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CH2, and in the form isologous series, applied to hydrocarbons and their derivatives which differ in empirical composition by a multiple of H2; it is also used in the form isomorphous series to denote elements related isomorphously . The word is also employed in zoological and botanical classification . In mathematics a set of quantities, real or complex, arranged in See also:

order so that each quantity is definitely and uniquely deter-See also:

MINED

mined by its position, is said to form a series . Usually a series proceeds in one direction and the successive terms are denoted by ul, u2, ... u,,, ... ; we may, however, have a series proceeding in both directions, a back-and-forwards series, in which See also:

case the terms are denoted by u_2, u—1, uo, U,, U2, ... U" .. or its See also:

general term may depend on two integers See also:

POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive or negative, and its general term may be denoted by u,,,, „; such a series is called a See also:

double series, and so on . The number of terms may be limited or unlimited, and we have two theories, (1) of finite series and (2) of See also:

INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite series . The first concerns itself mainly with the summation of a finite number of terms of the series; the notions of convergence and divergence See also:

PRESENT

present themselves in the theory of infinite series . Finite Series . I .

When we are given a series, it is supposed that we are given the See also:

law by which the general term is formed . The first few terms of a series afford no See also:

CLUE

clue to the general term; the series of which the first four terms are 1, 2, 4, 8, may be the series of whioh the general term is 2”; it may equally well be the series of which the general term is *(n'+5n+6); in fact we can construct an infinite number of series of which the leading terms shall be any assigned quantities . The only case in which the series may be completely determined from its leading terms is that of a " recurring series." A recurring series is a series in which the consecutive terms, after the earlier ones, are connected by a linear relation; thus if we have a relation of the form apur + ap_1ur+1 + a2_2ur+2+ . . . + T See also:

ALUR (Lur, Luri, Lurem)

alur+p—1aour+p —o, the series is said to be a recurring series with a See also:

scale of relation though taken from a genuine specimen; but little that can be called Ralline in See also:

CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character is observable therein . The same is to be said of an See also:

egg laid in captivity at See also:

Paris; but a specimen in Mr See also:

Walter's See also:

possession undeniably shows it (cf . Proc . Zool . Society, 1881, p . 2): ' A supposed fossil Cariama from the caves of See also:

Brazil, mentioned by See also:

BONAPARTE

Bonaparte (C.R. xliii. p . 779) and others, has since been shown by Reinhardt (See also:

IBIS

Ibis, 1882, pp . 321-332) to See also:

REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest upon the misinterpretation of certain bones, which the latter considers to have been those of a See also:

RHEA

Rhea .

' Near See also:

Tucuman and See also:

Catamarca (Burmeister, Reise durch See also:

die La See also:

PLATA, RIO DE LA, or RIVER PLATE

Plata Staaten, ii. p . 508) . observations on the birds of See also:

PARAGUAY

Paraguay (A puntamientos, No . 340), wherein he gave an See also:

account of it under the name of " Saria," which it See also:

BORE

bore among the See also:

GUARANIS

Guaranis,—that of " Cariama " being applied to it by the Portuguese settlers, and both expressive of its See also:

ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary cry.' It was not, however, until 1809 that this very remarkable form came to be autoptically described scientifically . This was done by the See also:

elder See also:

Geoffroy St-Hilaire (See also:

Ann. du museum, xiii. pp . 362-370, pl . 26), who had seen a specimen in the See also:

LISBON (Lisboa)

Lisbon museum; and, though knowing it had already been received into scientific nomenclature, he called it anew Microdactylus marcgravii . In 1811 J . K . W . Illiger, without having seen an example, renamed the genus Dicholophus—a term which has since been frequently applied to it—placing it in the curious congeries of forms having little See also:

affinity which he called Alectorides . In the course of his travels in Brazil (1815-1817), See also:

Prince Max of Wied met with this See also:

BIRD

bird, and in 1823 there appeared from his See also:

PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen N .

