See also:

• SHORING (from " shore," a prop)

SHORING (from " See also:

• SHORE

shore," a prop)  , an operation connected with See also:

• BUILDING

building . It is often necessary before actual building is begun to support adjoining premises while the See also:

• WORK

work of excavating for underground apartments is being carried out . The See also:

• ART

art of See also:

• SHORING (from " shore," a prop)

shoring comprises the temporary support of buildings, and may become necessary because of the failure or See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of some portion of the structure or for the purpose of upholding the upper portion while alterations are being made in the See also:

• LOWER

lower . There are several different forms of shoring, each adapted to suit See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar circumstances . Much of the shoring for See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary cases is done with heavy, roughly sawn timbers strongly braced together, but for especially heavy work See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel members may be introduced and prove of See also:

• GREAT

great value . There is the trouble in connexion with their use, however, that connexions between steel members are not made with the same facility as between pieces of See also:

• TIMBER

timber . The See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• SHORE

shore in most See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use is that known as the raking shore . It consists of one or more timbers sloping from the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the structure to be supported and bedded upon the ground . As the ground is usually of a more or less yielding nature, a stout timber See also:

• PLATE

plate termed a See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole-piece, of sufficient See also:

• AREA

area to withstand being driven into the See also:

• SOIL

soil, is placed to receive the See also:

• BASE

base of the raking timber or timbers . A See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall-plate, with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of increasing the area of support, is fixed to the face of the wall by means of hooks driven into the wall . Where space is available an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of 6o° is the best to adopt for the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main shore, the See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary members ranging in their slope from 450 to 75° . In many cases, especially in towns, the angle of slope is governed by outside influences such as the width of the footway .

Rakingshores are erected in " systems " of two or more members placed in the same See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• PLANE

plane at right angles to the face of the wall . The different members rise fanwise from the sole-plate to support the wall at different points . The distance horizontally between the systems depends on the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the building being propped up, and also upon the spacing of its window and other openings . The usual spacing is Io ft. or 15 ft.• apart, but this distance has often to be varied ccording to the positions of the openings in the wall . The application of the shores should be carefully made and support given only where there is a corresponding thrust inside, such as from a See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor or roof, as without this the shore is liable to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act more as a destructive See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent than a supporting one, and cause the wall to See also:

• CAVE (Lat. cavea, from caves, hollow)
• CAVE, EDWARD (1691–1754)
• CAVE, WILLIAM (1637–1713)

cave in at that point, or placed against a See also:

• PARAPET (Ital. parapetto, Fr. parapet, from para, imperative of Ital. porare, to cover, defend, and petto, breast, Lat. pectus; the German word is Brustwehr)

parapet wall it might have the effect of pushing it over . The members, therefore, should be so placed as to meet the wall at a point somewhat below the floor or roof, so that if their length were continue 1 they would meet and support the end of the floor or roof inside . Perhaps the best See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the positions and functions of the various component parts of a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of raking shores can be obtained from a description of the various members, coupled with some little study of the illustrations (fig . I) . The names of the different timbers are therefore set out here, and against each See also:

• PART

part is given a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short description of its use and position . Raking Shore, or Raker.—This is a piece of timber sloping up from the sole-plate to the wall-piece . For a detail See also:

• DRAWING

drawing of the connexion between the raker and wall-plate see fig . 2 .

The See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top and longest shore is often formed in two pieces, in which form it can be more conveniently handled . The upper piece is termed the See also:

• RIDING

riding shore or rider, and the lower member which supports it is known as the back shore . At the junction of the rider and back shore a pair of folding wedges is introduced and driven in to give the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the rider a See also:

• FIRM

firm bearing against the See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle and wall-plate above . The sole-piece has already been mentioned as the timber base upon which the shores take their See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed or bearing . It usually consists of a piece of 11 by 3 See also:

• PLANK

plank, but when the ground is soft or the load supported very great it should be bedded on a See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform of timber to spread the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight over a large area . The sole should be placed sloping down towards the building at something less than a right angle (say 8o°) with the inside of the shore to enable the latter to be gradually wall ukz levered to a firm bearing with the aid of a pr•"iilj~l,\\~ 9,er crowbar . Wedging should not be resorted to or the already shaky building may sustain further injury through the vibration . When in position the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the shore is fixed by See also:

• DOG

dog-irons to the sole- =pia piece, and for additional See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security a See also:

• CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, in the sense of a wedge or lump, cf. " clod " and " clot ")

cleat 1s spiked on the sole tight up to the shore to prevent any slipping . Braces.—W See also:

• HEN

hen more than one shore takes a bearing upon the sole-piece the feet of the several members are stiffened and braced. either by having rough boarding nailed right across them or by being See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound together with a number of rounds of hoop-See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron . For further strength also braces of 1-in. boards, 6 to 9 in. wide, are taken across from the wall-plate to the topmost shore and spiked to each intervening member, binding the whole together . These braces should be fixed a little below the junctions of the heads of the shores with the wall-plate . The wall-plate has already been referred to .

