SLAVERY  . It appears to be true that, in the words of Dunoyer, the economic regime of every society which has recently become sedentary is founded on the slavery of the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial professions . In the See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

hunter See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior does not enslave his vanquished enemy, but slays him; the See also:

• WOMEN

women of a conquered tribe he may, however, carry off and appropriate as wives or as servants, for in this period domestic labour falls ' almost altogether on their See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex . In the See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage slaves will be captured only to be sold, with the exception of a few who may be required for the care of flocks or the small amount of cultivation which is then undertaken . It is in proportion as a sedentary See also:

• LIFE

life prevails, and agricultural exploitation is practised on a larger See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, whilst warlike habits continue to exist, that the labour of slaves is increasingly introduced to provide See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food for the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master, and at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save him from irksome toil . Of this stage in the social See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement slavery seems to have been, as we have said, a universal and inevitable See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment . But wherever theocratic organizations established themselves slavery in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary-sense did not become a vital See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the social See also:

• SYSTEM

system . The members of the lowest class were not in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of individual subjection: the entire See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste to which they belonged was collectively subject . It is in the communities in which the military See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order obtained an ascendancy over the sacerdotal, and which were directly organized for See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, that slavery (as the word is commonly understood) had its natural and appropriate See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . It is not merely that in its first See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment slavery was an immense advance by substituting for the immolation of captives, often • accompanied by See also:

• CANNIBALISM

cannibalism, their occupation in labour for the benefit of the See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

victor . This See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage, recalled by an old though erroneous 1 1Servus is not cognate with servare, as has often been supposed; it is really related to the Homeric edpepos and the verb eipw, with which the Latin sero is to be connected . It may be here mentioned that slave was originally a See also:

• NATIONAL

national name; it meant a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic See also:

• RACE

race captured and made a bondman to the Germans .

" From the Euxine to the Adriatic, in the state of captives or subjects, . . . they [the Slavonians] overspread the See also:

• LAND

land, and the national appellation of the Slaves has been degraded by See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance or malice from the signification of See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory to that of See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude " (See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. lv.) . The historian alludes to the derivation of the national name from slava, glory . See See also:

• SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835– )

Skeat's Etym . Dict., s.v.; see also See also:

• SLAVS

SLAVS . It was in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman state that military See also:

• ACTION

action—in See also:

• GREECE

Greece often purposeless and, except in the resistance to See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, on the whole fruitless—worked out the social See also:

• MISSION

mission which formed its true See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification . Hence at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome slavery also most properly found its place, so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as that mission was in progress of accomplishment . As soon as the See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest had reached its natural limit, slavery began to be modified; and when the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire was divided into the several states which had grown up under it, and the system of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence characteristic of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages was substituted for the aggressive system of antiquity, slavery gradually disappeared, and was replaced by See also:

• SERFDOM (from Fr. serf, Lat. servus, a servant or slave)

serfdom . We have so far dealt with the See also:

• POLITICAL

political results of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient slavery, and have found it to have been in certain respects not only useful but indispensable . When we consider its moral effects, whilst endeavouring to avoid exaggeration, we must yet pronounce its See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence to have been profoundly detrimental . In its action on the slave it marred in a See also:

• GREAT

great measure the happy effects of habitual See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry by preventing the development of the sense of human dignity which lies at the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of morals . On the morality of the masters—whether See also:

• PERSONAL

personal, domestic, or social—the effects of the institution were disastrous .

The See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• RULE

rule, always dangerous, was peculiarly corrupting when it penetrated every See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of daily life, and when no See also:

• EXTERNAL

external interference checked individual caprice in its action on the feelings and fortunes of inferiors . It tended to destroy the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of self-command, and exposed the master to the baneful influences of flattery . As regards domestic morality, the system offered See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant facilities for libertinism, and tended to subvert domestic See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace by compromising the dignity and ruining the happiness of the wife . The sons of the See also:

• FAMILY

family were familiarized with See also:

• VICE

vice, and the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of the younger See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation was lowered by their intimate association with a despised and de-graded class . These deplorable results were, of course, not universally produced; there were admirable exceptions both among masters and among slaves—instances of benevolent See also:

• PROTECTION

protection on the one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and of unselfish devotion on the other; but the evil effects without doubt greatly preponderated . Greece.—We find slavery fully established in the Homeric period . The prisoners taken in war are retained as slaves, or sold (Il. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . Heroic 752) or held at See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom (Il. vi . 427) by the captor . Some- Heroi times the men of a conquered See also:

• TOWN

town or See also:

• DISTRICT

district are slain See also:

• MES

mes . and the women carried off (Od. ix . 40) .