See also:

ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act . Acad . L.-C. nat. curiosorum, xi. pt . 2, pp . 341-350, tab. xlv.) a very See also:

GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good contribution to its See also:

HISTORY

history, embellished by a faithful See also:

LIFE

life-sized figure of its See also:

head . The same See also:

YEAR

year Temminck figured it in the Planches colorises (No . 237) . It is not easy to say when any example of the bird first came under the eyes of See also:

BRITISH

British ornithologists; but in the Zoological Proceedings for See also:

SERIEMA, or CARIAMA

Seriema . 1836 (pp . 29-32) W . See also:

Martin described the visceral and osteological See also:

anatomy of one which had been received alive the preceding year . The Seriema, owing to its See also:

long legs and See also:

NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck, stands some two feet or more in height, and in menageries bears itself with a stately deportment .

Its See also:

bright red See also:

BEAK (early forms beke and becke, from Fr. bec, late Lat. beccus, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic bec and beq, however, are taken from the English)

beak, the See also:

BARE

bare bluish skin surrounding its large See also:

grey eyes, and the tufts of elongated feathers springing vertically from its lores, give it a pleasing and animated expression; but its plumage generally is of an inconspicuous ochreous grey above and dull See also:

white beneath,—the feathers of the upper parts, which on the neck and See also:

THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat are long and loose, being barred by See also:

FINE

fine zigzag markings of dark See also:

brown, while those of the See also:

LOWER

lower parts are more or less striped . The wing-quills are brownish See also:

black, banded with mottled white, and those of the tail, except the See also:

MIDDLE

middle pair, which are wholly greyish brown, are banded with mottled white at the See also:

BASE

base and the tip, but dark brown for the rest of their length . The legs are red . The Seriema inhabits the See also:

campos or elevated open parts of Brazil, from the neighbourhood of See also:

PERNAMBUCO

Pernambuco to the Rio de la Plata, extending inland as far as Matto Grosso (long . 60°), and occurring also, though sparsely, in Paraguay . It lives in the high grass, See also:

RUNNING

running away in a stooping posture to avoid See also:

DISCOVERY

discovery on being approached, and taking See also:

FLIGHT

flight only at the utmost need . Yet it builds' its See also:

NEST

nest in thick bushes or trees at about a See also:

man's height from the ground, therein laying two eggs, which See also:

PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Burmeister likens to those of the See also:

LAND

Land-See also:

RAIL

Rail in See also:

COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour.' The See also:

young are hatched ao -f See also:

aix + a2x2 + ... + a1,x' . It is clear that we can regard the series uo+uix+u2x2+...as the expansion in See also:

POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of x of an expression of the form (bo+bix+ ... +-bn-ixP-1)/(ao+aix+ ... +avxp), and by splitting this expression into partial fractions we can obtain the general term of the series . If we know that a series is a recurring series and know the number of terms in its scale of relation, we can determine this scale if we are given a sufficient number of terms of the series and obtain its general term .

It follows that the general term of a recurring series is of the form L¢(n)an, where ¢(n) is a rational integral algebraic See also:

FUNCTION

function of n, and a is See also:

INDEPENDENT

independent of n . The series whose general term is of the form Kan+..(n), where 0(n) is a rational integral algebraic function of degree r, is a recurring series whose scale of relation is (I—ax) (i —x)**1, but the general term of this series may be obtained by another method . Suppose we have a series uo, u1, u2, ... From this we can form a series vo, v2,.. where vn=un..i.1—un; from vo, v1, v2,... we similarly form another series and so on; we write vn-kun, and we suppose E to be an operation such that Eun=un+1 (the notation is that of the calculus of finite See also:

DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences); the operations E and i +A are See also:

EQUIVALENT

equivalent and hence the operations En and (i +0)n are equivalent, so that we obtain un =uo + n0uo + ?en— r A2uo+ ... This is true whatever the form of is .. When I.2 is,. is of the form Kan+¢(n), where 0(n) is of degree r, 0''`°uo, Ci'42uo, . form a geometrical progression, of which the See also:

COMMON

common difference is a— 1, or vanish if the term Ka" is absent . In either case we readily obtain the expression for un . 2 . The general problem of finite series is to find the sum of n terms of a series of which the law of formation is given . By finding the sum to n terms is meant finding some See also:

SIMPLE

simple function of n, or a sum of a finite number of simple functions, the number being independent of n, which shall be equal to this sum . Such an expression cannot always be found even in the case of the simplest series . The sum of n terms of the See also:

ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic progression a, a+b, a+2b, ... is na+2n(n—i)b; the sum of n terms of the geometric progression a, ab, ab2, ... is a(i —b) ; yet we can find no simple expression to represent the sum of n terms of the See also:

HARMONIC

harmonic progression I+a+a+ ...

