See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)  , an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of the Indo-See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula or Further See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . It lies between 4° 20' and 20° 15' N. and between 96° 30' and ro6° E., and is bounded N. by the See also:

• BRITISH

British Shan States and by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• LAOS

Laos See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, E. by the French Laos country and by See also:

• CAMBODIA

Cambodia, S. by Cambodia and by the Gulf of See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam, and W. by the See also:

• TENASSERIM

Tenasserim and See also:

• PEGU

Pegu divisions of See also:

• BURMA

Burma . A See also:

• PART

part of Siam which extends down the See also:

• MALAY

Malay Peninsula is bounded E. by the Gulf of Siam and by the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• CHINA

China See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, S. by British Malaya and W. by the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal . The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area is about 220,000 sq. m . (For See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map, see Irmo-CHINA.) The country may be best considered geographically in four parts: the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern, including the drainage area of the four See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers which unite near Pak-Nam Po to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• MENAM, or ME

Menam Chao Phaya; the eastern, including the drainage area of the Nam See also:

• MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841— )
• MUN, THOMAS (1571–1641)

Mun See also:

• RIVER

river and its tributaries; the central, including the drainage area of the Meklong, the Menam Chao Phaya and the See also:

• BANG, HERMANN JOACHIM (1858– )

Bang Pakong rivers; and the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern, including that part of the country which is situated in the Malay Peninsula . Northern Siam is about 6o,000 sq. m. in area . In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance it is a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of parallel ranges of hills, lying N. and S., merely gently sloping acclivities in the S., but rising into precipitous See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain masses in the N . Between these ranges flow the rivers Meping, Mewang, Meyom and Menam, turbulent shallow streams in their upper reaches, but slow-moving and deep where they near the points of junction . The longest of them is over 250 M. from its source to its mouth . The Meping and Mewang on the W., rising among the loftiest ranges, are rapid and navigable only for small boats, while the Meyom and Menam, the eastern pair, afford passage for large boats at all seasons and for deep See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught riversteamers during the See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood-See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . The Menam is the largest, deepest and most sluggish of the four, and in many ways resembles its continuation, the Menam Chao-Phaya lower down . On the W. the river See also:

• SALWEEN

Salween and its tributary the Thoung Yin form the frontier between the Siam and Burma for some distance, draining a part of northern Siam, while in the far See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, for a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles below Chieng Sen, the See also:

• MEKONG, or ME NAM KONG (pronounced Kawng)

Mekong does the same .

The districts watered by the lower reaches of the four rivers are fertile and are inhabited by a considerable See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Siamese . Farther north the country is peopled by Laos, scattered in villages along all the river See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, and by numerous communities of Shan, See also:

• KAREN

Karen, Kamoo and other tribes living in the uplands and on the hilltops . Eastern Siam, some 70,000 sq. m. in area, is encircled by well-defined boundaries, the See also:

• GREAT

great river Mekong dividing it clearly from French Laos on the N. and E., the Pnom Dang Rek See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill range from Cambodia on the S. and the Dom Pia Fai range from central Siam on the W . The right See also:

• BANK

bank of the Mekong being closely flanked by an almost continuous hill range, the whole of this part of Siam is practically a huge See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin, the bottom of which is a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain lying from 200 to 300 ft. above sea-level, and the sides hill ranges of between r000 and 2000 ft. See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation . The plain is for the most part sandy and almost barren, subject to heavy floods in the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, and to severe drought in the dry See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . The hills are clothed with a thin shadeless growth of stunted See also:

• FOREST

forest, which only here and there assumes the characteristics of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle . The river Nam Mun, which is perhaps 200 M. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, has a large number of tributaries, See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of which is the Nam Si . The river flows eastward and falls into the Mekong at 15° 20' N. and 1os° 40' E . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good way farther north two small rivers, the Nam See also:

• KUM

Kum and the Nam See also:

• SONG

Song Kram, also tributaries of the Mekong, drain a small part of eastern Siam . Nearly two million See also:

• PEOPLE

people, mixed Siamese, Lao and Cambodian, probably among the poorest peasantry in the See also:

• WORLD

world, support existence in this inhospitable region . Central Siam, estimated at 50,000 sq. m. in area, is the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the kingdom, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the greater part of its population, and the source of nine-tenths of its See also:

• WEALTH

wealth . In general appearance it is a great plain flanked by high mountains on its western border, inclining gently to the sea in the S. and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the inner Gulf of Siam, and with a long See also:

• STRIP

strip of mountainous sea-See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board stretching out to the S.E .

The mountain range on the W. is a continuation of one of the ranges of northern Siam, which, extending still farther southward, ultimately forms the backbone of the Malay Peninsula . Its See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge is the boundary between central Siam and Burma . The highest See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak hereabouts is Mogadok, 5000 ft., See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the border . On the E. the Dom Pia Fai throws up a point over 4000 ft., and the south-eastern range which divides the narrow, littoral, See also:

• CHANTABUN, or CITANTABURI

Chantabun and Krat districts from Cambodia, has the Chemao, Saidao and Kmoch heights, between 3000 and 5000 ft . The Meklong river, which drains the western parts of central Siam, rises in the western border range, follows a course a little E. of S., and runs into the sea at the western corner of the inner gulf, some 200 M. distant from its source . It is a rapid, shallow stream, subject to sudden rises, and navigable for small boats only . The Bang Pakong river rises among the Wattana hills on the eastern border, between the Battambong See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Cambodia and Siam . It flows N., then W., then S., describing a semicircle through the fertile See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Pachim, and falls into the sea at the north-east corner of the inner gulf . The whole course of this river is about See also:

• ROOM

room. long; its current is sluggish, but that of its chief tributary, the Nakhon Nayok river, is rapid . The Bang Pakong is navigable for steamers of small draught for about 3o m . The Menam Chao Phaya, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal river of Siam, flows from the point where it is formed by the junction of the rivers of northern Siam almost due S. for 154 m., when it empties itself into the inner gulf about midway between the Meklong and Bang Pakong mouths . In the neighbourhood of Chainat, 40 M. below Paknam Poh, it throws off three branches, the Suphan river and the Menam Noi on the right, and the Lopburi river on the See also:

• LEFT

left bank .

The latter two rejoin the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent stream at points considerably lower down, but the Suphan river remains distinct, and has an outlet of its own to the sea . At a point a little more than See also:

• HALF

half-way down its course, the Menam Chao Phaya receives the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of its only tributary, the Nam Sak, a good-sized stream which rises in the east of northern Siam 4nd waters the most easterly part (the Pechabun valley) of that See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the country . The whole course of the Menam Chao Phaya lies through a perfectly See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat country . It is deep, fairly rapid, subject to a See also:

• REGULAR

regular rise and flood every autumn, but not to sudden freshets, and is affected by the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide 50 M. inland . For 20 m. it is navigable for vessels of over r000 tons, and were it not for the enormous See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar which lies across the mouth, See also:

• SHIPS

ships of almost any See also:

• SIZE

size could See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie at the See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• BANGKOK

Bangkok about that distance from the sea (see BANGKOK) . Vessels up to 300 tons and 12 ft. draught can ascend the river 50 M. and more, and beyond that point large river-boats and deep-draught launches can navigate for many miles . The river is always charged with a great quantity of silt which during flood season is deposited over the surrounding plain to the great enhancement of its fertility . There is practically no forest growth in central Siam, except on the slopes of the hills which See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound this section . The See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest is open See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice-See also:

• LAND

land, alternating with great stretches of grass, See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed jungle and See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo scrub, much of which is under See also:

• WATER

water for quite three months of the See also:

• YEAR

year . Southern Siam, which has an area of about 20,000 sq. m., consists of that part of the Malay Peninsula which belongs to the Siamese kingdom . It extends from ro° N. southwards to 6° 35' N. on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the peninsula, and to 6° 25' N. on the east coast, between which points stretches the frontier of British Malaya . It is a strip of land narrow at the north end and widening out towards the south, consisting roughly of the continuation of the mountain range which See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds central Siam on the W., though the range appears in certain parts as no more than a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of hillocks .

The inhabitable part of the land consists of the lower slopes of the range with the valleys and small alluvial plains which lie between its spurs . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder is covered for the most part with dense forest containing several kinds of valuable See also:

• TIMBER

timber . The coast both east and west is much indented, and is studded with islands . The rivers are small and shallow . The highest mountain is Kao Luang, an almost isolated See also:

• PROJECTION

projection over 5000 it. high, round the See also:

• BASE

base of which lie the most fertile lands of this section, and near which aresituated the towns of See also:

• BANDON, or BANDONBRIDGE

Bandon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Lakhon) and Patalung, as well as many villages . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.'—Very little is known of the geology of Siam . It appears to be composed chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks, concealed, in the plains, by See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary, and possibly See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary, deposits . Near Luang Prabang, just beyond the border, in French territory, limestones with Productus and Schwagerina, like the Productus See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt Range, have been found; also red See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays and grauwacke with See also:

• PLANTS

plants similar to those of the Raniganj beds; and See also:

• VIOLET

violet clays with Dicynodon, supposed to be the equivalents of the Panche series of India . All these beds strike from north-east to south-west and must enter the northern part of Siam . Farther south, at See also:

• VIEN, JOSEPH MARIE (1716-1809)

Vien-Tiane, the Mekong passes through a See also:

• GORGE

gorge cut in See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, arkose and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists with a similar strike; while at Lakhon there are steeply inclined limestones which strike north-west . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—Although enervating, the climate of Siam, as is natural from the position of the country, is not one of extremes . The wet season—May to See also:

• OCTOBER

October—corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon in the Bay of Bengal .