It is usually a See also:

• DEAL

deal 9 in. wide by 3 in. thick, secured tightly against the face of the wall with wrought-iron wall hooks, forming a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• ABUTMENT

abutment for the shores and serving to spread the support FIo . I . afforded by them . Holes are cut through this plate to receive the needles (or joggles as they are sometimes termed to distinguish them from the needles used in dead shoring, which are large See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal members usually of balk timber), which are pieces of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood about t ft. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and 4 in. square in See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, cut with a See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder to See also:

• BUTT
• BUTT, ISAAC (1813-1879)

butt against the wall-plate . A portion of a See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick or See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone is removed from the wall and the end of the needle is passed through the rectangular hole in the wall-plate and fitted into the See also:

• RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw)

recess in the wall . Fm . 4 . The head of the needle projects about 41 in. beyond the face of the wall-plate and forms an abutment for the head of the shore . The head of the shore is notched to See also:

• FIT

fit the underside of the needle to prevent any See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement sideways . If this is not done the shore is liable to be acted upon by the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind and be blown down . A small See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block of wood, cut somewhat after the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of a See also:

• WEDGE (O. Eng. wecg, a mass of metal, cognate with Dutch wig, wigge, Dan. vaegge, &c.; in Lith. the cognate form outside Teut. is found in wagis, a peg, spigot; there is no connexion with " weigh," " weight," which must be referred to the root wegh, to li

wedge and termed a cleat, is fixed above the needle to keep the latter quite firm . Cleats are used also in other positions to keep timbers in position .

Wedges are used to obtain a tight bearing for the rider shores and are used at their base . As little force as possible must be em- ployed in See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving them as a.a vibration is liable to injure the already weakened wall . Horizontal shores, or flying shores as they are more often termed by the workman, may be employed for spans up to about 35 ft . They are used to support the party walls of the houses adjoining the premises being rebuilt . They are erected during the pulling down operations and removed as the new building is raised and there is no further need for them . A system of flying shores consists of one or more horizontal timbers, sometimes known as dog shores, cut in tightly between the wall-plates fixed with hooks to the faces of the walls of the ad-joining buildings (fig . 3) . These horizontal members are supported at each end by cleats and needles fixed in the wall-plate as described for raking shoring . The shores are supported in their length by inclined braces springing from needles fixed near the lower ends of the wall-plates and serving to strut the shore at a point about a third of its length from the wall . Corresponding braces are carried from the upper See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the shore and abut against needles at the upper ends of the plates . Straining pieces are secured to the upper and lower faces of the shore to serve as abutments for the ends of the braces . The best angle for these braces is one of 45 °, but a smaller inclination than this is frequently adopted .

Wedges are inserted, usually at the end of the flyer so as to tighten this up between the wall-plates, and sometimes between the braces and the straining piece, and carefully driven to tighten up the whole and cause each timber to find a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close bearing . If the adjoining premises are of considerable height and especially if it is proposed to undertake extensive excavations, the systems of flying shores may need to be somewhat complicated, each consisting of several horizontal members spaced from to to 13 ft. apart and well strutted one to another and to the wall-plate (fig . 4) . In the application of this form of shoring, as in raking shores, the same rules apply as regards placing the shores on the face of the wall in a proper position to obtain a solid abutment on a floor or roof on the other See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . The members should be securely dogged and spiked together to form a homogeneous See also:

• FRAME

frame-work capable of resisting the attacks of a strong wind, which in an exposed position will sometimes destroy a poorly constructed framework . Horizontal shores should be adopted wherever possible in preference to raking shores . Besides being more economical, they are more convenient and more effectual than rakers springing from the ground, especially if the height of the building is considerable and the span at the most not much over 30 ft . Apart from the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy effected, they See also:

• PRESENT

present a See also:

• DIRECT

direct resistance to the thrust and are well out of the way of any building operations that may be carried on below them, so that there is no See also:

• RISK

risk of their being accidentally disturbed, whereas the feet of raking shores are generally in the way of the workmen, and if not disturbed by accidental blows from materials or carts will very likely be loosened and rendered useless by the digging and pumping which is going on around them . Needle shoring is the next method of temporary support to come under See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration . It is known also as vertical shoring and dead shoring, and is the means usually adopted to support temporarily Fm . 5 . Y[RTICAL IIORING See also:

• ELEVATION

ELEVATION the upper portion of the walls of a building when it is found necessary to reconstruct the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations or to make large openings in the lower parts of the wall, as, for example, when putting a See also:

• SHOP

shop front in an existing building .