+n . 3 . The only type of series that can be summed to n terms with See also:

COMPLETE

complete generality is a recurring series . If we let Sn=uo+uix+ +un_,xn-1, where a5, . .. is a recurring series with a given scale of relation, for simplicity take it to be i+px+qx2, we shall have Sn (i +px +qx2) = uo + (ul + puo) x + (pun_1 +qun_2) xn +qun_lxn+l, If x had a value that made r+px+qx2 vanish, this method would fail, but we could find the sum in this case by finding the general term of the series . For particular cases of recurring series we may proceed somewhat differently . If the nth term is unxn we have from the equivalence of the operations E and i+A, uix +u2x2 + . . . +unxn=xul—xn+iun+i+x20u1—xn+20un+1 —x (1—x)2 +x3A2u1—xn+302un+i+ (I —x)3 in general, and for the case of x=unity we have 1.4 +u2+ . . . +un=nul+n . 2—Dui+n.n—i.n—2o2u1+ ..

. i. i.2.3 which will give the sum of the series very readily when un is a polynomial in n or a polynomial + a term of the form Ka" . 4 . Other types of series, whet' they can be summed to n terms at all, are summed by some See also:

SPECIAL

special artifice . Summing the series to 3 or 4 terms may suggest the form of the sum to n terms which can then be established by See also:

INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

induction . Or it may be possible to See also:

EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express un in the form —wn, in which case the sum to n terms is w,Fi—w1 . Thus, if un=a(a+b)(a+2b) . . . (a+n7-ib)/c(c+b)(c+2b) . (c+n—Ib), the relation (c+nb)un+i=(a+nb)un can be thrown into the form (c+nb)un+1—(c+n—ib)un=(a—c+b)un, whence the sum can be found . Again, if un=tan nx tan (n+1)x, the summation can be effected by See also:

writing un in the form cot x (tan n + Ix — tan nx) — I . Or a series may be recognized as a coefficient in a product . Thus, if f(x)=fto+uix+u2x2+..., uo+ui+...+un is the coefficient of xn in f(x)/(r —x) ; in this way the sum of the first n coefficients in the expansion of (i —x)-k may be found .

The sum of one series may be deduced from that of another by differentiation or integration . For further See also:

INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information the reader may consult G . Chrystal's See also:

ALGEBRA (from the Arab. al-jebr wa'l-mugabala, transposition and removal [of terms of an equation], the name of a treatise by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi)

Algebra (vol. ii.) . 5 . The sum of an infinite series may be deduced from the sum to n terms, when this is known, by increasing n indefinitely and finding the limit, if any, to which it tends, but a series may often be summed to infinity when it cannot be summed to n terms; the sum of the infinite series I2 1 22+32+• • is 6, the sum to n terms cannot be found . 669 n terms of a series may be found approximately when it cannot be found exactly, the reader may consult G . See also:

BOOLE, GEORGE (1815-1864)

Boole's See also:

TREATISE

Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences . Infinite Series . 6 . Let u1, u2, u3,...u,,, be a series of See also:

numbers real or complex, and let S. denote u1+u2+ ... +un . We thus form a sequence of numbers S1,S2, .

. .Sn . This sequence may tend to a definite finite limit S as n increases indefinitely . In this case the series ul+u2+ ... +un is said to be convergent, and to converge to a sum S . If by taking n sufficiently large ISnI can be made to exceed any assignable quantity, however large, the series is said to be divergent . If the sequence Si, S2,... tends to finite but different limits according to the form of n the series is said to oscillate, and is also classed under the head of divergent series . The sum of n terms of the geometric series i+x+x2+ .. .is (i—xn)/(i—x) . If x is less than unity S. clearly tends to the limit i/(i —x), and the series is convergent and its sum is i/(i —x) . If x is greater than unity S. clearly can be made gre ter than any assignable quantity by taking n large enough, and the %eries is divergent . The series i — i +1 — i + ... where Sn is unity or zero, according as n is See also:

ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd or even, is an example of an oscillating series . The See also:

CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of convergency may also be presented under the following form .