The full force of the monsoon is, however, broken by the western frontier hills; and while the rainfall at See also:

• MERGUI

Mergui is over 18o, and at See also:

• MOULMEIN (or MAULMEIN)

Moulmein 240 in., that of Bangkok seldom exceeds 54, and Chiengmai records an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of about 42 in . See also:

• PUKET (also known by the Chinese name Tongkah)

Puket and Chantabun, being both on a See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

lee See also:

• SHORE

shore, in this season experience rough weather and a heavy rainfall; the latter, being farther from the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator, is the worse off in this respect . At this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the temperature is generally moderate, 65 to 750 F. at See also:

• NIGHT

night and 75° to 85° by See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day; but breaks in the rains occur which are hot and steamy . The cool season begins with the commencement of the north-east monsoon in the China Sea in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . While Siam enjoys a dry climate with cool nights (the thermometer at night often falling to 40°—50° F., and seldom being over 90° in the shade by day), the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula receives the full force of the north-easterly See also:

• GALES (mod. Calvi)

gales from the sea . This lasts into See also:

• FEBRUARY

February, when the northerly current begins to lose strength, and the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• HEATING

heating of the land produces See also:

• LOCAL

local sea breezes from the gulf along the coast-See also:

• LINE

line . Inland, the thermometer rises during the day to over See also:

• IOO

ioo° F., but the extreme See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental heats of India are not known . The See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative humidity of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, however, makes the climate trying for Europeans . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—In its flora and See also:

• FAUNA

fauna Siam combines the forms of Burma and the Shan States with those of Malaya, farther south, and of Cambodia to the south-east . The coast region is characterized by mangroves, Pandanus, rattans, and similar palms with long flexible stems, and the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle region by the great rice-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, the coco-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut and areca palms, and the usual tropical plants of culture . In the temperate uplands of the interior, as about Luang Prabang, Himalayan and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese See also:

• SPECIES

species occur—oaks, pines, chestnuts, See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach and great See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple trees, raspberries, See also:

• HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., honysocle, i.e. any plant from which honey may be sucked,—cf. A.-S. huni-suge, privet; Ger. Geissblalt; Fr. chevrefeuille)

honeysuckle, vines, saxifrages, Cichoraceae, anemones and Violaceae; there are many valuable timber trees—See also:

• TEAK

teak, sappan, See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle-See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, wood-oil (Hopea), and other Dipterocarpaceae, Cedrelaceae, Pterocarpaceae, Xylia, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-wood and other dye-See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods and resinous trees, these last forming in many districts a large proportion of the more open forests, with an undergrowth of bamboo . The teak See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree grows all over the hill districts north of See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude 15° but seems to attain its best development on the west, and on the east does not appear to be found south of 17° .

Most of the so-called Burma teak exported from Moulmein is floated down from Siamese territory . Among other valuable forest products are thingan wood (Ho See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea odorata), largely used for See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat-See also:

• BUILDING

building; damar oil, taken throughout Indo-China from the Dipterecarpus See also:

• LEVIS (formerly Pointe Levi)

levis; agilla wood, sapan, See also:

• ROSEWOOD

rosewood, iron-wood, See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony, rattan . Among the chief productions of the plains are rice (the See also:

• STAPLE

staple export of the country) ; See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper (chiefly from Chantabun) ; sirih, See also:

• SAGO

sago, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane, coco-nut and betel, See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra or sugar and attap palms; 'many forms cf See also:

• BANANA

banana and other See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit, such as See also:

• DURIAN (Malay, duri, a thorn)

durian, See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange-pommelo, See also:

• GUAVA (from the Mexican guayaba)

guava, See also:

• BREAD

bread-fruit, See also:

• MANGO

mango, See also:

• JACK

jack fruit, See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-apple, custard-apple and See also:

• MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia Mangostana)

mangosteen . Fauna.—Few countries are so well stocked with big See also:

• GAME

game as is Siam . Chief of animals is the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant, which roams See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, and is extensively caught and tamed by the people for transport . The See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger, See also:

• LEOPARD

leopard, fishing-See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat, leopard-cat, and other species of wild-cat, as well as the See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey-See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear, large See also:

• SLOTH

sloth-bear, and one- and two-horned See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros, occur . Among the great wild See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle are the formidable See also:

• GAUR
• GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI

gaur, or seladang, the banting, and the water-See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo . The See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope is found, aad several varieties of See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer . Wild See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig, several species of rats, and many bats—one of the commonest being the flying-See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, and many species of See also:

• MONKEY

monkey—especially the See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

gibbon—are also met with . Of See also:

• SNAKES

snakes, 56 species are known, but only 12 are poisonous, and of these 4 are sea-snakes . The waters of Siam are particularly See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish . The See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile is See also:

• COMMON

common in many of the rivers and estuaries of Siam, and there are many lizards .

The country is rich in birds, a large number of which appear to be common to Burma and Cambodia . ' See E . See also:

• JOUBERT, BARTHELEMY CATHERINE (1769–1799)
• JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754–1824)
• JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834–1900)

Joubert in F . See also:

• GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813–1881)
• GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821)
• GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898)
• GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839–1873)
• GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545–c.1600)

Garnier, Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1873), vol . :i.; Counillon, Documents pour servir a l'etude geologique See also:

• DES

des environs de Luang Prabang (Cochinchine), Comptes rendus (1896), exxiii . 1330-1333 . Inhabitants.—A See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of the rural population was taken for the first time in 1905 . The first census of Bangkok and its suburbs was taken in 1909 . Results show the total population of the country to be about 6,230,000 . Of this total about 3,000,000 are Siamese, about 2,000,000 Laos, about 400,000 Chinese, 115,000 Malay, 80,000 Cambodian and the rest Burmese, Indian, Mohn, Karen, Annamite, Kache, Lawa and others . Of Europeans and Americans there are between 1300 and 1500, mostly See also:

• RESIDENT

resident in Bangkok . Englishmen number about 500; Germans, 190; Danes, 16o; Americans, 150, and other nationalities are represented in smaller numbers .

The Siamese inhabit central Siam principally, but extend into the nearer districts of all the other sections . The Laos predominate in northern and eastern Siam, See also:

• MALAYS

Malays mingle with the Siamese in southern Siam, and the Chinese are found scattered all over, but keeping mostly to the towns . Bangkok, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, with some 650,000 inhabitants, is about one-third Chinese, while in the suburbs are to be found settlements of Mohns, Burmese, Annamites and Cambodians, the descendants of captives taken in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• WARS

wars . The See also:

• EURASIAN

Eurasian population of Siam is very small compared with that of other large cities of the East . Of the tribes which occupy the mountains of Siam some are the remnants of the very ancient inhabitants of the country, probably of the Mohn-Khmer See also:

• FAMILY

family, who were supplanted by a later influx of more civilized Khmers from the south-east, the forerunners and part-ancestors of the Siamese, and were still farther thrust into the remoter hills when the Lao-Tai descended from the north . Of these the principal are the Lawa, Lamet, Ka Hok, Ka Yuen and Kamoo, the last four collectively known to the Siamese as Ka . Other tribes, whose presence is probably owing to See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration at remote or See also:

• RECENT

recent periods, are the Karens of the western frontier range, the Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur of northern Siam . The Karens of Siam number about 20,000, and are found as See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan south as 13° N . They are See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere offshoots from the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main tribes which inhabit the Burma See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the boundary range, and are supposed by some to be of Burmo-Tibetan origin . The Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur have Yunnanese characteristics, are met with in the Shan States north of Siam and in Yun-nan, and are supposed to have found their way into northern Siam since the beginning of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . In the mountains behind Chantabun a small tribe called Chong is found, and in southern Siam the Sakei and See also:

• SEMANG

Semang inhabit the higher ranges . These last three have Negrito characteristics, and probably represent a See also:

• RACE

race far older even than the ancient Ka .

The typical Siamese is of See also:

• MEDIUM

medium height, well formed, with See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive complexion, darker than the Chinese, but fairer than the Malays, eyes well shaped though slightly inclined to the oblique, See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose broad and flat, lips prominent, the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face wide across the cheek-bones and the See also:

• CHIN

chin See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short . A thin See also:

• MOUSTACHE, or MUSTACHIO

moustache is common, the See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard, if See also:

• PRESENT

present, is plucked out, and the See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head is See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, coarse and cut short . The lips are usually deep red and the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth stained black from the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of betel-chewing . The See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children are See also:

• PRETTY

pretty but soon lose their See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm, and the race, generally speaking, is ugly from the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European standpoint . The position of See also:

• WOMEN

women is good . See also:

• POLYGAMY, (Gr. nabs, many, and yayos, marriage)

Polygamy is permitted, but is common only among the upper classes, and when it occurs the first wife is acknowledged head of the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household . In disposition the Siamese are mild-mannered, patient, submissive to authority, kindly and hospitable to strangers . They are a See also:

• LIGHT

light-hearted, apathetic people, little given to quarrelling or to the See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission of violent See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime . Though able and intelligent cultivators they do not take kindly to any form of labour other than agricultural, with the result that most of the See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries and trades of the country are in the hands of Chinese . The See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume of the Siamese is the panung, a piece of See also:

• CLOTH

cloth about I yd. wide and 3 yds. long . The middle of it is passed round the See also:

• BODY

body, which it covers from the See also:

• WAIST

waist to the knees, and is hitched in front so that the two ends hang down in equal length before; these being See also:

• TWISTED

twisted together are passed back between the legs, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up and tucked into the waist at the middle of the back . The panung is common to both sexes, the women supplementing it with a See also:

• SCARF

scarf worn round the body under the arms .