- This form of shoring consists of horizontal members of balk timber termed needles (very different from the needles used in raking and flying shoring), which are passed through holes in the wall to be supported, at a sufficient height to allow of the insertion of any See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch or lintels that may be necessary above the opening it is proposed to cut (See also:

• FIGS

figs . 5 and 6) . The needles are sup-ported at each end by an upright timber or dead shore, one on each side of the wall to each needle . These should not be allowed to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest upon any floor or vault but be carried down to a solid See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation and set upon and securely dogged to ;a timber See also:

• SLEEPER

sleeper See also:

• RUNNING

running parallel to the wall . If it is not practicable to take the inner dead shore through intervening floors down to the solid ground in one piece, and it is necessary for its base to be set upon the floor or upon sleepers placed on the floor, the strutting must be continued in a direct See also:

• LINE

line below it until a firm foundation is obtained . Between the needle and the head of the dead shores folding wedges are inserted to force the horizontal supporting balk firmly up to the underside of the See also:

• MASONRY

masonry . Connexions between the dead shores and t he needles and sleepers are made with wrought iron See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs . The spacing of the systems of dead shoring depends to a large extent upon the material with which the wall is constructed; for See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork they should be placed at intervals not greater than 6 ft . With this form of shoring especially it is often found necessary to adopt other methods auxiliary to the main shoring . These take the form of raking or flying shores from the face of the building . All the openings in the wall above should be well strutted between their reveals to prevent any alteration of shape taking See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . Inside the building vertical shores or strutting must be carried up independently in a direct line between the floors with head and sole plates at floor level and See also:

• CEILING (from a verb " to ceil," i.e. to line or cover; of disputed etymology, but apparently connected with Fr. ciel, Lat. caelum, sky)

ceiling .

This strutting must start from a firm foundation at the bottom of the building and be tightly wedged up so as to relieve the wall of any weight from the floors and roof . To obviate settlement as much as possible, work done in underpinning should be built slowly with See also:

• PORTLAND
• PORTLAND, EARL OF
• PORTLAND, ISLE OF
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM BENTINCK, EARL
• PORTLAND, WILLIAM HENRY CAVENDISH BENTINCK

Portland See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement See also:

• MORTAR

mortar mixed in strong proportions . Before the shoring is removed at least a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week should elapse to allow the work to set hard and firm . Then the needles should be carefully loosened and :removed and the holes from which they were withdrawn made good . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the props can then be " struck," leaving the raking or flying shores until the last . If possible this work should be spread over several days, an See also:

• INTERVAL

interval of a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day or two being See also:

• LEFT

left between the removal of each portion of timbering to allow the work gradually to set on its new See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings . Shoring should be the subject of careful calculations to ascertain the most suitable sizes of timbers and to determine the most appropriate points of support . This is not always done, however, and much work of this See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character is carried out by See also:

• RULE

rule of thumb methods . The usual result is that the timber used is of a much greater See also:

• SIZE

size than is really necessary, although as the material is not much injured and is available on removal for re-use this fact is not ofgreat consequence . Such methods perhaps work very well for ordinary buildings, but in See also:

• SPECIAL

special cases they may very well See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to shoring being constructed in too fragile a manner, with serious results . Some rules which experience has shown to work satisfactorily for ordinary work are given below, together with the approximate scantlings of the timber required . Rules and Sizes for Raking Shores.—Walls 15 ft. to 30 ft. high should have 2 shores to each system; if 30 ft. to 40 ft. in height, 3 shores each system; if 40 ft. or more in height, 4 shores, with an additional shore for each io ft. in-crease .