Let 5R,, denote Sn.f,—Sn: let e be any arbitrarily assigned positive quantity as small as we please; if we can find a number m such that for m=or>n, I,5Rnl <e for all values 1, 2,... of p, then the series converges . The least value of the number m corresponding to a given value of e, if it can be found, may be regarded as a measure of rapidity of the convergency of the series; it may happen that when un involves a variable x, m increases indefinitely as x approaches some value; in this case the convergence of the series is said to be infinitely slow for this value of x . 7 . An infinite series may contain both positive and negative terms . The terms may be positive and negative alternately or they may occur in See also:

groups which without altering the order of the terms of the series may each be collected into a single term; thus all series may be regarded as belonging to one of two types, ul+u2+u3+ .in which the terms are all positive, or ul—u2+u3— .. .in which the terms are alternately positive and negative . 8 . It is clear that if a series is convergent un must tend to the limit zero as n is increased indefinitely . This condition though necessary is by no means sufficient . If all the terms of a convergent series are positive a series obtained by writing its terms in any other order is convergent and converges to the same sum . For if Sndenotes the sum of n terms of the first series and In denotes the sum of n terms of the new series, then, when n is any large number, we can choose numbers p and q such that So>Mn>S9; so that L. tends to the common limit of S, and So, which is the sum of the See also:

ORIGINAL

original series . If u1, u2, U3,... are all positive, and if after some fixed term, say the See also:

pig', u,, continually decreases and tends to the limit zero the series ui—u2+u3—u4+ . iS convergent .

For IS,+2n—St,i lies between lu„+i—up+2 and lu,+i-up+2„I so that, when n is increased indefinitely, ISp+2ni remains finite; also ISP+2n+1—Se+2,I tends to zero, so that the series converges . If See also:

TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin tends to a limit a, distinct from zero, then the series v1—v2+v3— .. ., where vn=un—a, converges and the series U1—u2+u3... oscillates . As examples we may take the series i — 2 + a — 4 + ... and 2 — z +i; — + .. , the first of these converges, the second oscillates . 9 . The series ul+u3+u6+ .. ., u2+u4+u4+... may each of them diverge, though the series ul—u2+u3— .. .converges . A series such that the series formed by taking all its terms positively is convergent is said to be absolutely convergent ; when this is not the case the series is said to be semi-convergent or conditionally convergent . A series of complex numbers in which un=pn+ign, where Ps and qn are real (i being Al -1), is said to be convergent when the series pi+p2+p3+..., gi+g2+q3+•.. are separately convergent, and if they converge to P and Q respectively the sum of the series is P+iQ . Such a series is said to be absolutely convergent when the series of moduli of un, i.e., E(pn2+gn2)l, is convergent; this is sufficient but not necessary for the See also:

SEPARATE

separate convergence of the p and q series .

There is an important distinction between absolutely convergent and conditionally convergent series . In an absolutely convergent series the sum is the same whatever the order of the terms; this is not the case with a conditionally convergent series . The two series 1—1+i—1 +..., and 1+a—+i+-i . ., in which the terms are the same but in different orders, are convergent but not absolutely convergent . If we denote the sum of the first by S and the sum of the second by E it can be shown that E _ gS . G . F . B . See also:

RIEMANN, GEORG FRIEDRICH BERNHARD (1826–1866)

Riemann and P . G . L . Dirichlet have shown that the terms of a semi-convergent series may be so arranged as to make the series converge to any assigned value or even to diverge .

