See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

SHOE (a word appearing in the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and See also:

• DAN

Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root ska or sku, See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover)  , a covering for the See also:

• FOOT

foot . The simplest foot-See also:

• PROTECTOR

protector is the See also:

• SANDAL (from the Latinized form of Gr. vavb4Atov or vav&aAov: this probably represents the Persian sandal, slipper; it is not to be referred to Gr. stasis, board)

sandal, which consists of a See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole attached to the foot, usually by See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather thongs . The use of this can be traced back to a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period; and the sandal of plaited grass, See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm fronds, leather or other material still continues to be the most See also:

• COMMON

common foot-covering among See also:

• ORIENTAL

oriental races . Where See also:

• CLIMATE

climate demanded greater See also:

• PROTECTION

protection for the foot, the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive races shaped a See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe out of a single piece of untanned hide; this was laced with a thong, and so made a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete covering . Out of these two elements—sole without upper and upper without sole—arose the perfected shoe and See also:

• BOOT

boot, consisting of a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of both . The boot proper differs from the shoe in reaching up to the See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee, as exemplified by such forms as See also:

• JACK

jack-boots, See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top-boots, See also:

• HESSIAN

Hessian boots and See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington boots, but the See also:

• TERM

term is in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England now commonly applied to " See also:

• HALF

half-boots " or " See also:

• ANKLE

ankle-boots " which reach only above the ankle . A collection illustrating the numerous forms and varieties of foot-covering, formed by Jules Jacquemart, is in the See also:

• CLUNY, or CLUGNY

Cluny Museum in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris . Wooden Shoes.—The simplest foot-covering, largely used through-out See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, is the wooden shoe (sabot) made from a single piece of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood roughly cut into shoe See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . Analogous to this is the clog of the midland counties of England . Clogs, known also as pattens, are wooden soles to which shoe or boot uppers are attached . Sole and See also:

• HEEL

heel are made of one piece from a See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block of See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple or ash 2 in. thick, and a little longer and broader than the desired See also:

• SIZE

size of shoe . The See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the sole and heel is fashioned with a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• CHISEL (from the O. Fr. cisel, modern ciseau, Late Lat. cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut)

chisel-edged See also:

• IMPLEMENT (Lat. implementum, a filling up, from implere, to fill)

implement, called the clogger's See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife or stock; a second implement, called the groover, makes a groove about one-eighth of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch deep and wide See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the side of the sole; and by means of a hollower the See also:

• CONTOUR

contour of the inner See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the sole is adapted to the shape of the foot .

The uppers of heavy leather, See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine sewed or riveted, are fitted closely to the groove around the sole, and a thin piece of leather-binding is nailed on all round the edges, the nails being placed very See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close, so as to give a See also:

• FIRM

firm durable fastening . These clogs are of See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage to all who See also:

• WORK

work in See also:

• DAMP

damp sloppy places, keeping the feet dry and comfortable in a manner impossible with either leather or See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

india-See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber . They are consequently largely used on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of Europe by agricultural and See also:

• FOREST

forest labourers, and in England and the See also:

• UNITED

United States by dyers, bleachers, tanners, workers in See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-factories, chemical See also:

• WORKS

works, See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision packing See also:

• WARE

ware-houses, &c . There is also a considerable demand for expensive clogs, with finely trimmed soles and See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy uppers, for use by clog-dancers on the See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage . • Manufacture of Leather Shoes.—There are two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main divisions of work comprised in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary shoemaking . The See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division—the making of " turn shoes "—embraces all work in which there is only one thin flexible sole, which is sewed to the upper while outside in and turned over when completed . Slippers and ladies' thin See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house boots are examples of this class of work . In the other division the upper is united to an insole and at least one outsole, with a raised heel . In this are comprised all classes, shapes and qualities of goods, from shoes up to long-top or See also:

• RIDING

riding boots which reach to the knee, with all their See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of lacing, buttoning, elastic-See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web side gussets, &c . The accompanying cuts (See also:

• FIGS

figs . 1 and 2) show the parts and See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade names of a boot . Shoemaking was formerly a pure handicraft; but now machinery effects almost every operation in the See also:

• ART

art .

