See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)  , an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of the Indo-See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula or Further See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . It lies between 4° 20' and 20° 15' N. and between 96° 30' and ro6° E., and is bounded N. by the See also:

• BRITISH

British Shan States and by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• LAOS

Laos See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, E. by the French Laos country and by See also:

• CAMBODIA

Cambodia, S. by Cambodia and by the Gulf of See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam, and W. by the See also:

• TENASSERIM

Tenasserim and See also:

• PEGU

Pegu divisions of See also:

• BURMA

Burma . A See also:

• PART

part of Siam which extends down the See also:

• MALAY

Malay Peninsula is bounded E. by the Gulf of Siam and by the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• CHINA

China See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, S. by British Malaya and W. by the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal . The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area is about 220,000 sq. m . (For See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map, see Irmo-CHINA.) The country may be best considered geographically in four parts: the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern, including the drainage area of the four See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers which unite near Pak-Nam Po to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• MENAM, or ME

Menam Chao Phaya; the eastern, including the drainage area of the Nam See also:

• MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841— )
• MUN, THOMAS (1571–1641)

Mun See also:

• RIVER

river and its tributaries; the central, including the drainage area of the Meklong, the Menam Chao Phaya and the See also:

• BANG, HERMANN JOACHIM (1858– )

Bang Pakong rivers; and the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern, including that part of the country which is situated in the Malay Peninsula . Northern Siam is about 6o,000 sq. m. in area . In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance it is a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of parallel ranges of hills, lying N. and S., merely gently sloping acclivities in the S., but rising into precipitous See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain masses in the N . Between these ranges flow the rivers Meping, Mewang, Meyom and Menam, turbulent shallow streams in their upper reaches, but slow-moving and deep where they near the points of junction . The longest of them is over 250 M. from its source to its mouth . The Meping and Mewang on the W., rising among the loftiest ranges, are rapid and navigable only for small boats, while the Meyom and Menam, the eastern pair, afford passage for large boats at all seasons and for deep See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught riversteamers during the See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood-See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . The Menam is the largest, deepest and most sluggish of the four, and in many ways resembles its continuation, the Menam Chao-Phaya lower down . On the W. the river See also:

• SALWEEN

Salween and its tributary the Thoung Yin form the frontier between the Siam and Burma for some distance, draining a part of northern Siam, while in the far See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, for a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles below Chieng Sen, the See also:

• MEKONG, or ME NAM KONG (pronounced Kawng)

Mekong does the same .

The districts watered by the lower reaches of the four rivers are fertile and are inhabited by a considerable See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Siamese . Farther north the country is peopled by Laos, scattered in villages along all the river See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, and by numerous communities of Shan, See also:

• KAREN

Karen, Kamoo and other tribes living in the uplands and on the hilltops . Eastern Siam, some 70,000 sq. m. in area, is encircled by well-defined boundaries, the See also:

• GREAT

great river Mekong dividing it clearly from French Laos on the N. and E., the Pnom Dang Rek See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill range from Cambodia on the S. and the Dom Pia Fai range from central Siam on the W . The right See also:

• BANK

bank of the Mekong being closely flanked by an almost continuous hill range, the whole of this part of Siam is practically a huge See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin, the bottom of which is a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain lying from 200 to 300 ft. above sea-level, and the sides hill ranges of between r000 and 2000 ft. See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation . The plain is for the most part sandy and almost barren, subject to heavy floods in the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, and to severe drought in the dry See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather . The hills are clothed with a thin shadeless growth of stunted See also:

• FOREST

forest, which only here and there assumes the characteristics of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle . The river Nam Mun, which is perhaps 200 M. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, has a large number of tributaries, See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of which is the Nam Si . The river flows eastward and falls into the Mekong at 15° 20' N. and 1os° 40' E . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good way farther north two small rivers, the Nam See also:

• KUM

Kum and the Nam See also:

• SONG

Song Kram, also tributaries of the Mekong, drain a small part of eastern Siam . Nearly two million See also:

• PEOPLE

people, mixed Siamese, Lao and Cambodian, probably among the poorest peasantry in the See also:

• WORLD

world, support existence in this inhospitable region . Central Siam, estimated at 50,000 sq. m. in area, is the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the kingdom, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the greater part of its population, and the source of nine-tenths of its See also:

• WEALTH

wealth . In general appearance it is a great plain flanked by high mountains on its western border, inclining gently to the sea in the S. and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the inner Gulf of Siam, and with a long See also:

• STRIP

strip of mountainous sea-See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board stretching out to the S.E .