lo . Tests for convergency of series of positive terms are obtained by comparing the series with some series whose convergency or divergency is readily established . If the series of positive terms ui+u2-j-u3-I-..., vi+v2+v3+• • . are such that un/vn is always finite, then they are convergent or divergent together; if un+i/un<vn+i/vn and Dvn is convergent, then Eun is convergent; if un+1/un>vn+i/vn and Evn is divergent, then 2',un is divergent . By For methods and transformations by means of which the sum to comparison with the ordinary geometric progression we obtain the following tests . If nllu,. approaches a limit 1 as n is indefinitely increased, 3. us will converge if l is less than unity and will diverge if l is greater than unity (See also:

CAUCHY, AUGUSTIN LOUIS, BARON (1789-1857)

Cauchy's test) ; if u,.a.i/u,. approaches a limit l as n is indefinitely increased, Eus will converge if 1 is less than unity and diverge if 1 is greater than unity (D'See also:

ALEMBERT, JEAN LE ROND

Alembert's test) . Nothing is settled when the limit l is unity, except in the case when l remains greater than unity as it approaches unity . The series then diverges . It may be remarked that if u„i i/u,. approaches a limit and 'lu„ approaches a limit, the two limits are the same . The choice of the more useful test to apply to a particular series depends on its form . In the case in which u,.+l/us approaches unity remaining constantly less than unity, J . L . See also:

Raabe and J .

M . C . See also:

DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706)

Duhamel have given the following further criterion . Write u„/u,.+i = 1+a,., where an is positive and approaches zero as n is indefinitely increased . If na„ approaches a limit 1, the series converges for 1> I and diverges for 1< I . For 1= i nothing is settled except for the case where 1 remains constantly_Iess than unity as it approaches it; in this case the series diverges . If f(n) is positive and decreases as n increases, the series If(n) is convergent or divergent with the series Za'f(a") where a is any number >2 (Cauchy's condensation test) . By means of this theorem we can show that the series whose general terms are I I I I na' n(ln)a' nln(12n)a' nlnl2n(13n)a'" ' where In denotes See also:

LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin,possibly onomatopoeic; the New English Dictionary rejects the derivation from Norwegian lag, a fallen tree)

log n,12n denotes log•log n, Pn denotes log log log n, and so on, are convergent if a> I and divergent if a =or< 1 . By comparison with these series, a sequence of criteria, known as the See also:

LOGARITHM (from Gr. Abyos, word, ratio, and apx0µos, number)

logarithm criteria, has been established by De See also:

Morgan and J . L . See also:

BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE (1773-1844)

Bertrand . A .

De Morgan's form is as follows: writing us =1/0(n), put po=x*'(x)/d'(x), pi=(po-I)lx, ps=(pi-1)12x, p3=(p2-1)13x, .. . where l'x denotes log log log . . .x . If the limit, when x is infinite, of the first of the functions Po, 1?i, p2,..., whose limit is not unity, is greater than unity the series is convergent, if less than unity it is divergent . In Bertrand's form we take the series of functions I I I 1-/In, lnunn°n' lnnnlnmmis, .. . If the limit, when n is infinite, of the first of these functions, whose limit is not unity, is greater than unity the series is convergent, if less than unity it is divergent . Other forms of these criteria may be found in Chrystal's Algebra, vol. ii . Though, sufficient to test such series as occur in ordinary mathematics, it is possible to construct series for which they entirely fail . It follows that in a convergent series not only must we have Lt u,,=o but also Lt See also:

NUN (O. Eng. nunne, from Lat. nonnus, nonna, familiar terms for an old man or woman)

nun =o, Lt nlnu,,=o,&c . See also:

Abel has, however, shown that no function 0(n) can exist such that the series Eun is convergent or divergent as Lt ¢(n)u„ is or is not zero . i i . Two or more absolutely convergent series may be added together, thus (ul+u2+• .

. ) +(vl+v2+ . . .)=(ui +vl) + (n2+v2)+ ., that is, the resulting series is absolutely convergent and has for its sum the sum of the sums of the two series . Similarly two or more absolutely convergent series may be! multiplied together thus (nl+n2+U3+...) (vl+v2+v3+...) =uiv1+(niv2+n2v1)+(uiv3+ U2v2+uell) + .. •, and the resulting series is absolutely convergent and its sum is the product of the sums of the two series . This was shown by Cauchy, who also showed that the series nu, where w„=uiv,.+u2vs-i+ .. +u,.vi, is not necessarily convergent when both series are semi- convergent . A striking' instance is furnished by the series I-22+ I J 3 4+ . ' • which is convergent, while its- square i - 22+ ( 33+2) - ... may be shown to be divergent . F . K . L . Mertens has shown that a sufficient condition is that one of the two series should be absolutely convergent, and Abel has shown that if Ew„ converges at all, it converges to the product of 2u,. and Ev, ..