Among the better classes both sexes See also:

• WEAR

wear also a jacket buttoned to the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat, stockings and shoes, and all the men, except servants, wear hats . The staple See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food of the Siamese is rice and fish . See also:

• MEAT

Meat is eaten, but, as the slaughter of animals is against Buddhist tenets, is not often obtainable, with the exception of pork, killed by Chinese . The men See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke, but the women do not . Everybody chews betel . The principal pastimes are gambling, boat-racing, See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock- and fish-fighting and See also:

• KITE

kite-flying, and a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• FOOTBALL

football . See also:

• SLAVERY

Slavery, once common, has been gradually abolished by a series of See also:

• LAWS

laws, the last of which came into force in 1905 . No such thing as See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste exists, and See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth is no insuperable bar to the attainment of the highest dignities . There are no hereditary titles, those in use being conferred foe See also:

• LIFE

life only and being attached to some particular See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office . Towns.—There are very few towns with a population of over to,000 inhabitants in Siam, the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority being merely scattered townships or clusters of villages, the capitals of the provinces (muang) being often no more than a few houses gathered round the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, the offices and the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor's See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence . The more important places of northern Siam include Chieng See also:

• MAI, ANGELO (1782—1854)

Mai (q.v.), the capital ,of the north, Chieng Rai, near the northern frontier; Lampun, also known as Labong (originally Haribunchai), the first Lao See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in Siam ; Lampang, See also:

• TERN (Norsk taerne, tende or tende; Swedish tarna; Dutch Stern1)

Tern, Nan and Pre, each the seat of a Lao chief and of a Siamese See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner; Utaradit, Pichai, Pichit, Pechabun and Raheng, the last of importance as a timber station, with Phitsnulok, Sukhotai, Swankalok, Kampeng Pet and Nakhon Sawan, former capitals of Khmer-Siamese kingdoms, and at present the headquarters of provincial governments . In eastern Siam the only towns of importance are See also:

• KORAT

Korat and Ubon, capitals of divisions, and Nong Kai, an ancient place on the Mekong river .

In central Siam, after Bangkok and See also:

• AYUTHIA

Ayuthia, places of importance on the Menam Chao Phaya are Pak-Nam at the river mouth, the seat of a governor, See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of a railway and site of See also:

• MODERN

modern fortifications; Paklat, the seat of a governor, a See also:

• TOWN

town of Mohns, descendants of refugees from Pegu; Nontaburi, a. few miles above Bangkok, the seat of a governor and possessing a large market; Pratoomtani, Angtong, Prom, Inburi, Chainat and Saraburi, all administrative centres; and Lopburi, the last capital before Ayuthia and the residence of See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings during the Ayuthia period, a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of ruins now gradually reawakening as a centre of railway See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic . To the west of the Menam Chao Phaya lie Suphanburi and Ratburi, ancient cities, now See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government headquarters; Pechaburi (the Piply of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early travellers), the terminus of the western railway; and Phrapatoom, with its huge See also:

• PAGODA (Port. pagode, a word introduced in the 16th century by the early Portuguese adventurers in India, reproducing phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-kadah, a house for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bhagavat, divine, holy)

pagoda on the site of the capital of Sri Wichaiya, a kingdom of 2000 years ago, and now a place of military, agricultural and other See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools . To the east, in the Bang Pakong river-basin and down the eastern shore of the gulf, are Pachim, a divisional headquarters; See also:

• PETRIOU (also called Cha-chang-sao)

Petriou (q.v.); Bang Plasoi, a fishing centre, with Rayong, Chantabun (q.v.) and Krat, producing gems and pepper . In southern Siam the chief towns are Chumpon; Bandon, with a growing timber See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry; Nakhon Sri Tammarat (q.v.); See also:

• SINGORA, or SONGKLA (the Sangore of early navigators)

Singora (q.v.); Puket (q.v.); Patani . Communications.—Central Siam is supplied with an exceptionally See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• SYSTEM

system of water communications; for not only has it the three rivers with their tributaries and much-divided courses, but all three are linked together by a series of canals which, See also:

• RUNNING

running in parallel lines across the plain from E. to W., make the farthest corners of this section of the kingdom easily accessible from the capital . The level of the land is so low, the See also:

• SOIL

soil so soft, and See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone suitable for See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal so entirely absent, that the making and upkeep of roads would here be ruinously expensive . Former rulers have realized this and have therefore confined themselves to See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal making . Some of the canals are very old, others are of comparatively recent construction . In the past they were often allowed to fall into disrepair, but in 1903 a See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of government was formed to See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control their upkeep, with the result that most of them were soon furnished with new locks, deepened, and made thoroughly service-able . The boat traffic on them is so great that the collection of a small See also:

• TOLL (etymologically, that which is numbered or counted; from a common Teutonic form, cf. " tale," " tell ")
• TOLL, JOHAN KRISTOFFER, COUNT (1743-1817)

toll more than suffices to pay for all See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance expenses . In northern and southern Siam, where the conditions are different, roads are being slowly made, but natural difficulties are great, and travelling in those distant parts is still a See also:

• MATTER

matter of much discomfort . In 1909 there were 64o miles of railway open .

All but 65 miles was under See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state management . The main line from Bangkok to the north had reached Pang Tong Phung, some distance north of Utaradit and to m. south of Meh Puak, which was selected as the terminus for the time being, the continuation to Chieng Mai., the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective, being postponed pending the construction of another and more important line . This latter was the continuation through southern Siam of the line already constructed from Bangkok south-west to Petchaburi (See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito m.), with funds borrowed, under a recent agreement, from the Federated (British) Malay States government, which See also:

• WORK

work, following upon surveys made in 1907, was begun in 1909 under the direction of a newly constituted southern See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Royal See also:

• RAILWAYS

Railways department . From See also:

• BAN

Ban Paji on the main line a branch extends north-eastwards I to m. to Korat . To the east of Bangkok the Bangkok-Petriew line (40 m.) was completed and open for traffic . The postal service extends to all parts of the country and is fairly efficient . Siam joined the Postal See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union in 1885 . The inland See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph is also widely distributed, and See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign lines communicate with See also:

• SAIGON

Saigon, the Straits Settlements and Moulmein . A griculture.—The cultivation of paddi (unhusked rice) forms the occupation of practically the whole population of Siam outside the capital . See also:

• PRIMITIVE

Primitive methods obtain, but the Siamese are efficient cultivators and secure good harvests nevertheless . The See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing and planting season is from See also:

• JUNE

June to See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, and the See also:

• REAPING (from O.E. rypan, rypan, probably allied to " ripe," mature, i.e. " fit for reaping "; the cognate forms are found in other languages)

reaping season from See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December to February . See also:

• FORTY

Forty or fifty varieties of paddi are grown, and Siam rice is of the best in the world .

See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

Irrigation is rudimentary, for no system exists for raising the water of the in-numerable canals on to the fields . Water-See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply depends chiefly, therefore, on local rainfall . In 1905 the government started preliminary surveys for a system of irrigation . See also:

• TOBACCO

Tobacco, pepper, coco-nuts and See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize are other agricultural products . Tobacco of good quality supplies local requirements but is not exported; pepper, grown chiefly in Chantabun and southern Siam, annually yields about 900 tons for export . From coco-nuts about to,000 tons of See also:

• COPRA (a Spanish and Portuguese adaptation of the Malay kopperah, and Hindustani khopra, the coco-nut)

copra are made for export each year, and maize is used for local See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption only . Of horned cattle statistical returns show over two million head in the whole country . See also:

• MINING

Mining.—The minerals of Siam include See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, See also:

• SILVER

silver, rubies, sapphires, See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, iron, See also:

• ZINC

zinc and See also:

• COAL

coal . Tin-mining is a flourishing industry near Puket on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, and since 1905 much prospecting and some mining has been done on the east coast . The export of tin in 1908 exceeded 5000 tons, valued at over 600,000 . Rubies and sapphires are See also:

• MINED

mined in the Chantabun district in the south-east . The Mining Department of Siam is a well-organized branch of the government, employing several highly-qualified See also:

• ENGLISH

English experts .

