SHIP  , the generic name (O . Eng. scip, Ger . Schiff, Gr. o ca4os, from the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root skap, cf . "See also:

• SCOOP (from M. L. Ger. or M. Du. schope, cf. Du. schoep, a bailing vessel, Ger. schopfen, and, from M. Du. schoppe, Ger. Schuppe, shovel)

scoop ") for the invention by which See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man has contrived to convey himself and his goods upon See also:

• WATER

water . The derivation of the word points to the fundamental conception by which, when realized, a means of flotation was obtained See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the raft, which we may consider the earliest and most elementary See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel . The See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree hollowed out, whether by See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, or by such See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive tools as are fashioned and used with singular See also:

• PATIENCE

patience and dexterity by See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage races, represents the first effort to obtain flotation depending on some-thing other than the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere buoyancy of the material . The poets, with characteristic insight, have fastened upon these points . See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer's See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero Ulysses is instructed to make a raft with a raised See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform upon it, and selects trees " withered of old, exceeding dry, that might See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float 'lightly for him " (Od. v . 240) . See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil, glorifying the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early progress of the arts, tells us, " See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

Rivers then first the hollowed alders See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt " (Georg. i . 136, ii . 451) .

See also:

• ALDER

Alder is a heavy See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and not See also:

• FIT

fit for rafts . But to make for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time a dug-out See also:

• CANOE (from Carib. candoa, the West Indian name found in use by Columbus; the Fr. canot, boat, and Ger. Kahn, are derived from the Lat. canna, reed, vessel)

canoe of alder, and so to secure its flotation, would be a See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of primitive See also:

• ART

art, and thus the poet's expression represents a See also:

• GREAT

great step in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the invention of the ship . Primitive efforts in this direction may be classified in the following See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order: (i) rafts—floating logs, or bundles of See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush-wood or reeds or rushes tied together; (2) dug-outs—hollowed trees; (3) canoes of bark, or of skin stretched on framework or inflated skins (balsas); (4) canoes or boats of pieces of wood stitched or fastened together with sinews or thongs or See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres of See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable growth; (5) vessels of planks, stitched or bolted together with inserted ribs and decks or See also:

• HALF

half decks; (6) vessels of which the framework is first set up, and the planking of the See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

hull nailed on to them subsequently . All these in their primitive forms have survived, in various parts of the See also:

• WORLD

world, with different modifications marking progress in See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization . See also:

• CLIMATIC

Climatic influences and racial peculiarities have imparted to them their specific characteristics, and, combined with the available choice of materials, have determined the particular type in use in each locality . Thus on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia is found the single See also:

• LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin,possibly onomatopoeic; the New English Dictionary rejects the derivation from Norwegian lag, a fallen tree)

log of buoyant wood, not hollowed out but pointed at the ends . Rafts of reeds are also found on the Australian coast . In New See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea catamarans of three or more logs lashed together with rattan are the commonest vessel, and similar forms appear on the See also:

• MADRAS

Madras coast and throughout the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic islands . On the coast of See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru rafts made of a very buoyant wood are in use, some of them as much as 70 ft. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and 20 ft. broad; these are navigated with a See also:

• SAIL

sail, and, by an ingenious See also:

• SYSTEM

system of centre boards, let down either fore or aft between the lines of the timbers, can be made to tack . The See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-going raft is often fitted with a platform so as to protect the goods and persons carried from the See also:

• WASH, THE

wash of the sea . Upright timbers fixed upon the logs forming the raft support a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• DECK

deck, which in turn is itself fenced in and covered over ? Thus the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a deck, and that of See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side planking to raise the See also:

• FREIGHT, (pronounced like " weight "; derived from the Dutch vracht or vrecht, in Fr. fret, the Eng. " fraught " being the same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective= " laden ")

freight above the level of the water and to See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save it from getting wet, are among the earliest typical expedients which have found their development in the progress of the art of See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

shipbuilding ..