But more properly the multiplication of two series gives rise to a double series of which the general term is umv,, . 12 . Before considering a double series we may consider the case of a series extending backwards and forwards to infinity .. u_m + . . . +14—2 +n—i +us +ui +u2 + ... +us+ ... Such a series may be absolutely convergent and the sum is then independent of the order of the terms and is equal to the sums of the two series us-dui+u2+... and u-i+u-24-..., but, if not absolutely convergent, the expression has no definite meaning until it is explained in what manner the terms are intended to be grouped together; for instance, the expression may be used to denote the foregoing sum of two series, or to denote the series uo+(ui+u-I)+ (u2+u-2)+..., and the sum may have different values, or there may be no sum, accordingly . Thus, if the series be ... -1-1+ o+i+z+..., with the former meaning the two series o+i+s+ . and -1-1- ... are each divergent, and there is no sum; but with the latter meaning the series is o+o+o+... which has a sum o . So, if the series be taken to denote the limit of (uo+ui+ ... +u„) -+-(u_i+u_ + .. . +u- ), where n and m are each of them ultimatelyinfinite, there may be a sum depending on the ratio n : m, which sum acquires a determinate value only when this ratio is given .

In the case of the series given above, if this ratio is k, the sum of the series is log k . 13 . In a singly infinite series we have a general term u,., where n is an integer positive in the case of an ordinary series, and positive or negative in the case of a back-and-forwards series . Similarly for a doubly infinite series we have a general term um,,. where m, n are integers which may be each of them positive, and the form of the series is then Uo,o, Uo,l, Uo,2, .. . Ul,o, Ul,l, Ui,z, ... or they may be each of them positive or negative . The latter is the more general supposition, and includes the former, since um,,. may =o, for m or n each or either of them negative . To attach a definite meaning to the notion of a sum, we may regard m, n as the rectangular coordinates of a point in a See also:

PLANE

plane; if m and n are each positive we attend only to the positive quadrant of the plane, but otherwise to the whole plane . We may imagine a boundary depending on a parameter T, which for T infinite is at every point thereof at an infinite distance from the boundary; for instance, the boundary may be the circle x2+yi=T, or the four sides of a rectangle, x = =aT, y = T . Suppose the form is given and the value of T, and let the sum S,a,,, be understood to denote the sum of the terms um,,. within the boundary, then, if as T increases without limit, 5,.,,. continually approaches a determinate limit (dependent, it may be, on the form of the boundary) for such form of boundary the series is said to be convergent, and the sum of the doubly infinite series is the limit of Sm,, .. The condition of convergency may be otherwise stated; it must be possible to take T so large that the sum Rm,, for all terms um,,. which correspond to points outside the boundary shall be as small as we please . 14 .

It is easy to see that, if each of the terms um,,. is positive and the series is convergent for any particular form of boundary, it will be convergent for any other form of boundary, and the sum will be the same in each case . Suppose that in the first case the boundary is the See also:

CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve fi(x, y) =T . Draw any other boundary See also:

F2(X2+Y2)

f2(x, y) =T . Wholly within this we can draw a curve fl(x, y) =Ti of the first See also:

FAMILY

family, and wholly outside it we can draw a second curve of the first family, fi(x, y) =T2 . The sum of all the points within f2(x, y) =T' lies between the sum of all the points within fi(x, y) =Ti and the sum of all the points within fi(x, y) =T2 . It therefore tends to the common limit to which these two last sums tend . The sum is therefore independent of the form of the boundary . Such a series is said to be absolutely convergent, and similarly a doubly infinite series of positive and negative terms is absolutely convergent when the series formed by taking all its terms positively is convergent . 15 . It is readily seen that when the series is not absolutely convergent the sum will depend on the form of the boundary . Consider the case in which m and n are always positive, and the boundary is the rectangle formed by x=m, y=n, and the axes . Let the sum within this rectangle be Sm,, ..