Timber.—The extraction of teak from the forests of northern Siam employs a large number of people . The industry is almost entirely in the hands of Europeans, British largely predominating . The number of teak logs brought out via the Salween and Menam Chao Phaya rivers average 16o,000 annually, Siam being thus the largest teak-producing country of the world . A Forest Department, in which experienced See also:

• OFFICERS

officers recruited from the Indian Forest Service are employed, has for many years controlled the forests of Siam . Technology.—The government has since 1903 given See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to sericulture, and steps have been taken to improve Siamese See also:

• SILK

silk with the aid of scientists borrowed from the Japanese See also:

• MINISTRY

Ministry of See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture . See also:

• SURVEYING

Surveying and the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the land have for a long time occupied the attention of the government . A Survey Department, inaugurated about 1887, has completed the general survey of the whole country, and has made a cadastral survey of a large part of the thickly inhabited and highly cultivated districts of central Siam . A Settlement Commission, organized in 1901, decided the ownership of lands, and, on completion, handed over its work to a Land See also:

• REGISTRATION

Registration Department . Thus a very complete settlement of much of the richest agricultural land in the country has been effected . The See also:

• EDUCATION

education of the youth of Siam in the technology of the industries practised has not been neglected . Pupils are sent to the best foreign agricultural, forestry and mining schools, and, after going through the prescribed course, often with distinction, return to Siam to apply their knowledge with more or less success . Moreover, a See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college under the control of the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, which was founded in 1909, provides locally courses of instruction in these subjects and also in irrigation See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering, sericulture and surveying .

See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—Rice-See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, saw-mills and a few distilleries of locally consumed liquor, one or two See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick and See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile factories, and here and there a See also:

• SHED

shed in which coarse pottery is made, are all Siam has in the way of factories . All manufactured articles of daily use are imported, as is all ironware and machinery . The foreign commerce of Siam is very ancient . Her commerce with India, China and probably See also:

• JAPAN

Japan See also:

• DATES

dates from the beginning of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era or earlier, while that with See also:

• EUROPE

Europe began in the 16th century . See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade with her immediate neighbours is now insignificant, the total value of See also:

• ANNUAL

annual imports and exports being about £400,000; but sea-See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne commerce is in a very flourishing See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . Bangkok, with an annual trade valued at £13,000,000, easily overtops all the rest of the country, the other ports together accounting for a total of imports and exports not exceeding £3,000,000 . On both the east and west coasts of southern Siam trade is increasing rapidly, and is almost entirely with the Straits Settlements . The trade of the west coast is carried in British ships exclusively, that on the east coast by British and Siamese . See also:

• ART

Art.—The Siamese are an See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic nation . Their See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing, See also:

• GOLDSMITH
• GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763–1846)
• GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728–1774)

goldsmith's work, See also:

• CARVING

carving, See also:

• MUSIC

music and dancing are all highly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in strict accordance with the traditions of Indo-Chinese art . Architecture, chiefly exercised in connexion with religious buildings, is clearly a decadent form of that practised by the ancient Khmers, whose architectural remains are among the finest in the world . The system of music is elaborate but is not written, vocalists and instrumentalists performing entirely by See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear .

The See also:

• INTERVAL

interval corresponding to the See also:

• OCTAVE (from Lat. octavus, eighth, octo, eight)

octave being divided into seven equal parts, each about i f semitone, it follows that Siamese music sounds See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange in Western ears . See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

Harmony is unknown, and orchestras, which include fiddles, flutes, drums and harmonicons, perform in unison . The goldsmith's work of Siam is justly celebrated . Repousse work in silver, which is still practised, dates from the most ancient times . Almost every province has its See also:

• SPECIAL

special patterns and processes, the most elaborate being those of Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), Chantabun and the Laos country . In the Ligore See also:

• WARE

ware the hammeredground-work is inlaid with a black See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of sulphides of baser metals which throws up the See also:

• PATTERN

pattern with distinctness . Government.—The government of Siam is an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy . The See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir to the See also:

• THRONE

throne is appointed by the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, and was formerly chosen from among all the members of his family, See also:

• COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. collateralis,—cum, with, and latus, lateris, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional)

collateral as well as descendants . The choice was sometimes made early in the reign when the heir held the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of " Chao Uparach " or " Wang' Na," miscalled " Second King " in English, and sometimes was left until the See also:

• DEATH

death of the king was imminent . The arrangement was fraught with danger to the public tranquillity, and one of the reforms of the last See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign was the abolition of the office of " Chao Uparach " and a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree that the throne should in future descend from the king to one of his sons See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born of a See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen, which decree was immediately followed by the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of a See also:

• CROWN

crown See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince . There is a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council consisting of the ten ministers of state—for foreign affairs, See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, interior, See also:

• FINANCE

finance, household, See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan government, public See also:

• WORKS

works, public instruction and for agriculture—together with the general adviser . There is also a legislative council, of which the above are ex officio members, consisting of forty-five persons appointed by the king .

The council meets once a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week for the transaction of the business of government . The king is an autocrat in practice as well as in theory, he has an absolute See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto, and the initiative of See also:

• MEASURES

measures rests largely with him . Most departments have the benefit of European advisers . The government offices are conducted much on European lines . The Christian See also:

• SUNDAY

Sunday is observed as a See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday and regular See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours are prescribed for attendance . The numerous See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace and other functions make some demand upon ministers' time, and, as the king transacts most of his affairs at night, high officials usually keep See also:

• LATE

late office hours . The Ministry of Interior and certain technical departments are recruited from the See also:

• CIVIL

civil service schools, but many appointments in government service go by patronage . For administrative purposes the country is divided into seventeen montons (or divisions) each in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of a high commissioner, and an'eighteenth, including Bangkok and the surrounding suburban provinces, under the See also:

• DIRECT

direct control of the See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister for metropolitan government (see BANGKOK) . The high commissioners are responsible to the minister of interior, and the montons are furnished with a very complete See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff for the various branches of the administration . The montons consist of See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of the old rural provinces (muang), the hereditary chiefs of which, except in the Lao country in the north and in the Malay States, have been replaced by See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors trained in administrative work and subordinate to the high commissioner . Each muang is subdivided into ampurs under assistant commissioners, and these again are divided into See also:

• VILLAGE

village circles under headmen (kantnans), which circles comprise villages under the control of elders . The suburban provinces of the metropolitan monton are also divided as above .

The policing of the seventeen montons is provided for by a See also:

• GENDARMERIE

gendarmerie of over 7000 men and officers (many of the latter Danes), a well-equipped and well-disciplined force . That of the sulpurban provinces is effected by branches of the Bangkok civil See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police . Finance.—The See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue administration is controlled by the ministers of the interior, of metropolitan government and of finance, by means of well-organized departments and with See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert European assistance . The total revenue of the country for 1908–1909 amounted to 58,000,000 ticals, or, at the prevailing See also:

• RATE

rate of See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange, about £4,300,000, made up as follows: Farms and monopolies (See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits, gambling, &c.) . £783,000 See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

Opium revenue 823,000 Lands, forests, mines, capitation . 1,330,000 Customs and See also:

• OCTROI (0. Fr. octroyer, to grant, authorize; Lat. auctor)

octroi . . . 653,000 Posts, telegraphs and railways 331,000 Judicial and other fees . . . 270,000 Sundries . . . . I to,000 Total .

. , £4,300,000 The unit of Siamese currency is the tical, a silver See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin about equal in See also:

• WEIGHT

weight and fineness to the Indian See also:

• RUPEE (Hindustani rupiya, from Sanskrit rupya)

rupee . In 1902, owing to the serious depreciation of the value of silver, the Siamese See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint was closed to See also:

• FREE

free coinage, and an arrangement was made providing for the gradual enhancement of the value of the tical until a suitable value should be attained at which it might be fixed . This measure was successful, the value of the tical having thereby been increased from priests are learned in the Buddhist scriptures, and most of the See also:

• PALI

Pali Hid. in 1902 to Is . 5Isd. in 1909, to the improvement of the scholarship in Siam is to be found in monasteries, but there is no national See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit and of the value of the revenues . A See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper currency learning of a See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular nature . There is little public See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship in the was established in 1902, and proved a See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial success . In 1905 Christian sense of the word . On the day set apart for worship (Wan Siam contracted her first public See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan, £I,000,000 being raised in Phra, or " Day of the See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord ") the attendance at the temples is small See also:

• LONDON

London and Paris at 954 and bearing 44 % See also:

• INTEREST

interest . This sum was and consists mostly of women . Religious or semi-religious cereemployed chiefly in railway construction, and in 1907 a second loan monies, however, See also:

• PLAY

play a great part in the life of the Siamese, and of £3,000,000 was issued in London., Paris and See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin at 934 for the few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks pass without some great See also:

• FUNCTION

function or procession . Among same purpose and for See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of irrigation works . A further sum these the See also:

• CREMATION (Lat. cremare, to burn)

cremation ceremonies are especially conspicuous .

The of £4,000,000 was borrowed in 1909 from the government of the more exalted the personage the longer, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, is the body kept Federated (British) Malay States at See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par and bearing interest at before cremation . The cremations of great people, which often last 4 %, also for railway construction. several days, are the occasion of public festivities and are celebrated Weights and Measures.—In accordance with the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom formerly with processions, theatrical shows, illuminations and See also:

• FIREWORKS

fireworks. prevalent in all the kingdoms of Further India, the coinage of Siam The missionaries in Siam are entirely French See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics and furnishes the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of weight . The tical (baht) is the unit of See also:

• AMERICAN

American Protestants . They have done much to help on the general currency and also the unit of weight . Eighty ticals equal one work of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, and the progress of education has been largely chang and fifty chang equal one ha ph, See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the Chinese due to their efforts . picul, or 1334lb See also:

• AVOIRDUPOIS

avoirdupois . For the weighing of gold, gems, opium, Education.—As in Burma, the Buddhist monasteries scattered &c., the fuang, equal to 4 tical, and the salung, equal to 4 tical, are throughout the country carry on almost the whole of the elementary used . The unit of linear measure is the wait, which is subdivided into education in the rural districts . A provincial training college was 4 wah or sauk, s wah or kup, and into ca wah or niew . Twenty wah established in 1903 for the purpose of instructing priests and laymen equal one sen and 400 sen equal one yote . The length of the wah in the work of teaching, and has turned out many qualified teachers has been fixed at two metres . The unit of land measure is the rai, whose subsequent work has proved satisfactory .