On the factory See also:

• SYSTEM

system all human feet are treated alike; in the handicraft, the shoemaker deals with the individual foot, and he should produce a boot which for See also:

• FIT

fit, comfort, flexibility and strength cannot be approached by the product of machinery . The shoemaker after measuring the feet, cuts out upper leather according to the size and See also:

• PATTERN

pattern . These parts are fitted and stitched together by the " boot-closers," but little of this closing is now done by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand . The sole k " stuff " is next cut out and assembled, consisting of a pair of inner soles of i soft leather, a pair of outer soles ofthe last, leaving neither crease nor wrinkle, the form of the boot will be See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad . The welt, having one edge pared or chamfered, is put in position round the sides, up to the heel or " seat," and the maker proceeds to " inseam," by passing his See also:

• AWL (0. Eng. ael; at one time spelt nawl by a confusion with the indefinite article before it)

awl through the holes already made in the insole, catching with it the edge of the upper and the thin edge of the welt, and sewing all three together in one See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat seam, with a waxed See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread . He then pares off inequalities and " levels the bottoms," by filling up the depressed See also:

• PART

part in the centre with a piece of tarred See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt; and, that done, the boots are ready for the outsoles . After the leather for them has been thoroughly compressed by hammering on the " See also:

• LAP

lap-See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone," they are fastened through the insole with See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel tacks, their sides are pared, and a narrow channel is cut round their edges; and through this channel they are stitched to the welt, about twelve stitches of strong waxed thread being made to the inch . The soles are now hammered into shape; the heel lifts are put on and attached with wooden pegs, then sewed through the stitches of the insole; and the top-pieces, similar to the out-soles, are put on and nailed down to the lifts . The See also:

• FINISHING

finishing operations embrace pinning up the edge of the heel, paring, rasping, scraping, smoothing, blacking and burnishing the edges of soles and heels, scraping, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand-papering and burnishing the soles, withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning out any pegs which may have pierced through the inner sole . Of course, there are numerous minor operations connected with forwarding and finishing in various materials, such as punching See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace-holes, inserting eyelets, applying heel and toe irons, hob-nailing, &c . To make a pair of common stout lacing boots occupies an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert workman from fourteen to eighteen See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal difficulties to be overcome in applying machinery to shoemaking were encountered in the operation of fastening together the soles and uppers .

The first success in this important operation was effected when means other than sewing were devised . In 1809 See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David See also:

• MEADE, GEORGE GORDON (1815—1872)
• MEADE, WILLIAM (1789-1862)

Meade See also:

• RANDOLPH, EDMUND [JENNINGS] (1753–1813)
• RANDOLPH, JOHN (1773–1833)
• RANDOLPH, PEYTON (1721-1775)
• RANDOLPH, THOMAS (1523-1590)
• RANDOLPH, THOMAS (1605-1635)

Randolph obtained a patent for fastening the soles and heels to the inner soles by means of little nails, brads, sprigs or tacks . The lasts he used were covered at the bottom with plates of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal, and the nails, when driven through the inner soles, were turned and clinched by coming against the metal plates . To See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the soles to the lasts during the operation the metal plates were each perforated with three holes, in which wooden plugs were inserted, and to these the insoles were nailed . This invention may be said to have laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of machine boot-making . In 1810 M . I . See also:

• BRUNEL, ISAMBARD KINGDOM (1806-1859)
• BRUNEL, SIR MARC ISAMBARD (1769-1849)

Brunel patented a range of machinery for fastening soles to uppers by means of metallic pins or nails, and the use of screws and staples was patented by See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard Woodman in the same See also:

• YEAR

year . Apart from sewing by machine or hand, three principal methods of attaching soles to uppers have been used . The first is " pegging " with small wooden pins or pegs driven through outsole and insole, catching between them the edges of the upper . The points of the pegs which project through the insole are cut away and smoothed level with the leather either by hand or by a machine pegging rasp . The second is the system of " riveting or clinching " with See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron or See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass nails, the points of the nails being turned or clinched by coming in contact with the iron last used .