I . HISTORY TO THE INVENTION OF STEAMSHIPS Whether the observation of shells floating on the water, or of split reeds, or, as some have fancied, the See also:

• NAUTILUS

nautilus, first suggested the idea of hollowing out the trunk of a tree, the practice ascends to a very remote antiquity in the history of man . Dug-out canoes of a single tree have been found associated with See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age among the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Swiss See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake dwellings; nor are specimens of the same class wanting from the bogs of See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland and the estuaries of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, some obtained from the See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 25 ft. below the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the See also:

• SOIL

soil . The hollowed trunk itself may have suggested the use of the bark as a means of flotation . But, whatever may have been the origin of the bark canoe, its construction is a step onwards in the art of ship-See also:

• BUILDING

building . For the lightness and pliability of the material necessitated the invention of some See also:

• INTERNAL

internal framework, so as to keep the sides apart, and to give the stiffness required both for purposes of propulsion and the carrying of its freight . Similarly, in countries where suitable See also:

• TIMBER

timber was not to be-found, the use of skins or other water-tight material, such as felt or See also:

• CANVAS

canvas, covered with See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch, giving flotation, demanded also a framework to keep them distended and to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight they had to carry . In the framework we have the rudimentary ship, with See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal bottom timbers, and ribs, and See also:

• CROSS

cross-pieces, imparting the requisite stiffness to the covering material . Bark canoes are found in Australia, but the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent is their true See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home . In See also:

• NORTHERN

northern regions skin or See also:

• WOVEN

woven material made water-tight supplies the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of bark . The next step in the construction of vessels was the building up of canoes or boats by fastening pieces of wood together in a suitable form . Some of these canoes, and probably the earliest in type, are tied or stitched together with thongs or cords .

The Madras surf boats are perhaps the most See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar example of this type, which, however, is found in the Straits of See also:

• MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (in Sp. FERNANDO MAGALLANES, in Port. FERNAO DE MAGALHAES) (c. 1480-152I)

Magellan and in Central See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa (on the See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria See also:

• NYANZA (from the ancient Bantu root word anza, a river or lake)

Nyanza), in the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago and in many islands of the Pacific . Some of these canoes show a great advance in the art of construction, being , The raft of Ulysses described in Homer (Od. v.) must have been of this class.built up of pieces fitted together with ridges on their inner sides, through which the fastenings are passed.2 These canoes have the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity, which gives them ease in a seaway, and a See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity where See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary boats would not hold together . In these cases the See also:

• BODY

body of the canoe is constructed first and built to the shape intended, the ribs being inserted afterwards, and attached to the sides, and having for their See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• FUNCTION

function the uniting of the deck and cross-pieces with the body of the canoe . Vessels thus stitched together, and with an inserted framework, have from a very early time been constructed in the Eastern seas far exceeding in See also:

• SIZE

size anything that would be called a canoe, and in some cases attaining to 200 tons burthen . From the stitched form the next step onwards is to fasten the materials out of which the hull is built up by pegs or treenails; and of this system early types appear among the Polynesian islands and in the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile boats described by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus 96), the prototype of the See also:

• MODERN

modern " nuggur." The raft of Ulysses described by Homer presents the same detail of construction . It is remarkable that some of the early types of boats belonging to the North Sea See also:

• PRESENT

present an intermediate method, in which the planks are fastened together with pins or treenails, but are attached to the ribs by cords passing through holes in the ribs and corresponding holes bored through ledges cut on the inner side of each See also:

• PLANK

plank . We thus arrive, in tracing'primitive efforts in the art of ship construction, at a See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage from which the transition to the practice of setting up the framework of ribs fastened to a timber See also:

• KEEL

keel laid lengthwise, and subsequently attaching the planking of the hull, was comparatively See also:

• SIMPLE

simple . The keel of the modern vessel may be said to have its prototype in the single log which was the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent of the dug-out . The side planking of the vessel, which has an earlier parentage than the ribs, may be traced to the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to fence in the platforms upon the sea-going rafts, and to the planks fastened on to the sides of dugout canoes so as to give them a raised gunwale .3 The ribs of the modern vessel are the development of the framework originally inserted after the completion of the hull of the canoe or built-up See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat, but with the difference that they are now See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior in the order of fabrication . In a word, the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton of the hull is now first built up, and the skin, &c., adjusted to it; whereas in the earlier types of wooden vessels the outside hull was first constructed, and the ribs, &c., added afterwards .4 It is noticeable that the invention of the outrigger and See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather platform, the use of which is at the present time distributed from the Andaman Islands eastward throughout the whole of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Pacific, has never made its way into the Western seas . It is See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange that See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian enterprise, which seems at a very early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period to have penetrated eastward down the Red Sea and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the coasts of See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia towards See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, should not have brought it to the Nile, and that the Phoenicians, who, if the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of their See also:

• MIGRATION

migration from the shores of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Gulf to the coast of See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan be accepted, would in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability, in their maritime expeditions, have had opportunities of seeing it, did not introduce it to the Mediterranean . That they did not do so, if they saw it at all, would tend to prove that even in that remote antiquity both nations possessed the art of constructing vessels of a type superior to the outrigger canoes, both in See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed and in carrying See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power .

The earliest representations that we have as yet of Egyptian vessels carry us back, according to the best authorities, to a period little See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of 3000 years before See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ . Some of these are of considerable size, as is shown by the number of rowers, and by ,the See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo consisting in many cases of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle . The earliest of all presents us with the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic languages, and ultimately connected with " meat")
• MAST (I) (O. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mast us comes Fr. malt)

mast of two pieces, stepped apart but joined at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top . In some the masts are shown lowered 2 See See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

Cook's See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Friendly Islands, La Perouse on See also:

• EASTER

Easter See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, and See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams on the See also:

• FIJI
• FIJI (Viii)

Fiji Islands . 3 Compare the planks upon the Egyptian See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war galleys, added so as to protect the rowers from the missiles of the enemy . It is curious that these two methods should still survive, and be in use, in the construction of See also:

• LIGHT

light racing 8-oared boats . Some of these are built ribs first, and skin laid on afterwards; others, skin laid on moulds and framework first, and ribs inserted in' the See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell when turned over . and laid along a high spar-deck . The larger vessels show on one side as many as twenty-one or twenty-two and in one See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case twenty-six oars, besides four or five steering . , They show considerable See also:

• CAMBER (derived through the Fr. from Lat. camera, vault)

camber, the two ends rising in a curved See also:

• LINE

line which in some instances ends in a point, and in others is curved back and over at the stern and terminates in an ornamentation, very frequently of the familiar See also:

• LOTUS

lotus See also:

• PATTERN

pattern . At the See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem is sometimes seen to rise perpendicularly, forming a kind of forecastle, sometimes to See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve backward and then forward again like a See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck, which is often finished into a figure-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head representing some See also:

• BIRD

bird or beast or Egyptian See also:

• GOD

god . On the war galleys there is frequently shown a projecting bow with a See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal head attached, but well above the water .

This, though no doubt' used as a See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram, is not identical with the See also:

• BEAK (early forms beke and becke, from Fr. bec, late Lat. beccus, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic bec and beq, however, are taken from the English)

beak a fleur d'eau, which we shall meet with in Phoenician and See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek galleys . It is more on a level with the proembolion of the latter . The impression as regards the build created by the drawings of the larger galleys is that of a long and somewhat See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall-sided vessel with the stem and stern highly raised . The tendencies of the vessel to " hog," or rise amidships, owing to the great weight fore and aft unsupported by the water, is corrected by a strong See also:

• TRUSS (from O. Fr. trusser, trosser, torser, trousser, to pack, bind, gird up, Low Lat. tortiare, formed from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist; cf. " torch " and " trousers," also trousseau, a bride's outfit, literally a small pack or bundle)

truss passing from stern to stern over crutches . The See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double mast of the earlier period seems in time to have given place to the single mast furnished with bars or rollers at the upper See also:

• PART

part, for the purpose apparently of raising or lowering the yard according to the amount of sail required . The sail in some of the galleys is shown with a bottom as well as a top yard . In the war galleys during See also:

• ACTION

action it is shown rolled up like a See also:

• CURTAIN

curtain with loops to the upper yard . The steering was effected by paddles, sometimes four or five in number, but generally one or two fastened either at the end of the stern or at the side, and above attached to an upright See also:

• POST

post in such a way as to allow the See also:

• PADDLE

paddle to be worked by a tiller . There are many remarkable details to be observed in the Egyptian vessels figured in Duemichen's See also:

• FLEET

Fleet of an Egyptian See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen, and in See also:

• LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD (1810–1884)

Lepsius's Den/mailer . The Egyptian ship, as represented from time to time in the period between 3000 and See also:

• ROOD (O.E. rod, a stick, another form of " rod, O.E. rodd, possibly cognate with Lat. rudis, a staff)

rood B.C., presents to us a ship proper as distinct from a large canoe or boat . It is the earliest ship of which we have See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance . But there is a noticeable fact in connexion with See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt which we gather from the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb paintings to which we owe our knowledge of the Egyptian ship .