By these means, which is equal to 400 square wah, and is subdivided into four equal and with regular government supervision and control, the monastic ngan . Measures of capacity are the tang or bucket, and the sat or schools are being brought into line with the government educational See also:

• BASKET

basket . Twenty tanan, originally a half coco-nut See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell, equal one organization . They now contain not far short of ioo,000 pupils. tang, and twenty-five of the same measure equal one sat . The tang In the metropolitan mouton there are See also:

• PRIMARY

primary, secondary and special is used for measuring rice and the sat for paddi and other See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain. schools for boys and girls, affording instruction to some 10,000 One sat of paddi weighs 424 lb avoirdupois. pupils . There are also the medical school, the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law school, the civil See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

Army and See also:

• NAVY

Navy.—By a law passed in 1903, the ancient system service school, the military schools and the agricultural college, of recruiting the army and navy from the descendants of former which are entered by students who have passed through the secondary prisoners of war was abolished in favour of compulsory service by grade for the purpose of receiving professional instruction . Many all able-bodied men . The new arrangement, which is strictly terri- of the special . schools use the English See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language for conveying torial, was enforced in eight montons by the year 1909, resulting in a instruction, and there are three special schools where the whole See also:

• STANDING

standing See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace army of 20,000 of all ranks, in a marine service of curriculum is conducted in English by English masters . Two about 10,000, and in the beginnings of first and second reserves. scholarships of £300 a year each for four years are annually See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn-The navy, many of the officers of which are Danes and Norwegians, peted for by the scholars of these schools, the winners of which comprises a See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel twin-See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw cruiser of 2500 tons which serves as proceed to Europe to study a subject of their own selection which the royal yacht, four steel gunboats of between 500 and 700 tons all shall See also:

• FIT

fit them for the future service of their country . Most of the armed with modern See also:

• QUICK

quick-firing guns, two See also:

• TORPEDO

torpedo-boat destroyers special schools also give scholarships to enable the best of their and three torpedo boats, with other See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft for river and coast work. pupils to complete their studies abroad . The result of the wide- Justice.—Since the institution of the Ministry of Justice in 1892 spread monastic school system is that almost all men can read and very great improvements have been effected in this branch of the write a little, though the women are altogether illiterate. administration . The .old tribunals where customary law was administered by ignorant satellites of the great, amid unspeakable See also:

• HISTORY

History .

corruption, have all been replaced by organized courts with qualified Concerning the origin of the name " Siam " many theories See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges appointed from the Bangkok law school, and under the direct control of the ministry in all except the most outlying parts. have been advanced . The early European visitors to the The ministry is well organized, and with the assistance of European country noticed that it was not officially referred to by any such and Japanese officers of experience has drafted a large number of name, and therefore apparently conceived that the See also:

• TERM

term must laws and regulations, most of which have been brought into force. have been applied from outside . Hence the first written accounts Extra-territorial See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction was for long secured by treaty for the Portuguese, See also:

• MALA

Mala and other derivations, some of which subjects of all foreign See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, who could therefore only be sued in give y the courts maintained in Siam by their own governments, while have continued to find See also:

• CREDENCE, or CREDENCE TABLE

credence among quite recent writers . European assessors were employed in cases where foreigners sued It is now known, however, that " Siam " or " Sayam " is one Siamese . An indication, however, foreshadowing the disappearance of the most ancient names of the country, and that at least of extra-territorial rights, appeared in the treaty of 1907 between See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and Siam, the former power therein surrendering all such a thousand years ago it was in common use, such titles as rights where Asiatics are concerned so soon as the Siamese penal and Swankalok-Sukhotai, Shahr-i-nao, Dwarapuri, Ayuthia, the last See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure codes should have become law, and this was followed sometimes corrupted to " Judea," by which the kingdom has by a much greater innovation in 1909 when Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain closed her been known at various periods of its history, being no more than courts in Siam and surrendered her subjects under certain temporary the names of the different capital cities whose rulers in turn conditions to the jurisdiction of the Siamese courts . When it is understood that there are over 30,000 Chinese, Annamese, Burmese brought the land under their sway . The Siamese (Thai) See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call and other See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic foreign subjects living in Siam, the importance to their country Muang Thai, or " the country of the Thai race," the country of this See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change will be to some extent realized. but the ancient name Muang Sayam has lately been revived . See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion.—While the pure-blooded Malays of the Peninsula are The gradual See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the Siamese from the See also:

• FUSION

fusion of Mahommedans, the Siamese and Lao profess a form of See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism (Thai) which is tinged by Cingalese and Burmese influences, and, especially Lao-Tai and Khmer races has been mentioned above . Their in the more remote country districts, by the spirit-worship which is language, the most distinctively Lao-Tai" attribute which they characteristic of the imaginative and timid Ka and other hill peoples have, plainly shows their very close relationship with the latter of Indo-China . In the capital a curious admixture of early Brah- minical race and its present branches, the See also:

• SHANS

Shans (Tai Long) and the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence is still noticeable, and no See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of public importance takes place without the assistance of the divinations of the Brahmin See also:

• AHOM, or AHAM

Ahom of See also:

• ASSAM

Assam, while their appearance, customs, written priests . The Siamese, as southern Buddhists, See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride themselves on See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and religion bear strong See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of their See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity with their orthodoxy; and since Burma, like See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon, has lost its inde- the Khmers . The southward See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the Lao-Tai family pendence, the king is regarded in the light of the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole surviving from their original seats in south-west China is of very ancient defender of the faith .

There is a close connexion between the laity and priesthood, as the Buddhist rule, which prescribes that every date, the Lao states of Luang Prabang and Wieng Chan on the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man should enter the priesthood for at least a few months, is almost Mekong having been founded at least two thousand years ago. universally observed, even See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young princes and noblemen who have The first incursions of Lao-Tai among the Khmers of northern been educated in Europe donning the yellow robe on their return to Siam were probably later, for the town of Lampun (Labong or Siam . A certain amount of See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism prevails among the educated classes, and See also:

• POLITICAL

political motives may contribute to their apparent Haribunchai), the first Lao capital in Siam, was founded about orthodoxy, but there is no open dissent from Buddhism, and those A.D . 575 . The fusion of races may be said to have begun then, who discard its dogmas still, as a rule, venerate it as an ethical for it was during the succeeding centuries that the kings of system . The accounts given by some writers as to the profligacy Swankalok-Sukhotai gradually assumed Lao characteristics, and immorality in the monasteries are grossly exaggerated . Many of the temples in the capital are under the direct supervision of the and that the Siamese language, written character and other king, and in these a stricter rule of life is observed . Some of the racial peculiarities were in course of formation . But the See also:

• FINISHING

finishing touches to the new race were supplied by the great See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion of They were dreaded as soldiers, and as individuals commanded a position resembling that of Europeans in most eastern countries . The See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of their increasing influence at last led to a See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre, and to the expulsion or absorption of the survivors . Japan was soon after this, in 1636, closed to foreigners; but trade was carried on at all events down to 1745 through Dutch and Chinese and occasional English traders . In 1752 an See also:

• EMBASSY

embassy came from Ceylon, desiring to renew the ancient friendship and to discuss religious matters . After the fall of Ayuthia a great general, Phaya Takh See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

Sin, collected the remains of the army and restored the fortunes of the kingdom, establishing his capital at Bangkok; but, becoming insane, he was put to death, and was succeeded by another successful general, Phaya Chakkri, who founded the present See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty .

Under him Tenasserim was invaded and See also:

• TAVOY

Tavoy held for the last time by the Siamese in 1792, though in 1825, taking See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the Burmese difficulty with See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, they bombarded some of the towns on that coast . The supremacy of China is indicated by occasional 'See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions sent, as on the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of a new dynasty, to See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking, to bring back a See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal and a See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar . But the Siamese now repudiate this supremacy, and have sent neither See also:

• MISSION

mission nor See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute for sixty years, while no steps have been taken by the Chinese to enforce its recognition . The sovereign, Phra Paramendr Maha Mongkut, was a very accomplished man, an en-lightened reformer and devoted to See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science; his death, indeed, was caused by fatigue and exposure while observing an See also:

• ECLIPSE (Gr. €uheo,tis, falling out of place, failing)

eclipse . Many of his predecessors, too, were men of different fibre from the ordinary See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental sovereign, while his son Chulalong Korn, who succeeded him in 1868, showed himself an See also:

• ADMINISTRATOR

administrator of the highest capacity . He died on the 23rd of October 1910 . Of European nations the Portuguese first established inter-course with Siam . This was in 1511, after the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Malacca by D'See also:

• ALBUQUERQUE
• ALBUQUERQUE, ALPHONSO

Albuquerque, and the intimacy lasted over a century, the tradition of their greatness having hardly yet died out . They were supplanted gradually in the 17th century by the Dutch, whose intercourse also lasted for a similar period; but they have left no traces of their presence, as the Portuguese always did in these countries to a greater extent than any other people . English traders were in Siam very early in the 17th century; there was a friendly interchange of letters between See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I. and the king of Siam, who had some Englishmen in his service, and, when the ships visited " Sia " (which was " as great a city as London ") or the queen of Patani, they were hospitably received and accorded privileges—the important items of export being, as now, tin, See also:

• VARNISH

varnish, deer-skins and " See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious drugs." Later on, the East India See also:

• COMPANY

Company's servants, jealous at the employment of Englishmen not in their service, attacked the Siamese, which led to a massacre of the English at Mergui in 1687, and the factory at Ayuthia was abandoned in 1688 . A similar attack is said to have been made in 1719 by the governor of See also:

• MADRAS

Madras . After this the trade was neglected .