The mountain range on the W. is a continuation of one of the ranges of northern Siam, which, extending still farther southward, ultimately forms the backbone of the Malay Peninsula . Its See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge is the boundary between central Siam and Burma . The highest See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak hereabouts is Mogadok, 5000 ft., See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the border . On the E. the Dom Pia Fai throws up a point over 4000 ft., and the south-eastern range which divides the narrow, littoral, See also:

• CHANTABUN, or CITANTABURI

Chantabun and Krat districts from Cambodia, has the Chemao, Saidao and Kmoch heights, between 3000 and 5000 ft . The Meklong river, which drains the western parts of central Siam, rises in the western border range, follows a course a little E. of S., and runs into the sea at the western corner of the inner gulf, some 200 M. distant from its source . It is a rapid, shallow stream, subject to sudden rises, and navigable for small boats only . The Bang Pakong river rises among the Wattana hills on the eastern border, between the Battambong See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Cambodia and Siam . It flows N., then W., then S., describing a semicircle through the fertile See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Pachim, and falls into the sea at the north-east corner of the inner gulf . The whole course of this river is about See also:

• ROOM

room. long; its current is sluggish, but that of its chief tributary, the Nakhon Nayok river, is rapid . The Bang Pakong is navigable for steamers of small draught for about 3o m . The Menam Chao Phaya, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal river of Siam, flows from the point where it is formed by the junction of the rivers of northern Siam almost due S. for 154 m., when it empties itself into the inner gulf about midway between the Meklong and Bang Pakong mouths . In the neighbourhood of Chainat, 40 M. below Paknam Poh, it throws off three branches, the Suphan river and the Menam Noi on the right, and the Lopburi river on the See also:

• LEFT

left bank .

The latter two rejoin the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent stream at points considerably lower down, but the Suphan river remains distinct, and has an outlet of its own to the sea . At a point a little more than See also:

• HALF

half-way down its course, the Menam Chao Phaya receives the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of its only tributary, the Nam Sak, a good-sized stream which rises in the east of northern Siam 4nd waters the most easterly part (the Pechabun valley) of that See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the country . The whole course of the Menam Chao Phaya lies through a perfectly See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat country . It is deep, fairly rapid, subject to a See also:

• REGULAR

regular rise and flood every autumn, but not to sudden freshets, and is affected by the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide 50 M. inland . For 20 m. it is navigable for vessels of over r000 tons, and were it not for the enormous See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar which lies across the mouth, See also:

• SHIPS

ships of almost any See also:

• SIZE

size could See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie at the See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• BANGKOK

Bangkok about that distance from the sea (see BANGKOK) . Vessels up to 300 tons and 12 ft. draught can ascend the river 50 M. and more, and beyond that point large river-boats and deep-draught launches can navigate for many miles . The river is always charged with a great quantity of silt which during flood season is deposited over the surrounding plain to the great enhancement of its fertility . There is practically no forest growth in central Siam, except on the slopes of the hills which See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound this section . The See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest is open See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice-See also:

• LAND

land, alternating with great stretches of grass, See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed jungle and See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo scrub, much of which is under See also:

• WATER

water for quite three months of the See also:

• YEAR

year . Southern Siam, which has an area of about 20,000 sq. m., consists of that part of the Malay Peninsula which belongs to the Siamese kingdom . It extends from ro° N. southwards to 6° 35' N. on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the peninsula, and to 6° 25' N. on the east coast, between which points stretches the frontier of British Malaya . It is a strip of land narrow at the north end and widening out towards the south, consisting roughly of the continuation of the mountain range which See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds central Siam on the W., though the range appears in certain parts as no more than a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of hillocks .

The inhabitable part of the land consists of the lower slopes of the range with the valleys and small alluvial plains which lie between its spurs . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder is covered for the most part with dense forest containing several kinds of valuable See also:

• TIMBER

timber . The coast both east and west is much indented, and is studded with islands . The rivers are small and shallow . The highest mountain is Kao Luang, an almost isolated See also:

• PROJECTION

projection over 5000 it. high, round the See also:

• BASE

base of which lie the most fertile lands of this section, and near which aresituated the towns of See also:

• BANDON, or BANDONBRIDGE

Bandon, Nakhon Sri Tammarat (Lakhon) and Patalung, as well as many villages . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.'—Very little is known of the geology of Siam . It appears to be composed chiefly of Palaeozoic rocks, concealed, in the plains, by See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary, and possibly See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary, deposits . Near Luang Prabang, just beyond the border, in French territory, limestones with Productus and Schwagerina, like the Productus See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt Range, have been found; also red See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays and grauwacke with See also:

• PLANTS

plants similar to those of the Raniganj beds; and See also:

• VIOLET

violet clays with Dicynodon, supposed to be the equivalents of the Panche series of India . All these beds strike from north-east to south-west and must enter the northern part of Siam . Farther south, at See also:

• VIEN, JOSEPH MARIE (1716-1809)

Vien-Tiane, the Mekong passes through a See also:

• GORGE

gorge cut in See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone, arkose and See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists with a similar strike; while at Lakhon there are steeply inclined limestones which strike north-west . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—Although enervating, the climate of Siam, as is natural from the position of the country, is not one of extremes . The wet season—May to See also:

• OCTOBER

October—corresponds with the prevalence of the south-west See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon in the Bay of Bengal .

The full force of the monsoon is, however, broken by the western frontier hills; and while the rainfall at See also:

• MERGUI

Mergui is over 18o, and at See also:

• MOULMEIN (or MAULMEIN)

Moulmein 240 in., that of Bangkok seldom exceeds 54, and Chiengmai records an See also:

• AVERAGE

average of about 42 in . See also:

• PUKET (also known by the Chinese name Tongkah)

Puket and Chantabun, being both on a See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

lee See also:

• SHORE

shore, in this season experience rough weather and a heavy rainfall; the latter, being farther from the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator, is the worse off in this respect . At this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the temperature is generally moderate, 65 to 750 F. at See also:

• NIGHT

night and 75° to 85° by See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day; but breaks in the rains occur which are hot and steamy . The cool season begins with the commencement of the north-east monsoon in the China Sea in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . While Siam enjoys a dry climate with cool nights (the thermometer at night often falling to 40°—50° F., and seldom being over 90° in the shade by day), the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula receives the full force of the north-easterly See also:

• GALES (mod. Calvi)

gales from the sea . This lasts into See also:

• FEBRUARY

February, when the northerly current begins to lose strength, and the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• HEATING

heating of the land produces See also:

• LOCAL

local sea breezes from the gulf along the coast-See also:

• LINE

line . Inland, the thermometer rises during the day to over See also:

• IOO

ioo° F., but the extreme See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental heats of India are not known . The See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative humidity of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, however, makes the climate trying for Europeans . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—In its flora and See also:

• FAUNA

fauna Siam combines the forms of Burma and the Shan States with those of Malaya, farther south, and of Cambodia to the south-east . The coast region is characterized by mangroves, Pandanus, rattans, and similar palms with long flexible stems, and the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle region by the great rice-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, the coco-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut and areca palms, and the usual tropical plants of culture . In the temperate uplands of the interior, as about Luang Prabang, Himalayan and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese See also:

• SPECIES

species occur—oaks, pines, chestnuts, See also:

• PEACH
• PEACH, CHARLES WILLIAM (1800-1886)

peach and great See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple trees, raspberries, See also:

• HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., honysocle, i.e. any plant from which honey may be sucked,—cf. A.-S. huni-suge, privet; Ger. Geissblalt; Fr. chevrefeuille)

honeysuckle, vines, saxifrages, Cichoraceae, anemones and Violaceae; there are many valuable timber trees—See also:

• TEAK

teak, sappan, See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle-See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, wood-oil (Hopea), and other Dipterocarpaceae, Cedrelaceae, Pterocarpaceae, Xylia, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-wood and other dye-See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods and resinous trees, these last forming in many districts a large proportion of the more open forests, with an undergrowth of bamboo . The teak See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree grows all over the hill districts north of See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude 15° but seems to attain its best development on the west, and on the east does not appear to be found south of 17° .