Shoring is rarely seen more than 5 shores high . The angle of the main shores is usually about 60°, and none of the timbers should exceed an angle of 75°• Some of the lower shores will slope much less than this, at angles between 40°and 6o° . The systems should not be placed at a greater distance apart than 15 ft . It is often found convenient to place them at the piers between window openings . As regards the sizes of the timbers used for walls 15 ft. to 20 ft. high, the shores may be 4 in. or 5 in. square in section; for walls 20 ft. to 30 ft. high, 6 in. by 6 in., or 9 in. by 44 in.; for walls 30 ft. to 35 ft. high, 12 in. by 6 in., or 8 in. by 8 in.; for walls 40 ft. to 50 ft. high, 9 in. by 9 in.; for walls above this height 12 in. by 9 in . For Horizontal or Flying Shores.—For spans not exceeding 15 ft. the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal strut may be 6 in. by 4 in., with raking struts 4 in. by 4 in.; for spans exceeding 15 ft. but not exceeding 35 ft. the size of the principal strut should be from 6 in. to 9 in. square, and the raking struts from 6 in. by 4 in. to 9 in. by 6 in . Interesting examples of shoring on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale may frequently From a photograph by 'W . T . See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

Green . be seen applied to large buildings in the course of repair or restoration . The rebuilding of the foundations of the retro-See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir and See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel of See also:

• WINCHESTER
• WINCHESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Winchester See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral which was carried out in the autumn From a photograph by W . T .

Green . of 1906 necessitated the erection of a very elaborate and complicated " Gathering the See also:

• FLOCK

Flock on See also:

• MAXWELL
• MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK (1831–1879)

Maxwell See also:

• BANK

Bank," a soft-ground See also:

• ETCHING (Dutch, etsen, to eat)

etching; " The See also:

• FERRY (from the same root as that of the verb " to fare," to journey or travel, common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. fahren; it is connected with the root of Gr. 7ropos, way, and Lat. portage, to carry)
• FERRY, JULES FRANCOIS CAMILLE (1832—1893)

Ferry over the See also:

• BLYTH

Blyth," " Walberswick See also:

• PIER (older forms per or Pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word for piers out of water. For river piers, where a firm, watertight is of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. Pierre, Lat. stratum is found at a moderate depth below the river-bed, the pctr

Pier," soft-ground; " Dutch Greengrocery," " See also:

• NOON

Noon on the Zuider Zee," " De-venter," " Strolling Players at Lydd," " An See also:

• APRIL

April Day in See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent," and " Staithes," all etchings; " A Wintry Blast on the See also:

• STOUR

Stour-See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

Canal," " Peveril's See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

Castle," and " See also:

• NIAGARA
• NIAGARA, FORT

Niagara Falls," dry points; " The See also:

• CURFEW, CURFEU

Curfew," " A Span of old See also:

• BATTERSEA

Battersea Bridge," and " Sunrise on See also:

• WHITBY

Whitby Scaur," aquatints; " Ebbtide, Putney Bridge," The Weary See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

Moon was in the Wane," " Solway Fishers," " The Lifting See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

Cloud," and " A Slant of See also:

• LIGHT

Light in Poiperro See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

Harbour," mezzotints . Short was elected A.R.A. in 1906 when the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate-engraver was revived . As head of the See also:

• ENGRAVING

Engraving School at the Royal See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Art, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• KENSINGTON

Kensington, he had great See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on younger engravers . Short was elected to the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers in 1885, and took a prominent part in conducting its affairs . In 1910 he succeeded See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• SEYMOUR
• SEYMOUR, HORATIO (1810-1886)
• SEYMOUR, or ST MAUR
• SEYMOUR, THOMAS

Seymour See also:

• HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910)

Haden as See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president . He received, amongst other distinctions, the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold See also:

• MEDAL (Fr. medaille, from Lat. metallum)

medal for engraving at the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International See also:

• EXHIBITION

Exhibition, 1889, and another gold medal (Rappel) 1900 . The Etched and Engraved Work of See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank Short, by See also:

• EDWARD

Edward F . See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

Strange (1908), describes 285 plates, by the artist . (C . H.*) SHORTHAND, a See also:

• TERM

term applied to all 'systems of brief See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing which are intended to enable a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person to write legibly at the See also:

• RATE

rate of speech . Synonyms in See also:

• COMMON

common use are See also:

• STENOGRAPHY (from Gr. arev6c, close, narrow, and ypageuv, to write)

stenography (from vTEVOS, narrow or close), and tachygraphy (from Taxbs, See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift), or occasionally brachygraphy (from (3paxus, short) .