Pulo See also:

• PENANG (Pulau Pinang, i.e. Areca-nut Island),

Penang, an See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island belonging to the Siamese dependency of Kedah, was granted on a permanent See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease to the East India Company in 1786, and See also:

• TREATIES

treaties were entered into by the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan of Kedah with the company . In 1822 See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• CRAWFURD, JOHN (1783-1868)

Crawfurd was sent to Bangkok to negotiate a treaty with the suzerain power, but the mission was unsuccessful . In 1824, by treaty with the Dutch, British interests became See also:

• PARAMOUNT (Anglo-Fr. paramont, up above, par el mont, up or on top of the mountain)

paramount in the Malay Peninsula and in Siam, and, two years later, See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

• BURNEY, CHARLES (1726-1814)

Burney signed the first treaty of friendship and commerce between England and Siam . A similar treaty was effected with See also:

• AMERICA

America in 1833 . Subsequently trade with British possessions revived, and in time a more elaborate treaty with England became desirable . See also:

• SIR

Sir J . See also:

• BROOKE, FRANCES (1724-1789)
• BROOKE, FULKE OREVILLE, 1ST BARON (1554-1628)
• BROOKE, HENRY (c. 1703-1783)
• BROOKE, SIR JAMES (1803-1868)
• BROOKE, STOPFORD AUGUSTUS (1832– )

Brooke opened negotiations in 185o which came to nothing, but in 1855 Sir J . See also:

• BOWRING, SIR JOHN (1792-1872)

Bowring signed a new treaty whereby Siam agreed to the appointment of a British See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul in Bangkok, and to the exercise by that See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official of full extra-territorial powers . Englishmen were permitted to own land in certain defined districts, customs and port dues and land revenues were fixed, and many new trade facilities were granted . This important arrangement was followed at intervals by similar treaties with the other powers, the last two being those with Lao-Tai from south-west China by Kublai See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan in A.D . 1250, which profoundly affected the whole of Further India . There-after the north, the west and the south-west of Siam, comprising the kingdom of Swankalok-Sukhotai, and the states of Suphan and Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Ligore), with their sub-feudatories, were reduced by the Siamese (Thai), who, during their southern progress, moved their capital from Sukhotai to Nakhon Sawan, thence to Kampeng Pet, and thence again to Suvarnabhumi near the present Kanburi .

A Sukhotai inscription of about 1 284 states that the dominions of King Rama Kamheng ex-tended across the country from the Mekong to Pechaburi, and thence down the Gulf of Siam to Ligore; and the Malay See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals say that the Siamese had penetrated to the extremity of the peninsula before the first Malay See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony from Menangkabu founded See also:

• SINGAPORE (Malay, Singapiira, i.e. " The City of the Lion")

Singapore, i.e. about 1160 . Meanwhile the ancient state of Lavo (Lopburi), with its capital at Sano (Sornau or Shahr-i-nao), at one time feudatory to Swankalok-Sukhotai, remained the last stronghold of the Khmer, although even here the race was much modified by Lao-Tai See also:

• BLOOD

blood; but presently Sano also was attacked, and its fall completed the ascendancy of the Siamese (Thai) throughout the country . The city of Ayuthia which See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in A.D . 1350 upon the ruins of Sano was the capital of the first true Siamese king of all Siam . This king's sway extended to Moulmein, Tavoy, Tenasserim and the whole Malacca peninsula (where among the traders from the west Siam was known as Sornau, i.e . Shahr-i-nau, long after Sano had disappeared—See also:

• YULE
• YULE, SIR HENRY (182o-1889)

Yule's Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo, ii . 260), and was See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt even in See also:

• JAVA

Java . This is corroborated by Javan records, which describe a " Cambodian " invasion about 1340; but Cambodia was itself invaded about this time by the Siamese, who took See also:

• ANGKOR

Angkor and held it for a time, carrying off go,00o captives . The great southward expansion here recorded is confirmed by the Chinese annals of the period . The wars with Cambodia continued with varying success for some 400 years, but Cambodia gradually lost ground and was finally shorn of several provinces, her sovereign falling entirely under Siamese influence . This, how-ever, latterly became displeasing to the French, now in See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin China, and Siam was ultimately obliged to recognize the See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate forced on Cambodia by that power . Vigorous attacks were also made during this period on the Lao states to the north-west and north-east, followed by vast See also:

• DEPORTATION

deportation of the people, and Siamese supremacy was pretty firmly established in Chiengmai and its dependencies by the end of the 18th century, and over the great eastern capitals, Luang Prabang and Vien-chang, about 1828 .

During the 15th and 16th centuries Siam was frequently invaded by the Burmese and Peguans, who, attracted probably by the great wealth of Ayuthia, besieged it more than once without success, the defenders being aided by Portuguese mercenaries, till about 1555, when the city was taken and Siam reduced to dependence . From this condition, however, it was raised a few years later by the great conqueror and national See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero Phra Naret, who after subduing Laos and Cambodia invaded Pegu, which was utterly overthrown in the next century by his successors . But after the civil wars of the 18th century the Burmese, having previously taken Chieng-mai, which appealed to Siam for help, entered Tenasserim and took Mergui and Tavoy in 1764, and then advancing simultaneously from the north and the west captured and destroyed Ayuthia after a two years' See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege (1767) . The intercourse between France and Siam began about 1680 under Phra Narain, who, by the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of his minister, the Cephalonian adventurer See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine Phaulcon, sent an embassy to See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV . When the return mission arrived, the eagerness of the See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador for the king's See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, added to the intrigues of Phaulcon with the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits with the supposed intention of establishing a French supremacy, led to the death of Phaulcon, the persecution of the Christians, and the cessation of all intercourse with France . An interesting See also:

• EPISODE

episode was the active intercourse, chiefly commercial, between the Siamese and Japanese governments from 1592 to 1632 . Many Japanese settled in Siam, where they were much employed . Japan in 1898 and See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia in 1899 . A further See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention afterwards provided for a second British consular district in northern Siam, while England and France have both appointed See also:

• VICE

vice-consuls in different parts of the country . Thus foreigners in Siam, except Chinese who have no consul, could only be tried for criminal offences, or sued in civil cases, in their own consular courts . A large portion of the work of the foreign consuls, especially the British, was consequently judicial, and in 1901 the office of See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge was created by the British government, a special judge with an assistant judge being appointed to this See also:

• POST

post . Meanwhile, trade steadily increased, especially with Great Britain and the British colonies of Hong See also:

• KONG

Kong and Singapore .

The peaceful See also:

• INTERNAL

internal development of Siam seemed also likely to be favoured by the events that were taking place outside her frontiers . For centuries she had been distracted by wars with Cambodians, Peguans and Burmans, but the See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation of Lower Cochin China, See also:

• ANNAM, or ANAM

Annam and See also:

• TONGKING

Tongking by the French, and the See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of Lower and Upper Burma successively by the British, freed her from all further danger on the part of her old rivals . Unfortunately, she was not destined to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape trouble . The frontiers of Siam, both to the east and the west, had always. been vague and See also:

• ILL

ill-defined, as was natural in wild and unexplored regions inhabited by more or less barbarous tribes . The frontier between Siam and the new British possessions in Burma was settled amicably and without difficulty, but the boundary question on the east was a much more intricate one and was still outstanding . Disputes with frontier tribes led to complications with France, who asserted that the Siamese were occupying territory that rightfully belonged to Annam, which was now under French See also:

• PROTECTION

protection . France, while assuring the British Government that she laid no claim to the province of Luang Prabang, which was situated on both banks of the upper Mekong, roughly between the 18th and loth See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels, claimed that farther south the Mekong formed the true boundary between Siam and Annam, and demanded the evacuation of certain Siamese posts east of the river . The Siamese refused to yield, and early in 1893 encounters took place in the disputed area, in which a French officer was captured and French soldiers were killed . The French then despatched gunboats from Saigon to enforce their demands at Bangkok, and these made their way up to the capital in spite of an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt on the part of the Siamese See also:

• NAVAL

naval forces to bar their way . In consequence of the resistance with which they had met, the French now greatly increased their demands, insisting on the Siamese giving up all territory east of the Mekong, including about half of Luang Prabang, on the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of an See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity and on the permanent withdrawal of all troops and police to a distance of 25 kilometres from the right bank of the Mekong . Ten days' See also:

• BLOCKADE
• BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade)

blockade of the port caused the Siamese government to accede to these demands, and a treaty was made, the French sending troops to occupy Chantabun until its provisions should have been carried out . In 1895 lengthy negotiations took place between France and England concerning their respective eastern and western frontiers in Farther India .