Most of the so-called Burma teak exported from Moulmein is floated down from Siamese territory . Among other valuable forest products are thingan wood (Ho See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea odorata), largely used for See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat-See also:

• BUILDING

building; damar oil, taken throughout Indo-China from the Dipterecarpus See also:

• LEVIS (formerly Pointe Levi)

levis; agilla wood, sapan, See also:

• ROSEWOOD

rosewood, iron-wood, See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony, rattan . Among the chief productions of the plains are rice (the See also:

• STAPLE

staple export of the country) ; See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper (chiefly from Chantabun) ; sirih, See also:

• SAGO

sago, See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane, coco-nut and betel, See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra or sugar and attap palms; 'many forms cf See also:

• BANANA

banana and other See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit, such as See also:

• DURIAN (Malay, duri, a thorn)

durian, See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange-pommelo, See also:

• GUAVA (from the Mexican guayaba)

guava, See also:

• BREAD

bread-fruit, See also:

• MANGO

mango, See also:

• JACK

jack fruit, See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-apple, custard-apple and See also:

• MANGOSTEEN (Garcinia Mangostana)

mangosteen . Fauna.—Few countries are so well stocked with big See also:

• GAME

game as is Siam . Chief of animals is the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant, which roams See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, and is extensively caught and tamed by the people for transport . The See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger, See also:

• LEOPARD

leopard, fishing-See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat, leopard-cat, and other species of wild-cat, as well as the See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey-See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear, large See also:

• SLOTH

sloth-bear, and one- and two-horned See also:

• RHINOCEROS

rhinoceros, occur . Among the great wild See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle are the formidable See also:

• GAUR
• GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI

gaur, or seladang, the banting, and the water-See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo . The See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope is found, aad several varieties of See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer . Wild See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig, several species of rats, and many bats—one of the commonest being the flying-See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, and many species of See also:

• MONKEY

monkey—especially the See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

gibbon—are also met with . Of See also:

• SNAKES

snakes, 56 species are known, but only 12 are poisonous, and of these 4 are sea-snakes . The waters of Siam are particularly See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish . The See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile is See also:

• COMMON

common in many of the rivers and estuaries of Siam, and there are many lizards .

The country is rich in birds, a large number of which appear to be common to Burma and Cambodia . ' See E . See also:

• JOUBERT, BARTHELEMY CATHERINE (1769–1799)
• JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754–1824)
• JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834–1900)

Joubert in F . See also:

• GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813–1881)
• GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821)
• GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898)
• GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839–1873)
• GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545–c.1600)

Garnier, Voyage d'exploration en Indo-Chine (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1873), vol . :i.; Counillon, Documents pour servir a l'etude geologique See also:

• DES

des environs de Luang Prabang (Cochinchine), Comptes rendus (1896), exxiii . 1330-1333 . Inhabitants.—A See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of the rural population was taken for the first time in 1905 . The first census of Bangkok and its suburbs was taken in 1909 . Results show the total population of the country to be about 6,230,000 . Of this total about 3,000,000 are Siamese, about 2,000,000 Laos, about 400,000 Chinese, 115,000 Malay, 80,000 Cambodian and the rest Burmese, Indian, Mohn, Karen, Annamite, Kache, Lawa and others . Of Europeans and Americans there are between 1300 and 1500, mostly See also:

• RESIDENT

resident in Bangkok . Englishmen number about 500; Germans, 190; Danes, 16o; Americans, 150, and other nationalities are represented in smaller numbers .

The Siamese inhabit central Siam principally, but extend into the nearer districts of all the other sections . The Laos predominate in northern and eastern Siam, See also:

• MALAYS

Malays mingle with the Siamese in southern Siam, and the Chinese are found scattered all over, but keeping mostly to the towns . Bangkok, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, with some 650,000 inhabitants, is about one-third Chinese, while in the suburbs are to be found settlements of Mohns, Burmese, Annamites and Cambodians, the descendants of captives taken in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• WARS

wars . The See also:

• EURASIAN

Eurasian population of Siam is very small compared with that of other large cities of the East . Of the tribes which occupy the mountains of Siam some are the remnants of the very ancient inhabitants of the country, probably of the Mohn-Khmer See also:

• FAMILY

family, who were supplanted by a later influx of more civilized Khmers from the south-east, the forerunners and part-ancestors of the Siamese, and were still farther thrust into the remoter hills when the Lao-Tai descended from the north . Of these the principal are the Lawa, Lamet, Ka Hok, Ka Yuen and Kamoo, the last four collectively known to the Siamese as Ka . Other tribes, whose presence is probably owing to See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration at remote or See also:

• RECENT

recent periods, are the Karens of the western frontier range, the Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur of northern Siam . The Karens of Siam number about 20,000, and are found as See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan south as 13° N . They are See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere offshoots from the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main tribes which inhabit the Burma See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the boundary range, and are supposed by some to be of Burmo-Tibetan origin . The Lu, Yao, Yao Yin, Meo and Musur have Yunnanese characteristics, are met with in the Shan States north of Siam and in Yun-nan, and are supposed to have found their way into northern Siam since the beginning of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . In the mountains behind Chantabun a small tribe called Chong is found, and in southern Siam the Sakei and See also:

• SEMANG

Semang inhabit the higher ranges . These last three have Negrito characteristics, and probably represent a See also:

• RACE

race far older even than the ancient Ka .