It is evident from these records that there were at that same early period, inhabiting the littoral of the Mediterranean, nations who were possessed of sea-going vessels which visited the coasts of Egypt for See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder as well as for See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, and that sea-fights were even then not uncommon . Occasionally the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of these peoples for the purpose of attack assumed serious proportions, and we find the Pharaohs recording See also:

• NAVAL

naval victories over combined Dardanians, Teucrians and Mysians, and, if we accept the explanations of Egyptologists, over See also:

• PELASGIANS

Pelasgians, Daunians, Oscans and Sicilians . The Greeks, as they became familiar with the sea, followed in the same track . The legend of See also:

• HELEN

Helen in Egypt, as well as the numerous references in the Odyssey, point not only to the attraction that Egypt had for the maritime peoples, but also to long-established habits of See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation and the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of an art of shipbuilding equal to the construction of sea-going See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft capable of carrying a large number of men and a considerable cargo besides . But the development of the ship and of the art of navigation clearly belongs to the Phoenicians . It is tantalizing to find that the earliest and almost the only See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that we have of this development is to be gathered from See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian representations . The Assyrians were an inland See also:

• PEOPLE

people, and the navigation with which they were familiar was that of the two great rivers, See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris and See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates . After the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia, they had knowledge of Phoenician naval enterprise, and accordingly we find the war See also:

• GALLEY (derived through the 0. Fr. galee, galie, from the Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port. gale, of uncertain origin; from the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr. galere, Span. and Ital. galera)

galley of the Phoenicians represented on the walls of the palaces unearthed by See also:

• LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY (1817-1894)

Layard and his followers in Assyrian See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery . But the date does not carry us to an earlier period than boo B.C . The vessel represented is a bireme war galley which is "aphract," that is to say, has the upper tier ofrowers unprotected and exposed to view . The apertures for the See also:

• LOWER

lower oars are of the same See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character as those which appear in Egyptian See also:

• SHIPS

ships of a much earlier date, but without oars . The artist has shown the characteristic details, though some-what conventionally .

The See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish-like snout of the beak, the line of the parodus or outside gangway, the wickerwork See also:

• CANCELLI (plural of Lat. cancellus, dim. of cancer, a crossing bar)

cancelli,' the See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

shields ranged in order along the side of the See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark, and ,the. heads of a typical See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew on deck (the rpwpeus looking out in front in the forecastle, an Erc%rr7s, two chiefs by the mast, and, aft, the KEAEU0T17S and KvjEpvi7T17s) . The supporting timbers of the deck are just indicated . The mast and yard and fore and back stays, with the double steering paddle, See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the picture . But, although there can be little doubt that the Phoenicians, after the Egyptians, led the way in the development of the shipwright's art, yet the See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information that we can gather concerning them is so meagre that we must go to other See also:

• SOURCES

sources for the description of the ancient ship . The Phoenicians at an early date constructed See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant vessels capable of carrying large cargoes, and of traversing the length and breadth of the Mediterranean, perhaps even of trading to the far See also:

• CASSITERIDES (from the Gr. Kavo-irepos, tin, i.e. " Tin-islands ")

Cassiterides and of circumnavigating Africa . They in all probability (if not the Egyptians) invented the bireme and trireme, solving the problem by which increased See also:

• OAR (A.S. kr; M. Eng. ore; Lat. remus; Gr. iperw5s : Sans. aritra; Fr. rame; Ital. Span., Port. Yana)

oar-power and consequently speed could be obtained without any great increase in the length of the vessel . It is, however, to the Greeks that we must turn for any detailed account of these inventions . The Homeric vessels were aphract and not even decked throughout their entire length . They carried crews averaging from fifty to a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred and twenty men, who, we are expressly told by See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides, all took part in the labour of See also:

• ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. perµbr, oar)

rowing, except perhaps the chiefs . The galleys do not appear to have been armed as yet with, the beak, though later poets attribute this feature to the Homeric vessel . But they had great poles used in fighting, and the See also:

• TERM

term employed to describe these (vauµaxa) implies a knowledge of naval warfare . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general characteristics are indicated by the epithets in use throughout the Iliad and the Odyssey .