This may have a limit when we first make n infinite and then m; it may have a limit when we first make m infinite and then n, but the limits are not necessarily the same; or there may be no limit in either of these cases but a limit depending on the ratio of m to n, that is to say, on the shape of the rectangle . When the product of two series is arranged as a doubly infinite series, summing for the rectangular boundary x= aT, y =/3T we obtain the product of the sums of the series . When we arrange the double series in the form uivi+(uivz+uivo+• . . we are summing over the triangle bounded by the axes and the straight See also:

LINE

line x+y=T, and the results are not necessarily the same if the terms are not all pcsitive . For full particulars concerning multiple series the reader may consult E . Goursat, Colas d'analyse, vol. i.; G . Chrystal, Algebra, vol. ii.; or T . J . I'A . Bromwich, The Theory of Infinite Series . 16 . In the series so far considered the terms are actual numbers, or, at least, if the terms are functions of a variable, we have considered the convergency only when that variable has an assigned value .

In the case, however, of a series ui(z)+u2(z)+..., where ul(z), u2(z),... are single-valued continuous functions of the general complex variable z, if the series converges for any value of z, in general it converges for all values of z, whose representative points See also:

lie within a certain See also:

AREA

area called the " domain of convergence " and within this area defines a function which we may See also:

CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call S(z) . It might be supposed that S(z) was necessarily a continuous function of z, but this is not the case . G . G . See also:

Stokes (1847) and P . L . Seidel (1848) independently discovered that in the neighbourhood of a point of discontinuity the convergence is infinitely slow and thence arises the notion of See also:

UNIFORM

uniform and non-uniform convergence . 17 . If for any value of z the series ui(z)+U2(z)+...converges it is possible to find an integer n such that I S(z) -S,.(z)I <e, 1 S(z) - S,ssi(z) I < e, ... , where e is any arbitrarily assigned positive quantity, however small . For a givens the least value of n will vary through-out any region from point to point of that region . It may, however, be possible to find an integer v which is a superior limit to all the values of n in that region, and we thus have, throughout this region, I S(z) -Sv(z)1 < e, 1 S (z) -Sv+i (z) I< e._where z is any point in the region and v is a finite integer depending only one and not on z .

zs 5 .... In this case the series converges over the whole of the z plane . Or its See also:

RADIUS

radius may be zero as in the case of the series 1 +1! z+2 ! zz+ . . ., which converges nowhere except at the origin . The radius R may be found usually, but not always, from the See also:

CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration that a series converges absolutely if lu,, i/u.1 <I, and diverges if lun+i/u„I>I . A See also:

POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power series converges absolutely and uniformly at every point within its circle of convergence; it may be differentiated or integrated term by term; the function represented by a power series is continuous within its circle of convergence and, if the series is convergent on the circle of convergence, the continuity extends on to the circle of convergence . Two power series cannot be equal throughout any region in which both are convergent without being identical . 19 . Series of the type ao+ai See also:

cos z+az cos 2z+ .. . +bl See also:

sin z+bz sin 2z+ .. where the coefficients ao, al, az, . . . bl, bz, .

. . are independent of z, are called See also:

Fourier's series . They are of the greatest See also:

INTEREST

interest and importance both from the point of view of See also:

ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis and also because of their applications to See also:

PHYSICAL

physical problems . For the consideration of these series and the expansion of arbitrary functions in series of this type see FUNCTION and FOURIER'S SERIES . For the general problem of the development of functions in infinite series of various types see FUNCTION . 20 . The See also:

MODERN

modern theory of convergence See also:

DATES

dates from the publication in 1821 of Cauchy's Analyse algebrique . The See also:

GREAT

great mathematicians of the 18th See also:

CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century used infinite series freely with very little regard to their convergence or divergence and with, occasionally, very extraordinary results . Series which are ultimately divergent may be used to calculate values of functions in special cases and to represent what are called " asymptotic expansions " of functions (see FUNCTION) . Infinite Products . 21 . The product of an infinite number of factors formed in succession according to any given law is called an infinite product . The infinite product Ho.= (I +u1) (i +uz) .

