See also:

• SERVIA

SERVIA 1 [Srbiya]  , an inland See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, situated in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula . The frontier, as defined by the See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin Treaty of 1878, is, roughly speaking, indicated by See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers in the north, and by mountains in the south . In the north, between Verciorova and 8,ncry Writer w See also:

• BELGRADE (Servian, Biograd or Beograd, i.e. " White Castle")

Belgrade, the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube divides See also:

• SERVIA

Servia from See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary for 157 m; and between Belgrade and the border See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Racha the See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

Save divides it from Croatia-Slavonia for 8o m . In the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west the Drina flows for 162 M. between Bosnia and Servia; i The See also:

• ENGLISH

English-speaking races alone write this word with a v instead of a b, Servia for Serbia; a practice resented by the Serbs, as suggesting the derivation of their name from the Latin Servus . " a slave." in the north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the Danube, for 50 m., and the Timok for 23 m., constitute respectively the Rumanian and Bulgarian boundaries . Various See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the frontiers of Bosnia, on the west, See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey on the south-west and south, and See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria on the south and south-east . According to the survey carried out by the Servian See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff in 1884 the See also:

• AREA

area of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is 18,782 sq. m . Mountains.—The mountain See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups which rise confusedly over almost the whole See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the See also:

• LAND

land, fall into two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main blocks, one on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the See also:

• RIVER

river Morava . On the east of this river, three vast ranges, the Transylvanian See also:

• ALPS

Alps, the Balkans and Rhodope, encroach upon Servian See also:

• SOIL

soil; while on the west there is a See also:

• CHAOS

chaos of mountain masses, outliers of the Bosnian and Albanian See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands . . Rivers.—The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief navigable river of Servia is the Danube, which enters the country at Belgrade and pierces the Transylvanian Alps by way of the Kazan (i.e . " Cauldron ") Pass, near the famous See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

Gates (see See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

RUMANIA) . The Timok, which formed the Bulgarian frontier as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long ago as the 9th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, springs in the western Balkans, or Stara Planina, and issues into the Danube, near Negotin, after a course of 70 M .

Sooner or later, indeed, all the Servian rivers reach the Danube . The Save, which is also navigable, meets it at Belgrade, after being joined, at Racha, by the Drina, a Bosnian river, which rises on the Montenegrin border, 155 M . S. by W . Near Obrenovats the Kolubara also enters the Save, after traversing 45 M. from its source in the Sokoiska Gora . Apart from frontier rivers, the most important stream is the Morava, which, rising on the western slopes of the Kara Dagh, a little beyond the Servian frontier, enters the country with a north-easterly course near the extreme S.E., and then turns N.N.W. and flows almost in a straight See also:

• LINE

line through the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the kingdom to the Danube . Its See also:

• TOTAL

total length is about 15o m . In the upper See also:

• PART

part of its course it is known as the Bulgarian Morava, and only after receiving the Servian Morava on the See also:

• LEFT

left is it known as the Morava simply or as the See also:

• GREAT

Great Morava . The Servian Morava is joined on the south by the Ibar, which comes from the Albanian Alps; the combined length of these rivers being about 130 M . The only other important tributary of the Great Morava is the Nishava, which it receives on the right, at See also:

• NISH (also written NISCx and Nis)

Nish . This stream flows 68 m . W. by N. from its source among the foothills of the Stara Planina . The valleys of all these rivers, especially those of the Bulgarian and the Great Morava, and of the Nishava, contain considerable areas of level or See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying country well suited for the growth of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, and the low grounds along the Save and the Danube from the Drina to the Morava are also well adapted for See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, except the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of fenland called the Machva, in the extreme north-west .

See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological structure of Servia is varied . In the south and west the sedimentary rocks most largely See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed are of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient, pre-Carboniferous date, interrupted by considerable patches of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine and other crystalline rocks . Beyond this See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt there appear in the north-west Mesozoic limestones, such as occupy so extensive an area in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula generally, and the valleys opening in that See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter to the Drina have the same desolate aspect as belongs to these rocks in the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of that region . In the extreme north-east the crystalline See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists of the Carpathians extend to the south side of the Danube, and stretch parallel to the Morava in a See also:

• BAND

band along its right See also:

• BANK

bank . Elsewhere east of the Morava the prevailing rocks belong to the Cretaceous See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, which enters Servia from Bulgaria . The Shumadia is mainly occupied by rocks of See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, with intervening patches of older strata; and the Rudnik Mountains are traversed by metalliferous See also:

• VEINS

veins of See also:

• SYENITE

syenite . Minerals.—See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

Gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver, iron and See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead were worked by the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, whose operations can still be traced in the Kostolats mine, near See also:

• POZHAREVATS (also written Passarowitz and Pozarevac)

Pozharevats, and elsewhere . Even more ancient is the Avala See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury mine, near Belgrade . The heaps of debris which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover so many acres near Belgrade, on the Kopaonik foothills and in the Toplitsa valley See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to the importance of this See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry in the past . During the later See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the Servian mines brought in a large See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue to the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant princes of See also:

• RAGUSA
• RAGUSA (Serbo-Croatian Dubrovnik)

Ragusa . They prospered greatly during the 14th century, but See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish See also:

• RULE

rule put a stop to this industry after 1459; and the revival only began in 1835, under the patronage of See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Milosh . The richest See also:

• COAL

coal and See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite seams occur among the north-eastern mountains, generally near the Danube or Timok, and along the Morava .

They are worked by the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, by Belgian companies and by private enterprise, the output in 1907 being valued at £121,000 . Lead is principally raised in the Podrinye, especially at Krupan; and at Kuchayna,,in the Pozharevats See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department, where See also:

• ZINC

zinc and small quantities of gold and silver are obtained . See also:

• ANTIMONY (symbol Sb, atomic weight 120.2)

Antimony is See also:

• MINED

mined at Zayechar . See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

Copper and iron are worked by Belgians at Maydanpek, the chief See also:

• MINING

mining centre east of the Morava . See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

Nickel, mercury, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, See also:

• GRAPHITE

graphite, See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur and oil shales are found in various regions, but the See also:

• MINERAL

mineral resources of the country, as a whole, remain almost undeveloped . . The numerous mineral springs are even more neglected than the mines . See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

Waters See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

iodine and sulphur occur in the Machva . About 1878 an unsuccessful See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was made to convert Arandyelovats into a popular See also:

• HEALTH

health-resort . The See also:

• BATHS

baths near Nish and See also:

• VRANYA, or VRANYE

Vranya are comparatively prosperous, while the beautiful surroundings attract visitors even from abroad . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate of Servia is on the whole mild, though subject to the extremes characteristic of inland Eastern countries . In summer the temperature may rise as high as io6° F., while in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter it often sinks to 13° or even 20° below zero . The high-lying valleys in the south are colder than the rest of the country, not only on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their greater See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation but also because of their being exposed to See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold winds from the north and north-east .

See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—The See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• LIFE

life of the Servian highlands is unusually varied . A few bears and wild boars and lynxes find shelter in the remoter forests, with many badgers, wolves, foxes, wildcats, See also:

• MARTENS
• MARTENS, GEORG FRIEDRICH VON (1756-1821)

martens and weasels . Otters are See also:

• COMMON

common along the rivers; See also:

• CHAMOIS

chamois may very rarely be seen on the least accessible peaks; See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

roe-See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, red-deer, squirrels and rabbits See also:

• PEOPLE

people the See also:

• LOWER

lower woodlands; and See also:

• HARES

hares abound in the open . The See also:

• BEAVER
• BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, from bane, saliva)

beaver is See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct . Among land birds may be enumerated several varieties of See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle, See also:

• VULTURE

vulture, See also:

• FALCON
• FALCON (Lat. Falco;' Fr. Faucon; Teutonic, Falk or Valken)

falcon, See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl, See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

crow, See also:

• JAY (Fr. geai)
• JAY, JOHN (1745-1829)
• JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853)

jay, See also:

• MAGPIE

magpie, See also:

• STORK (A. S. store, Ger. Storch)

stork, See also:

• QUAIL (0. Fr. Quaille, Mod. Fr. Caille, Ital. Quaglia, Low Lat. Quaquila, Du. Kwakkel and Kwartel, Ger. Wachtel, Dan. Vagtel)

quail, See also:

• THRUSH (A. S. Prysce, Icel. priistr, Norw. Trast, O. H. Ger. Drosce, whence the mod. Ger. prossel, to be compared with the analogous English form Throstle,l now almost obsolete, both being apparently diminutives)

thrush, See also:

• DOVE
• DOVE (Dutch duyve, Dan. due, Ice. dufa, Ger. Taube)

dove, &c . Pheasants are easily acclimatized; See also:

• GROUSE

grouse and See also:

• WOODCOCK (O. Eng. wude-cocc, wudu-coc, and wudu-snite)

woodcock are indigenous on the uplands of the north; partridges, in all districts . See also:

• GAME

Game See also:

• LAWS

laws were instituted in 1898 . Innumerable aquatic birds haunt the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Save, Danube and Drina, and the lower reaches of the Timok and Morava; among them being pelicans, See also:

• CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. Gr. 'y pavor, Fr. grue)

cranes, See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey and See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white herons, and many other kinds of waders, besides wild geese, ducks, See also:

• RAIL

rail and See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe . Edible frogs, See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree-frogs, lizards, See also:

• SNAKES

snakes, tortoises and scorpions are found in all parts . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries are in the Danube and Save . Forests.—About one tenth of the land is covered by forests, which give See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, at an See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude of 5000 ft., to See also:

• LICHENS

lichens and mosses . Little care was bestowed on forestry in the 19th century, apart from See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government supervision of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national and communal domains, a task usually delegated to the See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor .

Much of the finest See also:

• TIMBER

timber was felled in the See also:

• WARS

wars of 1876-1878 and of 1885, and the rights of grazing and See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood-cutting also caused widespread destruction . The total See also:

• FOREST

forest area (See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official estimate, 1909) is about 3,800,000 acres, of which 1,625,000 belong to the communes and 1,375,000 to the state . Oaks and beeches predominate in the north; pines, often of gigantic See also:

• SIZE

size, among the fantastic,white or grey rocks of the wild south-western ridges . Agriculture.—Servian methods of farming remain in many respects See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive . Real progress was, however, achieved in the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period 1890-1910, chiefly owing to improvements in agricultural See also:

• EDUCATION

education . See also:

• INDIAN

Indian corn is the principal See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop, for corn-cake forms the See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• DIET

diet of the peasantry, while the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain is also used for feeding pigs, the heads for feeding See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and the stubble for manure . The normal yield exceeds 5,000,000 bushels yearly, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat coming next with a little less than 4,000,000 . See also:

• FLAX

Flax, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco are also grown; hemp especially near See also:

• LESKOVATS (LESKOVATZ or LESKOvAC)

Leskovats . The cultivation of - See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• BEET

beet, introduced in 1900, became an important industry, but the attempt to introduce See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton failed . The native tobacco plantations meet all the local demand, except for a small quantity of Turkish tobacco imported for the manufacture of See also:

• SPECIAL

special blends: The best Servian wines are those of Negotin and See also:

• SEMENDRIA (Smederevo)

Semendria . Before the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of See also:

• PHYLLOXERA (Gr. 4suXXov, leaf, and Erlpbs, dry)

Phylloxera in 1882 See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine was exported to See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, but in 1882-1895 thousands of acres of vines were destroyed . - Phylloxera was checked by the importation of See also:

• AMERICAN

American vines and the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of viticulture .

The creation of state See also:

• VINE

vine-nurseries, stocked with American See also:

• PLANTS

plants, was authorized by a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of 1908 . Orchards are very extensive, and all the fruits of central Europe will thrive in Servia . The chief care is bestowed on plums, from which is distilled a mild spirit known as raki or rakiya . The favourite See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of raki is shlivovitsa (the sliwowitz of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria), extracted solely from plums . There is a considerable See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in dried plums and See also:

• PLUM

plum See also:

• MARMALADE (adopted from Fr. marmelade, from marmelo, a quince, derived through the Lat. melimelum, from Gr. AiXt, honey, and ai Xov, an apple, an apple grafted on a quince)

marmalade . Bees are very generally kept, the See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey being consumed in the country, the See also:

• WAX

wax exs ported . Mulberries are grown on many farms for silkworms; sericulture is encouraged and taught by the state, and ovei See also:

• IOO

ioo,000 lb of cocoons are annually exported . Relatively to its See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, Servia possesses a greater number of See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep (31160,000 in 1905) and pigs (908,000 in 1905) than any country in Europe . Large herds of See also:

• SWINE

swine fatten, in summer and autumn, on the See also:

• BEECH

beech-See also:

• MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic languages, and ultimately connected with " meat")
• MAST (I) (O. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mast us comes Fr. malt)

mast and -acorns of the forests, returning in winter to the low-lands . The Servian See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig is pure white or See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, but other breeds, notably the See also:

• BERKSHIRE [abbreviated Berks, pronounced Berkshire]
• BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD, 1ST EARL OF (1587–1669)

Berkshire and See also:

• YORKSHIRE

Yorkshire, are kept . Despite American competition and Austro-Hungarian tariffs the export of swine remains the principal See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of Servian See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce: Cheeses are made from the See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk of both sheep and goats; but cattle are mostly bred for export or See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught purposes . The cumbrous wooden carts which afford the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole means of transport in many districts are generally See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by oxen, although buffaloes may be seen in the south .