The Homeric ship is See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp (See also:

• BOIL

Boil) and See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift ((.''eKema); it is hollow (KOt)r7, yXacvpi7, µeyaK? rr7s), See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, See also:

• VERMILION

vermilion-cheeked (µLATOrisp los), dark-prowed (Kvavorpcppos), curved (KOpwvis, aµ¢eEAu r ), well-timbered (Eiio r€Xµos), with many thwarts (iroXvj'vyos, EKar4vyos) . The stems and sterns are high, upraised, and resemble the horns of oxen (opeoKpalpac) . They present in the history of the See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping of the Mediterranean a type parallel with that of the Vikings' vessels of the North Sea . On the vases, the earliest of which may date between 700 and 600 B.C., we find the bireme with the bows finished off into a beak shaped as the head of some sea See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster, and an elevated forecastle with a bulwark evidently as a means of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence . The craft portrayed in some instances are evidently pirate vessels, and exhibit a striking contrast to the trader, the broad ship of See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden (4opris evpeia), which they are overhauling . The trireme, which was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed from the bireme and became the Greek ship of war (the long ship, vaiis µwcpa, navis longa, See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence), See also:

• DATES

dates, so far as Greek use is concerned, from about 700 B.C. according to Thucydides, having been first built at See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth . The earliest sea-fight that the same author knew of he places at a somewhat later date—664 Inc., more than ten centuries later than some of those portrayed in the Egyptian tomb paintings . The trireme was the war ship of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens during her See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime, and, though succeeded and in a measure superseded by the larger rates,--quadrireme, quinquereme, and so on, up to vessels of sixteen See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of oars (inhabilis grope magnitudinis),—yet, as containing in itself the principle of which the larger rates merely exhibited an expansion, a difference in degree and not in kind, has, ever since the revival of letters, concentrated upon itself the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the learned who were interested in such matters . The literature connected with the question of ancient ships, if collected, wo1''d fill a small library, and the greater part of it turns upon the construction of the trireme and the disposition of the rowers therein . 1 See See also:

• RAWLINSON, GEORGE (1812-1902)
• RAWLINSON, RICHARD (169o-1755)
• RAWLINSON, SIR HENRY CRESWICKE (1810—1895)
• RAWLINSON, SIR ROBERT (1810—1898)

Rawlinson, Ancient Monarchies, vol. ii. p . 176 . During the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century a fresh light was thrown upon the subject by the discovery (1834) at the See also:

• PEIRAEUS, or PIRAEUS (Gr. Hetpaceur)

Peiraeus of some records of the Athenian dockyard superintendents, belonging to several years between 373–324 B.C .

These were published and admirably elucidated by Boeckh . Further researches were carried out by his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil Dr Graser . Since the publication of Graser's notable See also:

• WORK

work, De re navali veterum, the subject has been copiously treated by A . Cartauld, Breusing, C . Torr and others . The references to ancient writers, and the illustrations from vases, coins, &c., have been multiplied, and, though the vexed question of the seating of the rowers cannot be regarded as settled, yet, notwithstanding some objections raised, it seems probable that something like Graser's See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution, with modifications, will eventually hold the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, especially as See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical experiment has shown the possibility of a set of men, seated very nearly according to his system, using their oars with effect, and without any inter- ference of one See also:

• BANK

bank with another . On one point it is necessary to insist, because upon it depends the right understanding of the problem . The ancients did not employ more than one man to an oar . The method employed on See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval galleys was See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien to the ancient system . A . Jai, See also:

• ADMIRAL

Admiral Fincati, Admiral Jurien de la Graviere and a See also:

• HOST

host of other writers on the subject, some as recently as 1906, have been led to See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate erroneous, if ingenious, solutions of the problem, by neglect of, and in See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction to, the testimony of ancient texts and representations, which overwhelmingly establish as an See also:

• AXIOM (Gr. &iwµa)

axiom of the ancient marine the principle of " one oar, one man." The distinction between "aphract " and " cataphract " vessels must not be overlooked in a description of the ancient vessels . The words, meaning " unfenced" and " fenced," refer to the bulwarks which covered the upper tier of rowers from attack .