. . (1 +u„) is said to be convergent when Ltn_,;TT, tends to a definite finite limit other than zero . If Lt IIn is zero or infinite or tending to different finite values according to the form of n the product is said to be divergent . The condition for convergency may also be stated in the following form . (1) The value of IIn remains finite and different from zero however great n may become, and (2) Lt IL and Lt L+,. must be equal, when n is increased indefinitely, and r is any positive integer . Since in particular Lt II„ = Lt II,.+i, we must have Lt u,.+1 =o . Hence after some fixed term u1, uz, . . . or their moduli in the case of complex quantities, must diminish continually down to zero . Since we may remove any finite number of terms in which lu„1> 1 without affecting the convergence of the whole product, we may regard as the general type of a convergent product (I+ui)(I+uz) . . . (I +u,.) ... where See also:

LULL (or LvLLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315)

lull, nil, . . .

Iunl, ...are all less than unity and decrease continually to zero . A convergent infinite product is said to be absolutely convergent where the order of its factors is immaterial . Where this is not the case it is said to be semi-convergent . 22 . The necessary and sufficient condition that the product (i+ui)(i+uz) . . . should converge absolutely is that the series lull +17421+ . . . should be convergent . If u1, u2, . . . are all of the same sign, then, if the series u1+uz+ . . . is divergent, the product is infinite if ui,uz, . . . are all positive and zero if they are all negative . If u1+uz+ .

. . is a semi-convergent series the product converges, but not absolutely, or diverges to the value zero, according as the series u12+u22+ . . . is convergent or divergent . These results may671 be deduced by considering, instead of II,,, log H" which is the series log (I+ui)+log (I+uz)+ . . . (see G . Chrystal's Algebra, vol. ii., or E . T . Whittaker's Modern Analysis, See also:

CHAP

chap. ii.); they may also be proved by means of elementary theorems on inequalities (see E . W . Hobson's Plane See also:

TRIGONOMETRY (from Gr. rpiywvov, a triangle, /ATpov, measure)

Trigonometry, chap. xvii.) . 23 . If u1, u2, ... are functions of a variable z, a convergent infinite product (I +u1) (I +uz) .

. . defines a function of z . For such products there is a theory of uniform convergence analogous to that of infinite series . Is is not in general possible to represent a function as an infinite product; the question has been dealt with by Weierstrass (see his Abhandlungen aus der Functionlehre or A . R . Forsyth's Theory of Functions) . One of the simplest cases of a function ex-pressed as an infinite product is that of sin z/z, which is the value of the absolutely convergent infinite product . zz r zz / z2 I -7r- ) (I -227rz) ... (I -n7rz 1 . . 24 . K . T . W .

Weierstrass has shown that a semi-convergent or divergent infinite product may be made absolutely convergent by the association with each See also:

FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor of a suitable exponential factor called sometimes a " convergency factor." The product (1+1) (1+2—z7) (1+1) ... is divergent ; the product (1+9 e " (1+1 -) e 2" is absolutely convergent . The product for sin z/z is semi-convergent when written in the form (I 7r) (1 1 7r (I 27r) (I+ 7r) ..., but absolutely convergent when written in the form (I 7r) e" (I +7r) e " (1 2;) e2 . (1+2Z7) a 2" .. From this last form it can be shown that if o(z)= (I—7r (I 27r) .. . (I—n7r) (I+7) (I+27) ... (I+m7r) then the limit of rp(z) as m and n are both made infinite in any given ratio is (mZsinz n) z Another example of an absolutely convergent infinite product, whose convergency depends on the presence of an exponential factor, is the product zII (1—z— ) See also:

ea ‘22' where f denotes 2mw1+ 2nwz, See also:

col and wz being any two quantities having a complex ratio, and the product is taken over all positive and negative integer and zero values of m and n, except simultaneous zeros . This product is the expression in factors of Weierstrass's elliptic function 0(z) . A Course of Pure Mathematics . (A . E .

End of Article: SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

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