SIGNAL  (a word See also:

• COMMON

common in slightly different forms to nearly See also:

• COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD (1831-1899)

Colomb's flashing See also:

• SYSTEM

system, on which he had been at See also:

• WORK

work since 1858 . In the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• NAVY

navy, which serves as a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model to most others, visual signals are made with flags or pendants, the See also:

• SEMAPHORE
• SEMAPHORE (Gr. oiva, sign, and (Popa, carrying, from &ea)

semaphore, flashing, and occasionally See also:

• FIREWORKS

fireworks . See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

Sound signals are made with See also:

• FOG

fog-horns, See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-whistles, See also:

• SIRENS (Gr. Metpi7ves)

sirens and guns . The number of flags in use in the See also:

• NAVAL

naval See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code, comprising what is termed a " set," are 58, and consist of 26 alphabetical flags, so See also:

• NUMERAL (from Lat. numerus, a number)

numeral flags, 16 pendants and 6 See also:

• SPECIAL

special flags . See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

Flag signals are divided into three classes, to each of which is allotted a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• BOOK

book . One class consists of two alphabetical flags; and refers to orders usual in the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of a See also:

• SQUADRON

squadron, such as, for example, the flags LE, which might signify " See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain repair on See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board See also:

• FLAGSHIP

flagship." Another class consists of three alphabetical flags, which refer to a coded See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary, wherein are words and See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short sentences likely to be required . The remaining refers to evolutionary orders for manoeuvring, which have alphabetical and numeral flags combined . The flags which constitute a signal are termed a " hoist." One or more hoists may be made at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Although flag signalling is a slow method compared with others, a See also:

• FAIR

fair See also:

• RATE

rate can be attained with practice . For example, a signal involving 162 separate hoists has been repeated at sight by 13 See also:

• SHIPS

ships in See also:

• COMPANY

company in 76 minutes . Semaphore signals are made by the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's arms through a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• PLANE

plane, the different symbols being distinguished by the relative positions of the arms, which are never less than 45° apart . To render the signals more conspicuous the signaller usually holds a small flag on a stick in each See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, but all ships are fitted with See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical semaphores, which can be worked by one man, and are visible several See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles .

Flag signalling being comparatively slow and laborious, the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message work in a squadron is generally signalled by semaphore . The convenience of this method is enormous, and by way of example it may be of See also:

• INTEREST

interest to mention a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record message of 350 words which was signalled to 21 ships simultaneously at the rate of 17 words per See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute . Flags being limited in See also:

• SIZE

size, and only distinguishable by their See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, signals by this means are not altogether satisfactory at See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long distances, even when the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind is suitable . For signalling at long range the British navy employs a semaphore with arms from 9 to 12 ft. long mounted at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the See also:

• MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic languages, and ultimately connected with " meat")
• MAST (I) (O. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mast us comes Fr. malt)

mast and capable of being trained in any required direction, and worked from the See also:

• DECK

deck . Its range depends upon the clearness of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere, but instances are on record where a message by this means has been read at 16 to 18 m . See also:

• NIGHT

Night signalling is carried out by means of " flashing," by which is meant the exposure and See also:

• ECLIPSE (Gr. €uheo,tis, falling out of place, failing)

eclipse of a single See also:

• LIGHT

light for short and long periods of time, representing the dots and dashes composing the required See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol . The dots and dashes can be made mechanically by an obscuring arrangement, or by electromechanical means where magnets do the work, or by simply switching on and off specially manufactured electric lamps . The ordinary rate of signalling by flashing is from 7 to 10 words per minute . In the British navy, as in the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, dots and dashes are short and long exposures of light; but with some nations the dots and dashes are short and long periods of darkness, the light punctuating the spaces between them . The British navy uses the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European modification of the so-called See also:

• MORSE, SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE (1791—1872)

Morse code used in telegraphy, but with special signs added suitable to their code . The introduction of the " dot and dash " system into the British navy was entirely due to the perseverance of See also:

• VICE

Vice-See also:

• ADMIRAL

Admiral Colomb, who, in spite of See also:

• GREAT

great opposition, and even after it had once been condemned on its first trial at See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, carried it through with the greatest success . The value of this innovation made in 1867 may be gauged by the fact that now it is possible to handle a See also:

• FLEET

fleet with ease and safety in darkness and fog—a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of affairs which did not formerly exist .