These negotiations See also:

• BORE

bore important fruit in the Anglo-French convention of 1896, the chief See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of which was the neutralization by the contracting parties of the central portion of Siam, consisting of the basin of the river Menam, with its rich and fertile land, which contains most of the population and the wealth of the country . Neither eastern nor southern Siam was included in this agreement. but nothing was said to impair or lessen in any way the full sovereign rights of the king of Siam over those parts of the country . Siam thus has its See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence guaranteed by the two European powers who alone have interests in Indo-China, England on the west and France on the east, and has therefore a considerable political interest similar to that of See also:

• AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan, which forms a buffer state between the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian and British possessions on the north of India . Encouraged by the assurance of the Anglo-French convention, Siam now turned her whole attention to internal reform, and to such good purpose that, in a few years, improved government and expansion of trade aroused a general interestin her welfare, and gave her a stability which had before been lacking . With the growth of confidence negotiations with France were reopened, and, after long discussion, the treaty of 1893 was set aside and Chantabun evacuated in return for the cession of the provinces of Bassac, Melupre, and the remainder of Luang Prabang, all on the right bank of the Mekong, and of the maritime district of Krat . These results were embodied in a new treaty signed and ratified in 1904 . Meanwhile, in 1899, negotiations with the British government led to agreements defining the status of British subjects in Siam, and fixing the frontier between southern Siam and the British Malay States, while in 1900 the provisions of Sir J . Bowring's treaty of 1855, fixing the rates of land revenue, were abrogated in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to facilitate Siamese financial reform . In 1907 a further convention was made with France, Siam returning to the French protectorate of Cambodia the province of See also:

• BATTAMBANG, or BATTAMBONG (locally Phratabong)

Battambang conquered in 1811, and in See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation receiving back from France the maritime province of Krat and the district of Dansai, which had been ceded in 1904 . This convention also modified the extra-territorial rights enjoyed by France in Siam, and disclosed an inclination to recognize the material improvements of the preceding years . In 1907 also negotiations were opened with Great Britain, the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of which were to modify the extra-territorial rights conceded to that power by the treaty of 1855, and to remove various restrictions regarding See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation and general administration, which, though diminished from time to time by agreement, still continued to hamper the government very much . These negotiations continued all through 1908 and resulted in a treaty, signed and ratified in 1909, by which Siam ceded to Great Britain her suzerain rights over the dependencies of Kedah, See also:

• KELANTAN

Kelantan, See also:

• TRENGGANU

Trengganu and Perlis, Malay states situated in southern Siam just north of British Malaya, containing in all about a million inhabitants and for the most part flourishing and wealthy, and obtained the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical abolition of British jurisdiction in Siam proper as well as See also:

• RELIEF

relief from any obligations which, though probably very necessary when they were incurred, had long since become mere useless and vexatious obstacles to progress towards efficient government .

This treaty, a costly one to Siam, is important as opening up a prospect of ultimate See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of extra-territorial rights by all the powers . Administrative reform and an advanced railway policy have made of Siam a market for the trade of Europe, which has become an See also:

• OBJECT

object of keen competition . In 1908 the British See also:

• EMPIRE

empire retained the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, but other nations, notably See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, had recently acquired large interests in the commerce of the country . Japan also, after an interruption of more than two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years, had resumed active commercial relations with Siam . vol. vii.; J . M`Carthy, Surveying and Exploring in Siam (London, 19oo) ; See also:

• HENRI

Henri Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China (London, 1844); F . A . See also:

• NEALE, EDWARD VANSITTART (1810-1892)
• NEALE, JOHN MASON (1818–1866)

Neale, Narrative of a Residence in Siam (London, 1852) ; Sir H . See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman, The Far East (London, 1904); See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop Pallegoix, Description du royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854) ; H . W . Smythe, Five Years in Siam (London, 1898) ; J . See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson, Antiquities of Cambodia, Malacca, Indo-China and China (London, 1875) ; P .

A . See also:

• THOMPSON
• THOMPSON, FRANCIS (1860-1907)
• THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894)
• THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, BART
• THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894)
• THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONNET (1783-1869)
• THOMPSON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (18ro–1886)

Thompson, See also:

• LOTUS

Lotus Land (London, 1906); See also:

• TURPIN (d. c. 800)
• TURPIN, FRANCOIS HENRI (17og-1799)
• TURPIN, RICHARD [Drcx] (1706-1739)

Turpin, Histoire de Siam (Paris, 1719); F . See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent, Land of the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Elephant; E . Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (London, 1898) . Language and Literature . Siamese belongs to the well-defined Tai See also:

• GROUP

group of the Siamese-Chinese family of See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages . Its connexion with Chinese is clear though evidently distant, but its relationship with the other languages of the Tai group is very close . It is spoken throughout central Siam, in all parts of southern Siam except Patani Monton, in northern Siam along the river-banks as far up as Utaradit and Raheng, and in eastern Siam as far as the confines of the Korat Monton . In Patani the common language is still Malay, while in the upper parts of northern, and the outlying parts of eastern, Siam the prevailing language is Lao, though the many hill tribes which occupy the ranges of these parts have distinct languages of their own . Originally Siamese was purely monosyllabic, that is, each true word consisted of a single vowel See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound preceded by, or followed by, a consonant . Of such monosyllables there are less than two thousand, and therefore many syllables have to do See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty for the expression of more than one See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, confusion being avoided by the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone in which they are spoken, whence the term ` tonal," which is applied to all the languages of this family . The language now consists of about 15,000 words, of which compounds of two monosyllabic words and appropriations from foreign See also:

• SOURCES

sources form a very large part .

See also:

• BALI

Bali, the ancient language of the kingdom of See also:

• MAGADHA

Magadha, in which the sacred writings of Buddhism were made, was largely instrumental in forming all the languages of Further India, including Siamese—a fact which accounts for the numerous connecting links between the M6n, Burmese and Siamese languages of the present time, though these are of quite See also:

• SEPARATE

separate origin . When intercourse with the West began, and more especially when Western methods of government and education were first adopted in Siam, the tendency to utilize European words was very marked, but recently there has been an effort to avoid this by the coining of Siamese or Bali See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound words . The current Siamese characters are derived from the more monumental Cambodian See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet, which again owes its origin to the alphabet of the See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, an offshoot of the character found on the stone monuments of southern India in the 6th and 8th centuries . The sacred books of Siam are still written in the Cambodian character . The Siamese alphabet consists of 44 consonants, in each of which the vowel sound " aw " is inherent, and of 32 vowels all marked not by individual letters, but by signs written above, below, before or after the consonant in connexion with which they are to be pronounced . It may seem at first that so many as 44 consonants can scarcely be necessary, but the explanation is that several of them See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express each a slightly different intonation of what is practically the same consonant, the sound of " kh," for instance, being represented by six different letters and the sound of " t " by eight . More-over, other letters are present only for use in certain words imported from Bali or See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit . The vowel signs have no sound by them-selves, but act upon the vowel sound " aw " inherent in the consonants, converting it into " a," " i," " o," " ee," " ow," &c . Each of the signs has a name, and some of them produce modulations so closely resembling those made by another that at the present day they are scarcely to be distinguished apart . A hard-and-fast rule of See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation is that only vowel or diphthong sounds, or the letters " m," " n," " ng," " k," " t " and " p " are permissible at the end of words, and hence the final See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of all words ending in anything else is simply suppressed or is pronounced as though it were a letter naturally producing one or other of those sounds . Thus many of the words procured from foreign sources, not excluding Bali and Sanskrit, are more or less mutilated in pronunciation, though the entirely suppressed or altered letter is still retained in See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . Siamese is written from left to right .

In See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript there is usually no space between words, but See also:

• PUNCTUATION (Lat. punctum, a point)

punctuation is expressed by intervals isolating phrases and sentences . The greatest difficulty with the Siamese language lies in the tonal system . Of the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple tones there are five—the even, the circumflex, the descending, the See also:

• GRAVE

grave and the high—any one of which when applied to a word may give it a quite distinct meaning . Four of the simple tones are marked in the written character by signs placed over the consonant affected, and the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark implies that the one remaining tone is to be used . A complication is caused by the fact that the consonants are grouped into threeclasses, to each of which a special tone applies, and consequently the application of a tonal sign to a letter has a different effect, according to the class to which such letter belongs . Though many syllables have to do duty for the expression of more than one idea, the majority have only one or at most two meanings, but there are some which are used with quite a number of different inflections, each of which gives the word a new meaning . Thus, for example, the syllable khao may mean " they," " badly," " rice," " white," " old," or " See also:

• NEWS

news, simply according to the tone in which the word is spoken . Words are unchangeable and incapable of inflection . There is no See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article, and no distinction of gender, number or See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . These, when it is necessary to denote them, are expressed by explanatory words after the respective nouns; only the See also:

• DATIVE (Lat. dativus, giving or given, from dare, to give)

dative and See also:

• ABLATIVE (Lat. ablativus, sc. cases, from ablatum, taken away)

ablative are denoted by subsidiary words, which precede the nouns, the nominative being marked by its position before, the objective by its position after, the verb, and the genitive (and also the See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective) by its place after the noun it qualifies . Occasionally, how-ever, See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary nouns serve that purpose . Words like " See also:

• MOTHER

mother," " son," " water " are often employed in forming compounds to express ideas for which the Siamese have no single words, e.g. lflk can, " the son of hire," a labourer; ma mu, " the mother of the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand," the thumb .