The third method, screwing, has come into extensive use since the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard screwing machine was introduced in See also:

• AMERICA

America by the McKay Sewing-Machine Association, of See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston, See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts, and in Europe by the See also:

• BLAKE, EDWARD (1833– )
• BLAKE, ROBERT (1599-1657)
• BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)

Blake and See also:

• GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800-186o)

Goodyear See also:

• COMPANY

Company, of See also:

• LONDON

London . The standard See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw machine, which is an See also:

• AMERICAN

American invention, though the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea was anticipated by a Frenchman named Blanchon in 1856, is provided with a See also:

• REEL (O.E. hreol, glossed by the Med. Lat. alibrum in .lelfric's Glossary, c. 1o5o; the word is of unknown origin; it does not appear in cognate languages, and Celtic forms such as Gaelic ruidhil are from English)

reel of stout screw-threaded brass See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire, which by the revolution of the reel is inserted into and screwed through outsole, upper edge and insole . Within the upper a See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head presses against the insole directly opposite the point of the screw, and the instant screw and head See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch the wire is cut level with the outsole . The screw, making its own hole, fits tightly in the leather, and the two soles, being both compressed and screwed firmly together, make a perfectly See also:

• WATER

water-tight and solid shoe . The See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the insole is quite level and even, and as the work is really screwed, the screws are steady in their position, and they add materially to the durability of the soles . The principal disadvantage in the use of standard screwed soles is the great difficulty met with in removing and levelling down the remains of an old sole when See also:

• REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again)

repairs are necessary . The various forms of sewing-machine by which uppers are closed, and their important modifications for uniting soles and uppers, are .also principally of American origin . But the first See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of machine sewing was an See also:

• ENGLISH

English idea . The patent secured by See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint in the English Patent See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office in 1790, while it fore-shadowed the most important features of the See also:

• MODERN

modern sewing-machine, indicated more particularly the devices now adopted in the sewing of leather . After the introduction of the sewing-machine for See also:

• CLOTH

cloth work its See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to stitching leather both with See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain II firmer texture, a pair of welts or bands FIG . 1.—Parts of a Boot. about i in. broad, of flexible leather, aa, The See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension. and lifts and top-pieces for the heels . a, The front .

These the " maker " mellows by steep- b, The side seam. See also:

• ING

ing in water . He attaches the insoles c, The back. to the bottom of a pair of wooden d, The strap. lasts, which are blocks the form and e, The instep. size of the boots to be made, fastens f, The vamp or front. the leather down with lasting tacks, g, The See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter or See also:

• COUNTER

counter. and, when it is dried, draws it out h, The See also:

• RAND

rand. with pincers till it takes the exact i, The heel—the front is form of the last bottom . Then he the See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast; the bottom " rounds the soles," by paring down the face. the edges close to the last, and forms j, The lifts of the heel. round these edges a small channel or k, The shank or See also:

• WAIST

waist. See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather cut about one-eighth of an inch 1, The welt. in the leather . Next he pierces the in- m, The sole. soles all rdund with a See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent awl, which bites into, but not through, the leather, laid comes out at the channel or feather . The boots are then lasted," by placing the uppers on the lasts, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing their edges tightly round the edge of the insoles, and fastening them in position with lasting tacks . Lasting is a See also:

• CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

crucial operation, for, unless the upper is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn smoothly and equally over See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 32 s B a, a, e, The upper . The insole . The outsole . The welt . The stitching of the sole to the welt . The stitching of the upper to the welt .

thread and with heated waxed thread was a comparatively See also:

• SIMPLE

simple task . The first important step in the more difficult problem of sewing together soles and uppers by a machine was taken in the United States by Lyman R . Blake in 1858 . Blake's machine was ultimately perfected as the McKay sole-sewing machine—one of the most successful and lucrative inventions of modern times . Blake secured his first English patent in 1859, his invention being thus described: " This machine is a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain-stitch sewing-machine . The hooked See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle works through a See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest or supporting surface of the upper part of a long curved See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm which projects upwards from the table of the machine . This arm should have such a form as to be capable of entering a shoe so as to carry the rest into the toe part as well as any other part of the interior of it; it carries at its front end and directly under the rest a looper, which is supported within the end of the arm so as to be capable of rotating or partially rotating round the needle, while the said needle may extend into and through the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of the looper, such eye being placed in the path of the needle . The thread is led from a bobbin by suitable guides along in the curved arm, thence through a tension See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring applied to the arm, and thence upwards through the notch of the looper . The needle See also:

• CARRIER
• CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1956-1794)

carrier extends upwards with a cylindrical block which can be turned round concentrically with it by means of a handle . The feed See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel by which the shoe is moved along the curved arm during the See also:

• PROCESS

process of sewing is supported by a slider extending downwards from the block, and applied thereto so as to be capable of sliding up and down therein . The shoe is placed on the arm with the sole upwards . The feed wheel is made to rest on the sole." Blake's See also:

• ORIGINAL

original machine was very imperfect and was incapable of sewing round the toe of a shoe; but a principal See also:

• INTEREST

interest in it coming into the hands of See also:

• GORDON
• GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833—1870)
• GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692—c. 1754)
• GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-'885)
• GORDON, LEON
• GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793)
• GORDON, PATRICK (1635–1699)
• GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788—1864)

Gordon McKay (1821-1903), he in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with Blake effected most important improvements in the mechanism, and they jointly in 186o procured United States See also:

• PATENTS

patents which secured to them the See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of wholly machine-made boots and shoes for twenty-one years .

On the outbreak of the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War in America a great demand arose for boots, and, there being simultaneously much labour withdrawn from the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market, a profitable See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field was opened for the use of the machine, which was now capable of sewing a sole right round . See also:

• MACHINES

Machines were leased out to manufacturers by the McKay Company at a See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty of from z to 3 cents on every pair of soles sewed, the machines themselves registering the work done . The income of the association from royalties in the United States alone increased from $38,746 in 1863 to $589,973 in 1873, and continued to rise till the main patents expired in 1881, when there were in use in the United States about 1800 Blake-McKay machines sewing 50,000,000 pairs of boots and shoes yearly . The monopoly secured by the McKay Company barred for the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the progress of invention, but still many other sole-sewing machines were patented . Among the most important of these is the Goodyear welt machine—the first mechanism adapted for sewing soles on lasted boots and shoes . This machine originated in a patent obtained in 1862 in the United States by See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August Destory for a curved-needle machine for sewing outsoles to welts, but was not successful till taken in hand by See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles Goodyear, son of the well-known inventor in indiarubber fabrics . This See also:

• DEVICE

device was first applied in a machine for sewing turn shoes . Later it was used in a machine which sewed with a chain-stitch from the channel of the insole through the welt and upper, and a little later still it was followed by the " rapid outsole See also:

• LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose ")
• LOCK, MATTHIAS

lock-stitch machine," which united the outsole to the welt with lock-stitching . Improvements have been continually effected in the Goodyear system and numerous See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory mechanisms have been brought out, until there is now not a single operation necessary in shoemaking, however insignificant, for which machinery has not been devised . In consequence the range of machines employed in a modern shoe factory is very extensive, the various operations being highly specialized, and there being See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute subdivision of labour . Through the fundamental principles were not in all cases of American origin, American inventors were foremost in developing such machinery, and America took the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead in employing it to the supersession of handwork in shoemaking . When English makers, in about the seventh or eighth See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, were forced by the pressure of economic See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity to do the same, they found that the suitable machinery was See also:

• CON

con-trolled by American makers, from whom therefore they had to hire it on the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of royalties and under stringent conditions which rendered it difficult for them to use machines of any other maker, even if available, on See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain of the whole plant being stripped from their factories .