The simplicity of the dot and dash principle is its best feature . As the system only requires the See also:

• EXHIBITION

exhibition of two elements it may be used in a variety of different See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners with a minimum of material, namely, by waving the most conspicuous See also:

• OBJECT

object at hand through short and long arcs, by exhibiting two different shapes, each representing one of the elements, or dipping a See also:

• LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aa urritp, a torch or lamp, Aaµaew, to shine, cf. " lamp "; the 16th- and 17th-century form " lanthorn " is due to a mistaken derivation from " horn," as a m

lantern in a bucket, and so on . Its all European See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, derived from See also:

• LAT

Lat. signum, a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, sign), a means of transmitting See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, according to some pre-arranged system or code, in cases where a See also:

• DIRECT

direct verbal or written statement is unnecessary, undesirable, or impracticable . The methods employed vary with the circumstances and the purposes in view, and the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium into which the transmitted See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea is translated may consist of visible See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, sounds, motions, or indeed anything that is capable of affecting the senses, so long as an understanding has been previously effected with the recipient as to the meaning involved . Any two persons may thus arrange a system for the transmission of intelligence between them, and See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret codes of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, depending on the inflections of the See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice, the See also:

• ACCENT

accent on syllables or words, the arrangement of sentences, &c., have been so elaborated as to serve for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of phenomena such as are sometimes attributed to See also:

• TELEPATHY (Gr. rnXe, far, wan, feelings), or THOUGHT TRANSFERENCE

telepathy or thought transference . With the many private developments of such codes we are not here concerned, nor is it necessary to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt an explanation of the systems of See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum-taps, See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke-fires, &c., by which certain See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive peoples are supposed to be able to convey See also:

• NEWS

news over long distances with astonishing rapidity; the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is confined to giving an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the organized methods of signalling employed at sea, in military operations and on See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, these being matters of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical public importance . Marine Signalling.—A system of marine signals comprises different methods of conveying orders or information to or from a See also:

• SHIP

ship in sight and within See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing, but at a distance too great to permit of hailing—in other words, beyond the reach of the voice, even when aided by the speaking-See also:

• TRUMPET (Fr. trompette, clairon; Ger. ,Trompete, Klarino, Trummet; Ital. tromba, trombetta, clarino)
• TRUMPET, SPEAKING AND HEARING

trumpet . The See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of some See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of rapidly conveying orders or intelligence to a distance was See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early recognized . See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius describes two methods, one proposed by See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas Tacticus more than three centuries before See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, and one perfected by himself, which, as any word could be spelled by it, anticipated the underlying principle of later systems . The signal codes of the ancients are believed to have been elaborate . Generally some kind of flag was used . See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

Shields were also displayed in a preconcerted manner, as at the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• MARATHON

Marathon, and some have imagined that the reflected rays of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun were flashed from them as with the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• HELIOGRAPH (from Gr. riXLos, sun, and ypackly to write)

heliograph .

In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages flags, See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

banners and lanterns were used to distinguish particular squadrons, and as marks of See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, as they are at present, also to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call See also:

• OFFICERS

officers to the admiral, and to See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report sighting the enemy and getting into danger . The invention of See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon made an important addition to the means of signalling . In the instructions issued by See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin de See also:

• PADILLA, JUAN LOPEZ DE

Padilla in 1597 the use of guns, See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights and fires is mentioned . The introduction of the square rig permitted a further addition, that of letting fall a See also:

• SAIL

sail a certain number of times . Before the middle of the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century only a few stated orders and reports could be made known by signalling . Flags were used by See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, and lights, occasionally with guns, at night . The signification then, and for a long time after, depended upon the position in which the light or flag was displayed . Orders, indeed, were as often as possible communicated by hailing or even by means of boats . As the size of ships increased the inconvenience of both plans became intolerable . Some attribute the first attempt at a See also:

• REGULAR

regular code to Admiral See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• PENN, WILLIAM (1621–1670)
• PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718)

Penn (1621-1670), but the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of it is usually given to See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James II. when See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York . Notwithstanding the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention paid to the subject by See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul See also:

• HOSTE, SIR WILLIAM (178o-1828)

Hoste and others, signals continued strangely imperfect till See also:

• LATE

late in the 18th century . Towards 1780 Admiral See also:

• KEMPENFELT, RICHARD (1718-1782)

Kempenfelt devised a plan of flag-signalling which was the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent of that now in use .