In the aphract vessels these side plankings were absent and the upper tier of rowers was exposed to view from the side . Both classes of vessels had upper and lower decks, but the aphract class carried their decks on a lower level than the cataphract . The system of side planking with a view to the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the rowers dates from a very early period, as may be seen in some of the Egyptian representations, but among the Greeks it does not seem to have been adopted till long after the Homeric period . The Thasians are credited with the introduction of the improvement . In our account of the trireme, both as regards the disposition of the rowers and the construction of the vessel, we have mainly, though not entirely, followed Graser . Any such See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme must at the best be hypothetical, based upon inference from the ancient texts, or upon necessities of construction, and in every case plenty of See also:

• ROOM

room will be See also:

• LEFT

left for the critic, along with the Horatian invitation, " si quid novisti rectius istis, Candidus imperti." In the ancient vessels the See also:

• OBJECT

object of arranging the oars in banks was to economize See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal space, and to obtain an increase in the number of oars without having to lengthen the vessel . It has been reasonably inferred from a passage in See also:

• VITRUVIUS (MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO)

Vitruvius 1 that the " interscalmium," or space horizontally measured from oar to oar, was 2 cubits . This is exactly See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne out by the proportions of an See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic aphract trireme, as shown on a fragment of a bas-See also:

• RELIEF

relief found in the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis . The rowers in all classes of banked vessels sat in the same See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• PLANE

plane, and seats ascending in a line obliquely towards the stern of the vessel . Thus in a trireme the thranite, or oarsman of the highest bank, was nearest the stern of the set of three to which he belonged . Next behind him and somewhat below him sat his zygite, or oarsman of the second bank; and next below and behind the zygite sat the thalamite, or oarsman of the lowest bank . The vertical distance between these seats was probably 2 ft., the horizontal distance about t ft .

The horizontal distance, it is. well to repeat, between each seat in the same bank was 3 ft . (the seat itself about 9 in. broad) . Each man had a resting place for his feet, somewhat wide apart, fixed to the See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

bench of the man on the See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row next below and in front of him . In rowing, the upper See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, as is shown in most of the representations which remain, was held with the See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm turned inwards towards the body . This is accounted for by the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle at which the oar was worked . The lowest See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank used the shortest oars, and the difference of the length of the oars on See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board was caused by the curvature of the ship's side . Thus, looked at from within, the rowers amidship seemed to be using the longest oars, but outside the vessel, as we are expressly told, all the oar-See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades of the same bank took the water in the same longitudinal line . The lowest or thalamite oar-ports were 3 ft., the zygite 4; ft., the thranite 51 ft. above the water . Each oar-See also:

• PORT

port was protected by an ascoma or See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather bag, which fitted over the oar, closing the See also:

• APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open)

aperture against the wash of the sea without impeding the action of the oar . The oar was attached by a 1 In Vitruvius I, 2, 4 the See also:

• MSS

MSS. give DIPHECIACA (Or DIFECIACA), which is an unknown word . Many of the See also:

• EDITIONS

editions read AIIIHXAIKH, an emendation which commends itself as consonant with probability, though in itself conjectural . (We may suggest the See also:

• READING

reading AIHHXIAKA, by which the See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe's See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error would be reduced to EC for X.)thong (rpoa6s, porwr, p) to a thowl (,, aXp6s) .