The use of class words with numerals obtains in Siamese as it does in Chinese, Burmese, Anamese, Malay and many other Eastern languages . As in these, so in Siamese the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal pronouns are mostly represented by nouns expressive of the various shades of See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior or lower See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank according to Eastern See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette . The verb is, like the noun, perfectly colourless—See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, number, tense and See also:

• MOOD

mood being indicated by auxiliary words only when they cannot be inferred from the context . Such auxiliary words are yfl, " to be," " to dwell " (present) ; dai, " to have," leas, " end (past) ; ca, " also " (future) ; the first and third follow, the second and See also:

• FOURTH

fourth precede, the verb . See also:

• HAI (939-1038)

Hai, " to give " (prefixed), often indicates the subjunctive . As there are compound nouns, so there are compound verbs; thus, e.g. pai, " to go," is joined to a transitive verb to convert it into an intransitive or neuter; and think, " to See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch," and tang, " to be compelled," serve to form a sort of passive See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice . The number of adverbs, single and compound, is very large . The prepositions mostly consist of nouns . The construction of the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence in Siamese is straightforward and simple . The subject of the sentence precedes the verb and the object follows it . The possessive pronoun follows the object . The adverb usually follows the verb .

In compound sentences the verbs are placed together as in English, not separated by the object as in See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German . When an See also:

• ACTION

action is expressed in the past the word which forms with the verb the past tense is divided from the verb itself by the object . Examples are: See also:

• RAO, SIR DINKAR (1819–1896)
• RAO, SIR T

Rao (We) dekchai (boy) sam (three) kon (persons) cha (will) pai (go) See also:

• CHAP

chap (catch) pla (fish) samra (for) hai (give) paw (See also:

• FATHER

father) See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin (eat) . Me (Mother) tan (you) yu (live) ti (place) nai (where), or " Where is your mother ? " Me (Mother) pai (go) talat (See also:

• BAZAAR (Pers. bazar, market)

bazaar) leao (finish), or " (My) mother has gone to the bazaar," The difficulties of the Siamese language are increased by the fact that in addition to the ordinary language of the people there is a completely different set of words ordained for the use of See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty . This " Palace language appears to have come into existence from a See also:

• DESIRE

desire to avoid the employment in the presence of royalty of downright expressions of vulgarity or of words which might be capable of conveying an unpleasant or indelicate idea other than the meaning intended . In the effort to escape from the vulgar, words of Sanskrit origin have been freely adopted and many Cambodian words are also used . The language is so complete that the See also:

• DOG

dog, pig, See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

crow and other common or unclean animals are all ex-pressed by special words, while the actions of royalty, such as eating, sleeping, walking, speaking, bathing, dying, are spoken of in words quite distinct from those used to describe similar actions of ordinary people . The See also:

• PROSE

prose literature of Siam consists largely of mythological and See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical fables, almost all of which are of Indian origin, though many of them have come to Siam through Cambodia . Their number is larger than is usually supposed, many of them being known to few beyond the writers who laboriously copy them and the professional " raconteurs " who draw upon them to replenish their stock-in-trade . The best known have all been made into See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage-plays, and it is in this form that they usually come before the See also:

• NOTICE

notice of the general public . Amongst them are Ramakien, taken from the great See also:

• HINDU

Hindu epic Ramayana; Wetyasunyin, the See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale of a king who became an ascetic after contemplation of a withered tree; Worawongs, the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of a prince who loved a princess and was killed by the thrust of a magic See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear which guarded her; Chalawan, the tale of a princess beloved by a crocodile; Unarud, the life story of Anuruddha, a demigod, the See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of See also:

• KRISHNA (the Dark One)

Krishna; Phumhon, the tale of a princess beloved by an elephant; Prang tong, a story of a princess who before birth was promised to a "See also:

• YAK

yak" or See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

giant in return for a certain fruit which her mother desired to eat .

Mahasot is an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the wars of King Mahasot . Nok Khum is one of the theories of the See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

genesis of mankind, the Nok Khum being the sacred See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose or " Hansa " from whose eggs the first human beings were supposed to have been hatched . A consider-able proportion of the romances are founded upon episodes in the final life, or in one of the innumerable former existences, of the See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha . The Pattama Sompothiyan is the standard Siamese life of the Buddha . Many of the stories have their See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene laid in Himaphan, the Siamese fairyland, probably origin-ally the See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya . A great many works on See also:

• ASTROLOGY

astrology and the casting of horoscopes, on the ways to secure victory in war, success in love, in business or in gambling, are known, as also works on other branches of magic, to which subject the Siamese have always been partial . On the practice of See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, which is in close See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with magic, there are several well-known works . The Niti literature forms a class apart . The word Niti is from the Bali, and means " old saying," " tradition," " good counsel." The best known of such works are Rules for the Conduct of Kings, translated from the Bali, and The See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

Maxims of Phra Ruang, the national hero-king, on whose wonderful sayings and doings the See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination of Siamese youth is fed . In works on history the literature of Siam is unfortunately rather poor . There can be little doubt that, as in the case of all the other kingdoms of Further India, complete and detailed See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles were compiled from reign to reign by order of her kings, but of the more ancient of these, the wars and disturbances which continued with such frequency down to quite recent times have left no trace . The Annals of the North, the Annals of Krung Kao (Ayuthia) and the See also:

• BOOK

Book of the Lives of the Four Kings (of the present dynasty) together form the only more or less connected history of the country from remote times down to the beginning of the present reign, and these, at least so far as the earlier parts are concerned, contain much that is inaccurate and a good See also:

• DEAL

deal which is altogether untrue .

Foreign histories include a work on Pegu, a few tales of Cambodian kings and recently published class-books on European history compiled by the educational department . The number of works on law is considerable . The Laksana Phra Thamasat, the Phra Tamra, Phra Tamnon, Phra Racha Kamnot and Intha pat are ancient works setting forth the laws of the country in their See also:

• OLDEST

oldest form, adapted from the Dharmacastra and the See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Classification of the Law of Manu . These, and also many of the edicts passed by kings of the Ayuthia period which have been preserved, are now of value more as curiosities of literature and history than anything else, since, for all practical purposes, they have long been superseded by laws more in accordance with modern ideas . The laws of the sovereigns who have reigned at Bangkok form the most notable part of this branch of Siamese literature . They include a great number of revenue regulations, laws on civil matters such as See also:

• MORTGAGE

mortgage, See also:

• BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banquet table or counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken)

bankruptcy, rights of way, companies, &c., and laws governing the procedure of courts, all of which adhere to Western principles in the main . The latest addition is the Penal See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

Code, a large and comprehensive work based upon the Indian, Japanese and French codes and issued in 1908 . See also:

• POETRY

Poetry is a very ancient art in Siam and has always been held in high See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour, some of the best-known poets being, indeed, members of the royal family . There are several quite distinct forms of See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre, of which those most commonly used are the Klong, the Kap and the Klon . The Klong is rhythmic, the play being on the inflection of the voice in speaking the words, which inflection is arranged according to fixed schemes; the See also:

• RHYME

rhyme, if it can so be called, being sought not in the similarity of syllables but of intonation . The Kap is rhythmical and also has rhyming syllables . The lines contain an equal number of syllables, and are arranged in stanzas of four lines each .

The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second line, the last of the second with the last of the third and also with the first of the fourth line, and the last syllable of the fourth line rhymes with the last of the second line of the next succeeding See also:

• STANZA (Low Lat. stantia, Ital. stantia or stanza)

stanza . The number of poems in one or other of these two metres is very great, and includes verses on almost every theme . In the Nirat poetry, a favourite form of See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, both are often used, a stanza in Klong serving as a sort of See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument at the head of a set of verses in Kap . This Nirat poetry takes the form of narrative addressed by a traveller to his See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady-love, of a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey in which every object and circumstance serves but to remind the wanderer of some virtue or beauty of his correspondent . In most of such works the journey is of course imaginary, but in some cases it is a true See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of travelling or campaigning, and has been found to contain in-formation of value concerning the condition at certain times of out-lying parts of the kingdom . Of the little love songs in Klon metre, called Klon pet ton, there are many hundreds . These follow a prescribed form, and consist of eight lines divided into two stanzasof four lines each, every line containing eight syllables . The last syllable of the first line rhymes with the third syllable of the second, and the final of the second line with the final of the third . The songs treat of all the aspects of love . A fourth poetical metre is Chan, which, however, is not so much used as the others . The introduction of See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing in the Siamese character has revolutionized the literature of the country . See also:

• READING

Reading has become a general accomplishment, a demand for reading matter has arisen, and bookshops stocked with books have appeared to satisfy it .

The historical works above referred to have been issued in many See also:

• EDITIONS

editions, and selections from the ancient fables and romances are continually being edited and reissued in narrative form or as plays . The educational department has done good work in compiling volumes of prose and verse which have found much favour with the public . All the laws, edicts and regulations at present in force are to be had in See also:

• PRINT

print at popular prices . Printing, in fact, has supplied a great incentive to the development of literature, the output has increased enormously, and will doubtless continue to do so for a long time to come . (W . A .