Instead of indicating See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of meaning by varying the position of a solitary flag, he combined distinct flags in pairs . About the beginning of the 19th century Sir See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

Home See also:

• POPHAM, SIR HOME RIGGS (1762-1820)
• POPHAM, SIR JOHN (c. 1531-1607)

Popham improved a method of conveying messages by flags proposed by R . See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall See also:

• GOWER
• GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408)

Gower (1767-1833), and greatly increased a ship's See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of communicating with others . The number of night and fog signals that could be shown was still very restricted . In 1867 an innovation of prodigious importance was made by the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption in the British navy of Vice-Admiral (then Captain) See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip adoption has not only contributed very materially to the in-creased efficiency of the British navy, but it has been made optional for use with the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine . Curiously enough, flashing is not to any great extent used in the navies of other countries which rely more on some system of coloured lights at night . This system generally takes the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of four or five See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-coloured lanterns, which are suspended from some See also:

• PART

part of the mast in a vertical See also:

• LINE

line . Each lantern generally contains a red and a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

lamp, either of which can be switched on . By a suitable See also:

• KEYBOARD, or MANUAL (Fr. clavier; Ger. Klaviatur; Ital. tastatura)

keyboard on deck any See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of these coloured lanterns can be shown . The See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of this system lies in the fact that each symbol is self-evident in its entirety, and does not require an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert signalman to read it, as is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with flashing, which is a progressive performance . For long distances at night the See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search-light, or some other high power electric arc light, is utilized on the flashing system . Dots and dashes are then made either by flashing the light directly on the object, or by waving the See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

beam up and down for short and long periods of time .

Sometimes when a convenient See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud is available the reflection of the beam has been read for nearly 40 m., with See also:

• LAND

land intervening between the two ships . In a fog signals are made by the steam-See also:

• WHISTLE

whistle, fog-See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn, See also:

• SIREN

siren or by guns . Except for the latter method the dot and dash system is employed in a similar mariner to flashing a light . Guns are some-times used in a fog for signalling, the signification being deter-See also:

• MINED

mined by certain timed intervals between the discharges . The larger British ships are supplied with See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments for connexion with the See also:

• SHORE

shore, and heliographs are provided for land operations . Marine galvanometers are also provided, and can be used to communicate through submarine cables . To the various methods of naval signalling must be added wireless telegraphy, which in its application to ships at sea bids fair to solve some problems hitherto impracticable . (See TELEGRAPHY: IV ireless.) The See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international code of signals, for use between ships of all nations, is perhaps the best universal dictionary in existence . By its means mariners can talk with great ease without knowing a word of one another's See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . By means of a few flags any question can be asked and answered . The number of international flags and pendants used with the international code is 27, consisting of a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet and a special See also:

• PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang)

pendant characteristic of the code . At night flashing may be used .

(C . A . G . B.; A . F . E) Army Signalling.—Communication by visual signals between portions of an army is a comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent development of military service . Actual signals were of course made in all ages of warfare, either specially agreed upon beforehand, such as a See also:

• ROCKET

rocket or See also:

• BEACON (from the O. Eng. beacn, a sign, cf. " beckon," another form of the same word)

beacon, or of more See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general application, such as the old-fashioned wooden telegraph and the combinations of lights, &c., used by savages on the N.W. frontier of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . But it was not until the middle years of the 19th century that military signalling proper, as a special See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of soldiers, became at all general . It was about the See also:

• YEAR

year 1865 that, owing to the initiative of Captain Philip Colomb, R.N., whose signal system had been adopted for his own service, the question of army signalling was seriously taken up by the British military authorities . A school of signal-See also:

• LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839)

ling was created at See also:

• CHATHAM
• CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT

Chatham, and some time later all See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units of the line were directed to furnish men to be trained as signallers . At first a code book was used and the signals represented code words, but it was found better to revert to the telegraphic system of signalling by the Morse alphabet, amongst the undeniable advantages of which was the fact that it was used both by the postal service and the telegraph units of Royal See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

Engineers . Thenceforward, in ever-increasing perfection, the work of signallers has been a feature of almost every See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of the British army .