The port-hole was probably See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval in shape (the Egyptian and Assyrian pictures show an oblong) . We know that it was large enough for a man's head to be thrust through it . The benches on which the rowers sat ran from the vessel's side to timbers, which, inclined at an angle of about 64° towards the ship's stern, reached from the lower to the upper deck . These timbers were, according to Graser, called the diaphragmata . In the trireme each diaphragma supported three, in the quinquereme five, in the octireme eight, and in the famous tesseraconteres See also:

• FORTY

forty seats of rowers, who all belonged to the same " complexus," though each to a different bank . In effect, when once the principle of construction had been established in the trireme, the increase to larger rates was effected, so far as the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive power was concerned, by lengthening the diaphragmata upwards, while the increase in the length of the vessel gave a greater number of rowers to each bank . The upper tiers of oarsmen exceeded in number those below, as the contraction of the sides of the vessel left less available space towards the bows . Of the length of the oars in the trireme we have an indication in the fact that the length of supernumerary oars (replsetp) rowed from the gangway above the thranites, and, therefore, probably slightly exceeding the thranitic oars in length, is given in the Attic tables as 14 ft . 3 in . The thranites were probably about 14 ft . The zygite, in proportion to the measurement, must have been See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

Pal, the thalamite 71 ft. long . Comparing modern oars with these, we find that the longest oars used in the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• NAVY

navy are 18 ft .

The university boat See also:

• RACE

race has been rowed with oars 12 ft . 6 in . The proportion of the See also:

• LOOM

loom inboard was about one third, but the oars of the rowers amidship must have been somewhat longer inboard . The size of the loom inboard preserved the necessary See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium . The long oars, of the larger rates were weighted inboard with See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead . Thus the topmost oars of the tesseraconteres, of which the length is given as 53 ft., were exactly balanced at the See also:

• ROWLOCK (pronounced rullock or rollock)

rowlock . (See OAR.) Let us now consider the construction of the vessel itself . In the cataphract class the lower deck was I ft. above the water-line . Below this deck was the hold, which contained a certain amount of See also:

• BALLAST (O. Swed. barlast, perhaps from bar, bare or mere, and last, load)

ballast, and through an aperture in this deck the buckets for baling were worked, entailing a labour which was See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant and severe on board an ancient ship at sea . The keel (r Oats) appears to have had considerable camber . Under it was a strong false keel ()Awopa), very necessary for vessels that were constantly See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up on the See also:

• SHORE

shore . Above the keel was the kelson, under which the ribs were fastened .

These were so arranged as to give the necessary intervals for the oar-ports above . Above the kelson See also:

• LAY

lay the upper false keel, into which the mast was stepped . The stem (ereipa) See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose from the keel at an angle of about 70 to the water . Within was an See also:

• APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of " a napron " into " an apron," from the Fr. naperon, napperon, a diminutive of nappe, Lat. mappa, a napkin)

apron (¢6Xitgs), which was a strong piece of timber curved and fitting to the end of the keel and beginning of the stern-post and firmly bolted into both, thus giving solidity to the bows, which had to bear the beak and sustain the See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock of ramming . The stem was carried upwards and curved generally backwards towards the forecastle and rising above it, and then curving forwards again terminated in an See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament which was called the acrostolion . The stern-post was carried up at a similar angle to the bow, and, rising high over the See also:

• POOP (Lat. puppis, stern)

poop, was curved round into an ornament which was called " aplustre ' (a . Xaarov) . But, inasmuch as the steering was effected by means of two rudders (rr~Saxta), one on either side, there was no need to carry out the stern into a See also:

• RUDDER (O.E. Rather, i.e. rower)

rudder post as with modern ships, and the stern was left, therefore, much more See also:

• FREE

free, an advantage in respect of the manceuvring of the ancient Greek man-of-war, the weapon being the beak or rostrum, and the power of turning quickly being of the highest importance . Behind the " aplustre," and curving backwards, was the "cheniscus " (xnvtrrcos), or See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose-head, symbolizing the floating See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the vessel . After the ribs had been set up and covered in on both sides with planking, the sides of the vessel were further strengthened by waling-pieces carried from stern to stem and See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting in front of the stern-post . These were further strengthened with additional balks of timber, the lower waling-pieces meeting about the water-level and prolonged into a sharp three-toothed See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur, of which the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle tooth was the longest . This was covered with hard metal (generally See also:

• BRONZE

bronze) and formed the beak .

The whole structure of the beak projected about to ft. beyond the stern-post . Above it, but projecting much less beyond the stern-post, was the " proembolion " (rpoep,36atov), or second beak, in which the prolongation of the upper set of waling-pieces met . This was generally fashioned into the figure of a ram's head, also covered with metal; and sometimes again between this and the beak the second line of waling-pieces met in another metal See also:

• BOSS