The typical Siamese is of See also:

• MEDIUM

medium height, well formed, with See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive complexion, darker than the Chinese, but fairer than the Malays, eyes well shaped though slightly inclined to the oblique, See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose broad and flat, lips prominent, the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face wide across the cheek-bones and the See also:

• CHIN

chin See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short . A thin See also:

• MOUSTACHE, or MUSTACHIO

moustache is common, the See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard, if See also:

• PRESENT

present, is plucked out, and the See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head is See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, coarse and cut short . The lips are usually deep red and the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth stained black from the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of betel-chewing . The See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children are See also:

• PRETTY

pretty but soon lose their See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm, and the race, generally speaking, is ugly from the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European standpoint . The position of See also:

• WOMEN

women is good . See also:

• POLYGAMY, (Gr. nabs, many, and yayos, marriage)

Polygamy is permitted, but is common only among the upper classes, and when it occurs the first wife is acknowledged head of the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household . In disposition the Siamese are mild-mannered, patient, submissive to authority, kindly and hospitable to strangers . They are a See also:

• LIGHT

light-hearted, apathetic people, little given to quarrelling or to the See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission of violent See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime . Though able and intelligent cultivators they do not take kindly to any form of labour other than agricultural, with the result that most of the See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries and trades of the country are in the hands of Chinese . The See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume of the Siamese is the panung, a piece of See also:

• CLOTH

cloth about I yd. wide and 3 yds. long . The middle of it is passed round the See also:

• BODY

body, which it covers from the See also:

• WAIST

waist to the knees, and is hitched in front so that the two ends hang down in equal length before; these being See also:

• TWISTED

twisted together are passed back between the legs, See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up and tucked into the waist at the middle of the back . The panung is common to both sexes, the women supplementing it with a See also:

• SCARF

scarf worn round the body under the arms .

Among the better classes both sexes See also:

• WEAR

wear also a jacket buttoned to the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat, stockings and shoes, and all the men, except servants, wear hats . The staple See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food of the Siamese is rice and fish . See also:

• MEAT

Meat is eaten, but, as the slaughter of animals is against Buddhist tenets, is not often obtainable, with the exception of pork, killed by Chinese . The men See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke, but the women do not . Everybody chews betel . The principal pastimes are gambling, boat-racing, See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock- and fish-fighting and See also:

• KITE

kite-flying, and a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• FOOTBALL

football . See also:

• SLAVERY

Slavery, once common, has been gradually abolished by a series of See also:

• LAWS

laws, the last of which came into force in 1905 . No such thing as See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste exists, and See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth is no insuperable bar to the attainment of the highest dignities . There are no hereditary titles, those in use being conferred foe See also:

• LIFE

life only and being attached to some particular See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office . Towns.—There are very few towns with a population of over to,000 inhabitants in Siam, the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority being merely scattered townships or clusters of villages, the capitals of the provinces (muang) being often no more than a few houses gathered round the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, the offices and the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor's See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence . The more important places of northern Siam include Chieng See also:

• MAI, ANGELO (1782—1854)

Mai (q.v.), the capital ,of the north, Chieng Rai, near the northern frontier; Lampun, also known as Labong (originally Haribunchai), the first Lao See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in Siam ; Lampang, See also:

• TERN (Norsk taerne, tende or tende; Swedish tarna; Dutch Stern1)

Tern, Nan and Pre, each the seat of a Lao chief and of a Siamese See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner; Utaradit, Pichai, Pichit, Pechabun and Raheng, the last of importance as a timber station, with Phitsnulok, Sukhotai, Swankalok, Kampeng Pet and Nakhon Sawan, former capitals of Khmer-Siamese kingdoms, and at present the headquarters of provincial governments . In eastern Siam the only towns of importance are See also:

• KORAT

Korat and Ubon, capitals of divisions, and Nong Kai, an ancient place on the Mekong river .