To the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original flags have been added the heliograph (for long-distance work), the semaphore system of the Royal Navy (for very rapid signalling at short distances), and the lamps of various kinds for working by night . Full and detailed instructions for the proper performance of the work, which provide for almost every possible contingency, have been published and are enforced . The apparatus employed for signalling in the British service consists of flags, large and small, heliograph and lamp for night work . The distances at which their signals can be read vary very considerably, the flags having but a limited Apparatus. See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of usefulness, whilst the range of a heliograph is very great indeed . Whether it be ro m. or too away, it has been found in practice that, given See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good sunlight, nothing but the presence of an intervening See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical obstacle, such as a See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge or See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, prevents communication . For shorter distances moonlight, and even artificial light, have on occasion been employed as the source of light . In See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe the use of the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument is much restricted by See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, and, further, stretches of See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, permitting of a line of See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision between distant hills, are not often found . It is in the wilder parts of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, that is to say in colonial theatres of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, that the astonishing value of the heliograph is displayed . In European warfare flag signalling is more usually emplo Ted . The flags in use are See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue and white, the former for w ' with light, the latter for dark backgrounds . There is further a distinction between the " small " flag, which is employed for semaphore messages and for rapid Morse over somewhat shorter distances, and the " large " flag, which is readable at a distance of 5 to 7 rn., as against the maximum of 4 M. allowed to the small flag . With a clear atmosphere these distances may be exceeded .

The respective sizes of these flags are as follows: large flag 3'X3', See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole 5' 6" long; small flag 2'X 2', pole 3' 6" long . The lamps used for night signalling are of many kinds . Officially only the " See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime light " and the " Begbie " lamps are recognized, but a considerable number of the old-fashioned oil lamps is still in use, especially in the See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary forces, and many experiments have been made with See also:

• ACETYLENE

acetylene . The lime light is obtained by raising a lime See also:

• PENCIL (Lat. penicillus, brush, literally little tail)

pencil to a white See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat by forcing a See also:

• JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat)

jet of See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen through the See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame of a spirit lamp . The strong light thus produced can be read under favourable conditions at a distance of 15 m.; but the equipment of See also:

• GAS

gas-bag, pressure-bag, and other accessories make the whole instrument rather cumbrous . The See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull's-See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye lamp differs but slightly from the ordinary lantern of See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• LIFE

life; it See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable oil . The Begbie lamp, which burns kerosene, is rather more elaborate and gives a whiter light . It was in use for many years in India before the objections made by the authorities in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England to certain features of the lamp were withdrawn . All these lamps when in use are set up on a See also:

• TRIPOD (Gr. rpiTovr, Lat. tripus)

tripod stand and signals in the Morse alphabet. are made by opening and closing a shutter in front of the light, and thereby showing long and short flashes . The same principle is followed in the heliograph . This instrument, invented by Sir See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry C . Mance, receives on a See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror, and thence casts upon the distant station, the rays of the sun; the working of a small See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key controls the flashes by throwing the mirror slightly off its See also:

• ALIGNMENT (from Fr. d and ligne, the Lat. Linea, a line)

alignment and thus obscuring the light from the party See also:

• READING

reading signals .

The fact that the heliograph requires sunlight, as mentioned above, militates against its employment in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, but where it is possible to use it it is by far the best means of signalling . Secrecy and rapidity are its See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief advantages . An observer 6 m. distant would see none of its light if he were more than 50 yds. on one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the exact alignment, whereas a flag signal could be read from almost every J See also:

• STATIONERY

Stationery See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office) . See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill within range . None of the physical exertion required for fast signalling with the flag is required to manipulate the instrument at a high rate of See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed . The whole apparatus is packed in a light and portable form . An alternative method of using the heliograph is to keep the rays permanently on the distant point, a shutter of some kind being used in front of it to produce obscurations . When in use the heliograph is fixed upon a tripod . A tangent See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw (E) which moves the whole instrument (except the jointed See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm L) turns the mirror in any direction . See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

Metal U-shaped arms (C) carry the mirror (B), which is controlled by the vertical See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod (J) and its clamping screw (K) . The signalling mirror itself (usually having a See also:

• SURFACE

surface of 5 in. See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter) is of See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, an unsilvered spot (R) being See also:

• LEFT

left in the centre . This spot retains its position through all movements in any plane .

