constitutionalism . But even in this capacity the senate did not long survive the overthrow of republican See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . Though occasionally roused into activity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, it ceased after the period of the See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian emperors to have any real control of affairs . See also:

• VESPASIAN

Vespasian had admitted Italians and provincials into the senate, with a view, no doubt, to increasing its value as a representative council of the empire; but this widening was counterbalanced by the-institution of an hereditary senatorial See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order by Augustus, who thus gave recognition to the practical exclusiveness which had grown up in the later republican period, while reserving to himself the right of recruiting the order . B . See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

Procedure.—Senatorial procedure remained comparatively unchanged throughout the republic and the first three centuries of the empire .

The right of summoning the senate belonged originally to the consuls, and later to the consuls, praetors, and tribunes of the plebs . In the Ciceronian period, when all these were entitled to summon the meeting, the right belonged to them in the above order of See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence . The magistrate who summoned the senate also presided and brought business before it . He first made statements to the house on important public affairs, and might then at his discretion ask the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the house on points arising out of them, or invite other senators to speak without himself putting forward any definite proposition . In both of these cases he was expected to follow a See also:

• REGULAR

regular order of precedence in asking for votes or speeches, and the magistrates of the year were precluded from expressing their opinion . When the chief senators had expressed their opinion on the See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion of the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president, or made proposals of their own, in the former case the house divided on the motion, in the latter the president put to the house in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession the various proposals made . The only important modification of this procedure introduced by the principate was the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of all the presiding magistrate's rights to the princeps, who, however, enjoyed also the right of giving his opinion as a private senator . C . Insignia.—The senatorial insignia were not at first distinguished from those of ex-curule magistrates . But by degrees the broad stripe (latus davus) on the See also:

• TUNIC (0. Eng. tunice, tunical, taken, before the Norman con-quest, directly from Lat. tunica, of which the origin is unknown)

tunic and the red See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe (calceus mulleus) became distinctive of the senator (hence laticlavius, a senator) . Seats in the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre were reserved for senators; and even the sons of senators adopted the latus clavus as early as the reign of Augustus, and probably at an earlier time . Certain disqualifications were attached to senators in republican times, chief of which was their exclusion from trade; and these were increased under the principate .

Failure to observe these disqualifications, or any public disgrace or See also:

• GROSS

gross misconduct, was punished by removal from.the senate by the censors, until that office See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into See also:

• ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping")

abeyance after the time of Sulla . The censorial right of removing unworthy members from the senate was revived by Augustus, and was exercised by subsequent emperors at a yearly revision of the list, which supplemented the formal lectiones senatus periodically held by the princeps in his capacity of See also:

• CENSOR (from Lat. censere, assess, estimate; in Gr. rt s ris)

censor . * ! It has been questioned whether the two traditional prerogatives of the senate, the control of the interregnum and the patrum auctoritas, belonged in See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical times to the senate as a body, or to its patrician members only, or, as some have maintained, to the whole body of patricians . For conflicting views on this subject, see P . Willems, Le Senat, vol. ii. p . I ; T . Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii . 1037 et seq.; and Rom . Forschungen, i . 218-249; C . C .

L . See also:

• LANGE, ANNE FRANCOISE ELIZABETH (1772—1816)
• LANGE, ERNST PHILIPP KARL (1813—1899)
• LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828—1875)
• LANGE, JOHANN PETER (1802-1884)

Lange, De patrum auct. See also:

• COMM

comm . (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1876–1877); O . Clason, Kritische Erorterungen fiber den rom . Staat (See also:

• ROSTOCK

Rostock, 1817), p . 41 et seq . In favour of the view that the words patres and patricii are used in this connexion as the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of senators may be cited the parallel use of the term patrician magistrates as the equivalent of curule magistrates, a usage due to the fact that these magistracies were for more than a century reserved for patricians .