In central Siam, after Bangkok and See also:

• AYUTHIA

Ayuthia, places of importance on the Menam Chao Phaya are Pak-Nam at the river mouth, the seat of a governor, See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus of a railway and site of See also:

• MODERN

modern fortifications; Paklat, the seat of a governor, a See also:

• TOWN

town of Mohns, descendants of refugees from Pegu; Nontaburi, a. few miles above Bangkok, the seat of a governor and possessing a large market; Pratoomtani, Angtong, Prom, Inburi, Chainat and Saraburi, all administrative centres; and Lopburi, the last capital before Ayuthia and the residence of See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings during the Ayuthia period, a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of ruins now gradually reawakening as a centre of railway See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic . To the west of the Menam Chao Phaya lie Suphanburi and Ratburi, ancient cities, now See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government headquarters; Pechaburi (the Piply of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early travellers), the terminus of the western railway; and Phrapatoom, with its huge See also:

• PAGODA (Port. pagode, a word introduced in the 16th century by the early Portuguese adventurers in India, reproducing phonetically some native word, possibly Pers. but-kadah, a house for an idol, or some form of Sansk. bhagavat, divine, holy)

pagoda on the site of the capital of Sri Wichaiya, a kingdom of 2000 years ago, and now a place of military, agricultural and other See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools . To the east, in the Bang Pakong river-basin and down the eastern shore of the gulf, are Pachim, a divisional headquarters; See also:

• PETRIOU (also called Cha-chang-sao)

Petriou (q.v.); Bang Plasoi, a fishing centre, with Rayong, Chantabun (q.v.) and Krat, producing gems and pepper . In southern Siam the chief towns are Chumpon; Bandon, with a growing timber See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry; Nakhon Sri Tammarat (q.v.); See also:

• SINGORA, or SONGKLA (the Sangore of early navigators)

Singora (q.v.); Puket (q.v.); Patani . Communications.—Central Siam is supplied with an exceptionally See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• SYSTEM

system of water communications; for not only has it the three rivers with their tributaries and much-divided courses, but all three are linked together by a series of canals which, See also:

• RUNNING

running in parallel lines across the plain from E. to W., make the farthest corners of this section of the kingdom easily accessible from the capital . The level of the land is so low, the See also:

• SOIL

soil so soft, and See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone suitable for See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal so entirely absent, that the making and upkeep of roads would here be ruinously expensive . Former rulers have realized this and have therefore confined themselves to See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal making . Some of the canals are very old, others are of comparatively recent construction . In the past they were often allowed to fall into disrepair, but in 1903 a See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of government was formed to See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control their upkeep, with the result that most of them were soon furnished with new locks, deepened, and made thoroughly service-able . The boat traffic on them is so great that the collection of a small See also:

• TOLL (etymologically, that which is numbered or counted; from a common Teutonic form, cf. " tale," " tell ")
• TOLL, JOHAN KRISTOFFER, COUNT (1743-1817)

toll more than suffices to pay for all See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance expenses . In northern and southern Siam, where the conditions are different, roads are being slowly made, but natural difficulties are great, and travelling in those distant parts is still a See also:

• MATTER

matter of much discomfort . In 1909 there were 64o miles of railway open .

All but 65 miles was under See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state management . The main line from Bangkok to the north had reached Pang Tong Phung, some distance north of Utaradit and to m. south of Meh Puak, which was selected as the terminus for the time being, the continuation to Chieng Mai., the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective, being postponed pending the construction of another and more important line . This latter was the continuation through southern Siam of the line already constructed from Bangkok south-west to Petchaburi (See also:

• ITO, HIROBUMI, PRINCE (1841-1909)

Ito m.), with funds borrowed, under a recent agreement, from the Federated (British) Malay States government, which See also:

• WORK

work, following upon surveys made in 1907, was begun in 1909 under the direction of a newly constituted southern See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Royal See also:

• RAILWAYS

Railways department . From See also:

• BAN

Ban Paji on the main line a branch extends north-eastwards I to m. to Korat . To the east of Bangkok the Bangkok-Petriew line (40 m.) was completed and open for traffic . The postal service extends to all parts of the country and is fairly efficient . Siam joined the Postal See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union in 1885 . The inland See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph is also widely distributed, and See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign lines communicate with See also:

• SAIGON

Saigon, the Straits Settlements and Moulmein . A griculture.—The cultivation of paddi (unhusked rice) forms the occupation of practically the whole population of Siam outside the capital . See also:

• PRIMITIVE

Primitive methods obtain, but the Siamese are efficient cultivators and secure good harvests nevertheless . The See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")