The instrument is aligned by means of the sighting See also:

• VANE (formerly spelt " fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. Feline, Du. vaan, Fr. girouette, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wellerfahne)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1589-1654)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662)

vane (P) fixed in the jointed arm L, and the rays of the sun are then brought on to the distant station by turning the See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal and vertical adjustments until the " See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow spot " See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast by the unsilvered centre of the mirror appears on the vane . The heliograph is thus ready, and signals are made by the depression and See also:

• RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

release of the " See also:

• COLLAR

collar " (I) which, with the pivoted arm (U, V), acts as a telegraph key . When the sun makes an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of more than 120 degrees with the mirror and the distant station, a " duplex mirror " is used in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the sighting vane . The See also:

• PROCESS

process of alignment is in this case a little more complicated . Various other means of making dots and dashes are referred to in the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official work, ranging from the " collapsible drum " hung on a mast to the rough but effective improvisation of a heliograph out of a shaving-glass . The employment of the beams of the search-light to make flashes on clouds is also a method of signalling which has been in practice very effective . The Morse code employed in army signalling is as follows: 2 .. 3 ...—~ 4 .... 5 . 6 — • • • . 7-- ... 8 —• .

9 —. o — The semaphore code used in the army is shown below: A — J •--- S • .. B K —•— T —, . C L •—• • U ..— D M-- V...._ E N —• W •-- F 0--- X— •— G p •- -• Y —•-- H Q --•— Z -- . . I • R •—• I •- /Li 11') D E p 4 S 6 7 "Numerals J o-Comif See also:

• LEH

LeH.eCori FIg . 3.-Semaphore (the thin upright strokes represent the See also:

• SEAMAN, OWEN (1861– )

seaman's See also:

• BODY

body, the thick strokes his arms) . See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

Letter W- In using this code the signaller invariably faces his reader, as unless this were enforced each letter might be read as its opposite . In the above See also:

• DIAGRAM

diagram the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the signals to the reader is shown, thus the sender's right side only is used for the letter A . In sending a message accuracy is ensured by various checks . The number of words in a message is the most valuable of these, as the receiving station's number must agree before the message is taken as correct . Each word or "See also:

• GROUP

group" sent by the Morse code must be " answered " before the sender passes on to another . All figures are checked by the " See also:

• CLOCK

clock check " in which I is represented by A, 2 by B and so on . All See also:

• CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab. sifr, void)

cipher " See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups " are repeated back en bloc .

There is an elaborate system of signals See also:

• RELATING

relating to the working of the line . The " message form " in use differs but slightly from the ordinary form of the See also:

• POST

Post Office telegraphs: Signal stations in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field are classed as (a) " fixed " and " moving," the former connecting points of importance, or on a line of communications, the latter moving with the troops; (b) " terminal," " transmitting " and " central "; the first two require no See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition, the last is intended to send and receive messages in many directions . The " transmitting station " receives and sends on messages, and consists in theory of two full " terminals," one to receive and one to send on . It is rarely possible in the field to work rapidly with less than five men at a transmitting and three at a terminal station . " Central " stations S L M N 9 0 Ready'' are manned according to the number of stations with which they communicate . Signalling is used on most See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns to a large extent . In the See also:

• TIRAH

Tirah expedition, 1897 and 1898, one signal station received and sent, between the 1st and 18th See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November, as many as 980 messages by heliograph, some of which were 200 to 300 words in length . It is often used as an auxiliary to the field telegraph, especially in mountainous countries, and when the See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire is liable to be cut and stolen by hostile natives . In the Waziri expedition, 1881, communication was maintained direct for a distance of 70 M. with a 5-in. heliograph . In the See also:

• BOER

Boer War, 1899–1902, the system of heliographic signalling was employed very extensively by both sides . In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the first army signalling regulations only appeared in 1902 . The practice was, however, rapidly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed and towards the end of the 1905 campaign in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, 9 signalling officers and zoo signallers were employed in that country .