See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Tachygraphy.—The question of the existence among the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Greeks of a system of true tachygraphy, that is, of a shorthand capable of keeping See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with human speech, has not yet been solved . From surviving records we know that there were, both in the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. and in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early centuries of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, as well as in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, systems in practice whereby words could be expressed in shortened form by signs or See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of signs occupying less space than the ordinary method of longhand writing . But such systems appear to have been systems of brachygraphy or stenography, that is, of shortened writing, which were not necessarily also systems of tachygraphy properly so called . If, however, as there is some See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe, the Roman system of tachygraphy, as exhibited in the Tironian notes (see below) was derived from a Greek system, it may fairly be inferred that the latter system was also a See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed system of tachygraphy . But, be that as it may, no very early specimens of Greek shorthand have hitherto come to light; and the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the decipherment of the See also:

• STENO, NICOLAUS (1631-1686)

steno-graphic See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions in the waxen See also:

• BOOK

book of the 3rd century in the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum (see below) still remains to be discovered . We are therefore in the dark whether we have in this MS. an example of true tachygraphic writing . Here it may be noticed that 'certain words of See also:

• DIOGENES

Diogenes Laertius have been taken to imply that See also:

• XENOPHON

Xenophon wrote shorthand notes (ulrovrtµetwa6yevos) of the lectures of See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates; yet a similar expression in another passage, which will not See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear this meaning, renders it hardly possible that tachygraphy is referred to . The surviving records of Greek shorthand are not very numerous, although they are scattered through a long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, beginning with the 4th century B.C. and extending to the 14th century . They have been arranged in three groups . At the head of the first See also:

• GROUP

group, which embraces all that has been found dating down to the 3rd century, is a remarkable inscription, unfortunately fragmentary, on a See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble slab discovered'on the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens in 1884, which is attributed to the 4th century n.c.; and it is on this See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery that the actual claim of tachygraphy to have been practised among the ancient Greeks chiefly rests . The inscription describes a system, or rather part of a system, whereby certain vowels and consonants can be expressed by strokes placed in various positions . But here, too, it has been urged that we have the explanation of a system of brachygraphy only, and not one of tachygraphy .

To the first group also belong a few specimens of shorthand writing on papyri of the and and 3rd centuries, and, above all, the most important MS. of Greek stenographic symbols hitherto discovered . This is the waxen book already referred to (Brit . See also:

• MUS

Mus., Add . MS . 33,270), consisting of seven wooden tablets coated with See also:

• WAX

wax on both sides, and two covers thus coated on the inner sides, which seems to have been the exercise-book of a shorthand See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar who has covered its pages with symbols, which in places are repeated again and again as if for practice . arrangement of shoring to uphold the masonry while the work of underpinning the walls was being carried on . The foundations of the eastern portion of the cathedral were found to be dangerously insecure, being in fact laid upon a bed of soft See also:

• MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

marl only io ft. below the surface of the ground, in spite of the fact that at a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 16 ft. a hard solid stratum of See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel, at least 6 ft. thick, is arrived at . The See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval builders without doubt entertained suspicions as to the sustaining See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of their proposed foundation, and so to ensure stability, as they thought, strengthened it by placing below the masonry horizontal layers of See also:

• BEECH

beech trees, filling up the interstices with hard See also:

• CHALK

chalk and flints . These contrivances were not sufficient to prevent the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual sinking, through succeeding centuries, of the heavy See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of masonry . This not only affected the footings of the building, but caused fissures of an alarming nature in the vaulting and walls . Under the direction of Mr T . G .

See also:

• JACKSON
• JACKSON, ANDREW (1767-1845)
• JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819)
• JACKSON, FREDERICK GEORGE (186o– )
• JACKSON, HELEN MARIA (1831–1885)
• JACKSON, MASON (c. 1820-1903)
• JACKSON, THOMAS (1579-1640)
• JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863)
• JACKSON, WILLIAM (1730-1803)

Jackson a carefully designed arrangement of shoring was applied, consisting of raking shores, flying shores and needling, for the purpose of the under-pinning, with specially designed timbering to support the See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches and vaulting while they were undergoing repair . The foundations were found to be much undermined by See also:

• WATER

water, which filled the excavations made for the underpinning in such quantities that it was necessary to employ a See also:

• DIVER

diver to See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit cement See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete in bagfuls upon the gravel bed to which the new foundations are taken down . The See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration (fig . 7) will readily explain the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external shoring above described, while fig . 8 shows the interior shoring of the See also:

• PRESBYTERY

presbytery .