The See also:

• BRITISH

British United Shoe Machinery Company, the English See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the United Shoe Machinery Company, of Boston, See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

Mass., thus maintained a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical monopoly of the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of shoemaking machinery in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain . However, by the beginning of the loth century English makers began to assert them-selves and to show that they could produce machines able to compete effectively with those from America . The loosening of the American monopoly thus begun was aided by the Patent See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of 1907, See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section 27 of which provided that a patent may be revoked if the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is not manufactured " to an adequate extent " in Great Britain (most of the shoe machinery in question having been manufactured in America), while• section 38 prohibits the insertion in a See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease of conditions excluding the lessee from using articles or processes not supplied or owned by the lessor . Rubber Shoes.—The manufacture of indiarubber galoshes,' shoes, fishing boots, &c., forms an important branch of the indiarubber See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, especially in America, where rubber overshoes, colloquially known as " rubbers," are extensively worn, and where fully moo different shapes and sizes are said to be produced . So far back as 1833 the See also:

• ROXBURY

Roxbury India Rubber Company was constituted to work the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that indiarubber dissolved in See also:

• TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. turbentine, adapted through the O. Fr. turbentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, resin of the terebinth, Gr. eepiOtvOos or eippavOos)

turpentine and mixed with lampblack formed a See also:

• VARNISH

varnish which gave a hard waterproof surface when applied to leather, but the process failed because the varnish melted with See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat and cracked with See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold . This defect was remedied by Charles Goodyear (1800-186o), who found that when See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur was combined with the rubber by the aid of heat the product (" vulcanized rubber ") was not only stronger but retained its See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity through a wide range of temperature . His patent, taken out in 1844, was the foundation of various American rubber See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries including that of rubber boots and shoes . Guttapercha has also been used instead of leather for the outer soles of boots . SHOE-See also:

• BILL

BILL, a huge See also:

• AFRICAN

African See also:

• BIRD

bird from the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile, the Balaeniceps rex of See also:

• ORNITHOLOGY

ornithology, now regarded as a See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

giant See also:

• HERON (Fr. heron; Ital. aghirone, airone; Lat. ardea; Gr. ipw&bs: A.-S. hragra; Icelandic, hegre; Swed. hager; Dan. heire; Ger. Heiger, Reiher, Heergans; Dutch, reiger)

heron . It was first brought to Europe by M . Parkyns and described by J . See also:

• GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (,8o5-1866)
• GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896)
• GOULD, JAY (1836-1892)
• GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHERS (1844- )

Gould in the Zoological Proceedings (1851, pp .

1, 2, pl. See also:

• XXXV

xxxv.) After J . See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

Wolf in Trans, Zool . See also:

• SOC

Soc . Shoe-Bill or See also:

• WHALE

Whale-headed Heron . as an abnormal See also:

• PELICAN (Fr. Pelican; Lat. Pelecanus or Pelicanus)

pelican . This view was disputed by Reinhardt (op. cit . 186o, p . 377), and wholly dispelled by W . K . See also:

• PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884)
• PARKER, JOSEPH (183o-1902)
• PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656)
• PARKER, MATTHEW (1504-1575)
• PARKER, SAMUEL (164o-1688)
• PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862— )
• PARKER, SIR HYDE, BART
• PARKER, THEODORE (1810-186o)

Parker in the Zoological Transactions (iv. pp . 269-351), though these two authors disagreed as to its See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities, the first placing it with the storks, the last assigning it to the herons . In singularity of aspect few birds surpass Balaeniceps, with its gaunt See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey figure, some 5 ft. in height, its large head surmounted by a little curled tuft, the scowling expression of its eyes and its huge bill in form ' The galosh or See also:

• GOLOSH, or GALOSH (from the Fr. galoche, Low Lat. calopedes, a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. icaXair6&ov, a diminutive formed of KaXov, wood, and ioi3s, foot)

golosh waS originally a wooden shoe or clog, but later came to mean an overshoe (cf .

R . Holme, Armoury, 1688: Galloshios are false shooes, or covers for shooes ") . The word is adapted from the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French galoche, from See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low See also:

• LAT

Lat. galopedium, a wooden shoe, Gr. rcaXoiroleov, shoemaker's last, from eaaov, wood, and relit, foot . not unlike a whale's head—this last suggesting its generic name—but tipped with a formidable See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook . The shape of the bill has also prompted the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it, according to their See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

idiom, the " See also:

• FATHER

father of a shoe . " It forms large flocks and frequents dense swamps . The See also:

• FLIGHT

flight is heron-like, and the birds See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle on trees . The See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food consists of any small animals or carrion . The See also:

• NEST

nest is a hole in dry ground, roughly limed with herbage, and from two to twelve chalky white eggs are laid . (A .