The native horses, though strong, are, like the cattle, of small size . Land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

Tenure.—More than four-fifths of the Servians are See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant farmers; and the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of these cultivate the land be-longing to their own families . Holdings are generally small, not exceeding an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of 20 acres for each See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household; They cannot be sold or mortgaged entire; the law forbids the See also:

• ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another)

alienation for See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt of a peasant's cottage, his See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden or courtyard, his plough, his last six yutara i of land and the cattle necessary for working his See also:

• FARM

farm . Besides the small farms there is the zadruga, a See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of community which appears to date from prehistoric times, and mainly survives along the Bosnian frontier, though tending to disappear everywhere and to be replaced by rural co-operation . Under the zadruga See also:

• SYSTEM

system, each See also:

• HOMESTEAD

homestead or cluster of cottages is occupied by a See also:

• GROUP

group of families connected by See also:

• BLOOD

blood and dwelling together on strictly communistic principles . The association is ruled by a See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-See also:

• FATHER

father (domanyin or staryeshina) and a house-See also:

• MOTHER

mother (domanyitsa), who assign to the members their respective tasks . The staryeshina may be the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of the community, but is often chosen by the rest of the members on account of his prudence and ability; nor is his wife necessarily the domanyitsa . In addition to the farm See also:

• WORK

work, the members often practise various trades, the proceeds of which are paid into the common See also:

• TREASURY

treasury . The community sometimes includes a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, whose fees for See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism, &c., See also:

• AUGMENT (Lat. augere, to increase)

augment the common fund . The buildings belonging to the homesteads are enclosed within an immense palisade, inside which a large expanse of See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields is mostly planted with plum, damson, and other See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees, surrounding the houses of the occupiers . In the midst of these is the house of the staryeshina, which contains the common See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen, eating See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall, and See also:

• FAMILY

family hall of the entire homestead . Here all the members assemble in the evening for conversation and amusement, the See also:

• WOMEN

women See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning, while the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children See also:

• PLAY

play .

The houses are mostly very small wooden structures, serving for little else but sleeping places . But that of the staryeshina is often of See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick, and is invariably of better construction than the rest . The houses are often raised on piles, above the level of the floods which occur so frequently near the Save and Drina . Zadrugas were very prosperous, as they had always a sufficient number of hands at command, and their members combined to obtain implements and cattle . But with the establishment of See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order and See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security, the zadrugas began rapidly to disappear, a further cause of their See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution being the fact that members could legally acquire private See also:

• PROPERTY

property (osobina) . A new stimulus was given to agriculture by the encouragement which See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander personally extended to the establishment of rural co-operative associations on the See also:

• RAIFFEISEN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1818-1888)

Raiffeisen principles . The See also:

• OBJECT

object of these associations is principally to facilitate the acquisition of improved implements and better breeds of cattle . No fewer than too of such See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies were founded between 1894 and . 1899 . The total number of agricultural co-operative societies exceeded 500 in 1910; each has its tribunal (Conseil See also:

• DES

des Prud'honlmes), which arbitrates in disputes; and all together, with the state-aided Co-operative Caisse, which lends See also:

• MONEY

money to the smaller societies, form a single great organization known as the General See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union . Small holdings were in themselves a hindrance to Servian agricultural progress, inasmuch as small farmers cannot afford the cost of scientific farming; hence the great success of co-operation . As a rule, also, the lots of ground belonging to one household or family do not See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie together, but are dispersed in different, very often distant, parts of the village land .

To meet this difficulty, a See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer with more crops than he can reap unaided will summon his neighbours to his assistance, supplying them with See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, but no money, and binding himself to repay the service in kind . This form of voluntary co-operation is called moba . Another serious See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback to the economic position is that Servia has no seaboard, and that it is far from the nearest export harbours (e.g . See also:

• GALATZ (Galalii)

Galatz, See also:

• SALONICA, SALONIKA

Salonica, See also:

• FIUME (Slay. Rjeka, Rieka or Reka, Ger. St Veit am Flaum)

Fiume) . In such a situation the country is at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of hostile tariffs . Manufactures and Commerce.—The scarcity of labour prevents the growth of any great manufacturing See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries . There is no native See also:

• ARTISAN, or ARTIZAN

artisan class; for except in very rare cases, the people value their See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence too highly to work in factories, or even to enter domestic service . A large proportion of the artisans throughout Servia are Austro-Hungarians or See also:

• GIPSIES, or GYPSIES

gipsies . The chief manufacturing industries are those for which the country supplies raw material, notably See also:

• MEAT

meat-packing, See also:

• FLOUR

flour-milling, See also:

• BREWING

brewing, tanning, and the See also:

• WEAVING

weaving or spinning of hemp, flax and See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool . There are also iron-foundries, See also:

• POTTERIES, THE

potteries, and. sugar, tobacco and celluloid factories . A law of 1898 authorizes the government to See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant concessions on very favourable terms to See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign capitalists willing to promote mining and manufactures in Servia; but in Igro the number of large See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial establish- 1 One yutro is the area which two oxen can plough in a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day.ments in the kingdom did not exceed 6o, nor the number of hands employed 5000 . There are a few domestic industries, such as the manufacture of sandals (opanke), and of the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-See also:

• WOVEN

woven carpets and rugs made at See also:

• PIROT (Turkish Shehr-Kcey)

Pirot, which are popular throughout the Balkan Peninsula .

Commerce.—The following table shows the value of Servian imports and exports for five years: Cotton and woollen fabrics, See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt, sugar, iron and machinery are the principal imports, and come chiefly from Austria-Hungary, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . Large quantities of prunes, grain, meat, raw hides, eggs and copper are exported, chiefly to Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey . See also:

• FINANCE

Finance.—Up to 1878 the principal revenues were derived from the customs, See also:

• EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, excijs or accijs, possibly from Late Lat. accensare,—ad, to, and census, tax; the word owes something to a confusion with excisum, cut out)

excise and a sort of See also:

• POLL

poll-tax . The government required the See also:

• TOWN

town and village communities to pay into the state treasury £I, 4s. per See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the able-bodied citizens living in the community, and the municipal See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board made repartition of the total amount due to the government from its citizens according to their estimated See also:

• WEALTH

wealth or earnings . That system yielded without the slightest difficulty about £750,000 annually . But the Berlin Treaty (1878) stipulated that Servia should construct part of the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international railway to See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople and to Salonica, and should pay the Turkish landowners an See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity for the estates which had been taken from them and divided among their Servian tenants . This and the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of indemnifying the people from whom, during the wars with Turkey (1876-1878), requisitions had been taken and money borrowed, forced the government to enter the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial markets . Up to that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time (1881) Servia had practically no public foreign debt, although it owed See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia about £240,000 See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent privately for See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war preparations, and to its own people about £320,000 taken by a forced See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan for war purposes . The first public loans were made in 1881 by See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French banks at 711 for 5 % bonds, and the See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure had to be immediately increased to £1,240,000 . The introduction of new taxes and the reorganization of the financial See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the country could not keep See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with the increase of public expenditure, chiefly because the skupshtina was for some time reluctant to replace the old system of See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation by a more See also:

• MODERN

modern system . When in 1884 the new law of taxation was adopted, the situation became so serious that in 1895 a new See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme was adopted by which the government gave to the bondholders additional securities, the bondholders at the same time accepting the new 4% unified bonds in See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange for their old 5% bonds . The following table gives an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the national debt on the 1st of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1909: See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian debt of 1876 (5%) .

. . £150,000 . Lottery loan of 1881 (2 %) . . 989,000 Loan of the Uprava Fondova (5%) . 291,000 See also:

• PRIMARY

Primary loan of 1888 . . . 367,000 Unified loan of 1895 (4%T . • 13,516,000 Railway loan of 1899 (5 %) 192,000 See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

Monopoly loan of 1902 (5%) . 2,300,000 Loan of 1906 (41%) . 3,767,000 Total . . . £21,572,000 The chief See also:

• SOURCES

sources of revenue are customs duties, the state monopolies of salt, sugar, tobacco, matches and See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum; national property, e.g. forests, See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, postal service; direct taxes, of which the most important are the poll-tax and the land taxes (graduated according to the quality of the land): The heaviest charges are for the service of the national debt and for the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army; each of these items exceeded £t,000,000 in 1909 .

The estimated revenue and expenditure for five years are shown below: See also:

• YEAR

Year . Revenue . Expenditure . 1905 £3,522,000 £3,505,000 1906 3,595,000 3,566,000 1907 3,618,000 3,615,000 1908 3,832,000 3,830,000 1909 4,145,000 4,132,000 Banks and Money.—The National Bank of Servia, founded in Belgrade in 1883, has a nominal See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of £800,000 (£26o,00o paid) . The See also:

• MORTGAGE

Mortgage Bank (Uprava Fondova), founded in 1862, is a state institution which lends money for agricultural operations, &c . The Export Bank, founded in 1901, is a private bank under state super-