These usually worked in parties of 2 or 3, each party being protected by a few infantrymen or troopers . The apparatus used was heliograph by day and a very elaborate form of lamp by night, and work was carried on between posts separated by 6o and even 90 M . The signallers were employed both with the See also:

• MOBILE

mobile forces and in a permanent See also:

• NET

net-work of communication in the occupied territory . In 1907–1908 fresh signalling regulations were issued to the home army, and each company, See also:

• BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battles, to beat)

battery or squadron is now expected to find one station of three men, apart from the regimental and special instructors and See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff . Some experiments were carried out at See also:

• METZ

Metz to ascertain the mean distance at which signals made by a man lying down could be seen, this being found to be about moo yds . The new regulations allow of the use of flag and lamp signalling at 4 m. instead of as formerly at 14 . Three flags are used, blue, white and yellow, and it is stated that the last is the most frequently useful of the three . The enormous development of the field telegraph and See also:

• TELEPHONE (Gr. rjXs, far, and dxwvr7, voice)

telephone systems in the elaborate war of positions of 1904–1905 more or less crowded out, so to speak, visual signalling on both sides, and in any case the See also:

• AVERAGE

average illiterate See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian infantryman or the Cossack was not adaptable to signalling needs . Only about one-See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the signalling force (which consisted exclusively of engineer troops) in See also:

• KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH (1848– )

Kuropatkin's army was employed in See also:

• OPTICAL

optical work, the other three-quarters being assigned to telegraph, wireless and telephone station work . The Italians, who are no strangers to colonial warfare, have a well-developed visual signalling system . See British Official Training Manuals: Signalling (1907) . Railway Signalling.—In railway phraseology the See also:

• TERM

term " signal " is applied to a variety of hand motions and indications by lamps and other symbols, as well as to fixed signals; but only the last-named class—disks and semaphores, with lights, permanently fixed (on posts) at the side of the track—will be considered here .

These may be divided into (I) interlocking signals, used at junctions and yards, and (2) See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block signals, for maintaining an See also:

• INTERVAL

interval of space between trains following one another . In both classes the See also:

• FUNCTION

function of a signal is to inform the See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine-See also:

• DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846– )

driver whether or not he may proceed beyond the signal, or on what conditions he may proceed, and it is essential to give him the information some seconds before it need be acted upon . The semaphore signal, which is now widely used, consists of an arm or blade about 5 ft. long extending horizontally, at right angles to the line of the track, from the top of a post (wood or See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron) 15 to 3o ft. high, and sometimes higher (fig . 4) . This arm, turning on a spindle, is pulled down (" off ") to indicate that a See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train may pass it, the horizontal (or " on") position indicating " stop "; sometimes, as on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of Europe, use is made of the position of the arm in which it points diagonally upwards, and on one or two See also:

• ENGLISH

English lines the arm in the safety position hangs down perpendicularly, parallel to, but a few inches away from, the post . A lamp is fixed to the side of the post about on a level with the blade, and by the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the blade is made to show at night red for " stop " and See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green for go-ahead or " all clear." The earlier practice, white for " all clear," still prevails largely in See also:

• AMERICA

America . In the early days of railway signalling three positions of the semaphore arm were recognized:—(1) Horizontal, or at right angles to the post, denoting danger; (2) at a downward angle of 45 degrees, denoting caution; (3) See also:

• HANGING

hanging vertically downwards or parallel to the post, denoting all right . Corresponding to the position of the arm, three different lights were employed at night—red for danger, green for caution and white for all right . But now British railways make use of only two positions of the arm and two lights—the arm at right angles to the post and a red light, both signifying danger orstop; and the arm at about 6o degress (or vertical, as mentioned above) and a green light, both meaning all right or proceed . I t is better to abolish the use of white lights for signalling purposes . The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason is obvious . There are many lights and lamps on the plat-forms, in signal-boxes and in the streets and houses adjacent to a See also:

• RAIL

rail-way; and if white lights were recognized as signals, a driver might See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake a light of this nature as a signal to proceed; in fact, accidents have been caused in this manner .

A white light is not to be regarded as a danger signal, as is sometimes erroneously stated, but rather as no signal at all; and as there is a well-known See also:

• RULE

rule to the effect that " the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a signal at a place where a signal is ordinarily shown must be treated as a danger signal," it follows that a white light, when seen at a place where a red or green light ought to be visible, is to be treated as a danger signal, not because a white light per se means danger, but because in such a case it denotes the absence of the proper signal . Some companies have adopted a See als