Not unfrequently See also:

• FREE

free persons were kidnapped by pirates and sold in other regions, like Eumaeus in the Odyssey . The slave might thus be by See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of equal See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank with his master, who knew that the same See also:

• FATE

fate might befall himself or some of the members of his family . The institution does mony of his See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection and regret . They often lived on terms of intimacy either with the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house or its younger members; but it is to be feared that too often this intimacy was founded, not on mutual respect, as in the heroic example of Ulysses and Eumaeus, but on insolent self-assertion on the one side and a spirit of service, were put in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of a house and See also:

• PROPERTY

property Qf their own (Od. xiv . 64) . See also:

• GROTE, GEORGE (1794–1871)

Grote's See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that the women slaves were in a more pitiable See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition than the See also:

• MALES

males does not seem justified, except perhaps in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case cf the alelrides, who turned the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills which ground the See also:

• FLOUR

flour consumed in the family, and who were some-times overworked by unfeeling masters (Od. xx . 110-119) . See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer marks in a celebrated See also:

• COUPLET

couplet his sense of the moral deterioration commonly wrought by the condition of slavery (Od. xvii . 322) . It is, however, in historic Greece, where we have ample documentary See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, that it is most important to study the system . The See also:

• SOURCES

sources of slavery in Greece were: (i) Birth, the condition being hereditary . This was not an abundant source, women slaves being less numerous than men, and See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise masters making Historic the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the sexes rather a See also:

• REWARD

reward of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good service than period a See also:

• MATTER

matter of See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation (Xen .

Oecon . 9 . 5) . It was in sources of general cheaper to buy a slave than to See also:

• REAR

rear one to the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age slavery. of labour . (2) See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

Sale of See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children by their free parents, which was tolerated, except in See also:

• ATTICA

Attica, or their exposure, which was permitted, except at See also:

• THEBES (anciently &Oat, Thebae, or in poetry sometimes Oif3a, in modern Greek Phiva, or, according to the corrected pronunciation, Thivae)
• THEBES (e 3a1)
• THEBES, ROMANCE OF

Thebes . The consequence of the latter was some-times to subject them to a servitude worse than See also:

• DEATH

death, as is seen in the plays of See also:

• PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; cf. Asin. Prol. 11)

Plautus and See also:

• TERENCE

Terence, which, as is well known, depict See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek, not Roman, See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners . Freemen, through indigence, some-times sold themselves, and at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens, up to the time of See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon, an insolvent debtor became the slave of his creditor . (3) See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

Capture in war . Not only Asiatics and Thracians thus became slaves, but in the many See also:

• WARS

wars between Grecian states, See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental or colonial, Greeks were reduced to slavery by men of their own race . Cailicratidas pronounced against the enslavement of Greeks by Greeks, but violated his own principle, to which, however, See also:

• EPAMINONDAS (c. 418-362)

Epaminondas and See also:

• PELOPIDAS (d. 364 B.C.)

Pelopidas appear to have been faithful . (4) Piracy and See also:

• KIDNAPPING (from kid, a slang term for a child, and nap or nab, to steal)

kidnapping . The descents of pirates on the coasts were a perpetual source of danger; the pirate was a gainer either by the sale or by the redemption of his captives .

If ransomed, the victim became by Athenian See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law the slave of his redeemer till he paid in See also:

• MONEY

money or labour the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price which had been given for him . Kidnappers (andrapodistae) carried off children even in cities, and reared them as slaves . Whether from hostile forays or from piracy, any Greek was exposed to the See also:

• RISK

risk of enslavement . (5) See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce . Besides the sale of slaves which took place as a result of the capture of cities or other military operations, there was a systematic slave See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, See also:

• PONTUS

Pontus, See also:

• LYDIA

Lydia, See also:

• GALATIA

Galatia, and above all See also:

• THRACE

Thrace were sources of See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply . See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and See also:

• ETHIOPIA, or AETHIOPIA (Gr. AlOtoaia)

Ethiopia also furnished a certain number, and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy a few . Of foreigners, the Asiatics See also:

• BORE

bore the greatest value, as most amenable to command, and most versed in the arts of luxurious refinement . But Greeks were highest of all in esteem, and they were much sought for See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign sale . Greece proper and See also:

• IONIA

Ionia supplied the See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty Eastern princes with courtesans and See also:

• FEMALE

female musicians and dancers . Athens was an important slave See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market, and the state profited by a tax on the sales ; but the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal marts were those of See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus, See also:

• SAMOS

Samos, See also:

• EPHESUS
• EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF

Ephesus and especially See also:

• CHIOS

Chios . The slaves were employed either in domestic service—as house-hold managers, attendants or personal escorts—or in See also:

• WORK

work of other kinds, agricultural or See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban .

In See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Attica, and even down to the time of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles, the landowners lived in the meats of See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . The Peloponnesian War introduced a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change; See also:

• MANES

manes. and after that time the proprietors resided at Athens, and the cultivation was in the hands of slaves . In manufactures and commerce, also, servile gradually displaced free labour . Speculators either directly employed slaves as artisans or commercial and banking agents, or hired them out, sometimes for work in mines or factories, sometimes for service in private houses, as cooks, See also:

• FLUTE

flute-players, &c., or for viler uses . There were also public slaves; of these some belonged to temples, to which they were presented as offerings, amongst them being the courtesans who acted as hieroduli at See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth and at Eryx in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily; others were appropriated to the service of the magistrates or to public See also:

• WORKS

works; there were at Athens 1200 Scythian archers for the See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city; slaves served, too, in the fleets, and were employed in the armies,—commonly as workmen, and exceptionally as soldiers . The condition of slaves at Athens was not in general a wretched one . See also:

• DEMOSTHENES

Demosthenes (In See also:

• MID

Mid. p . 530) says that, if the barbarians from whom the slaves were bought were informed of the Condition. mild treatment they received, they would entertain a great esteem for the Athenians . Plautus in more than one place thinks it necessary to explain to the spectators of his plays that slaves at Athens enjoyed such privileges, and even See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence, as must be surprising to a Roman See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience . The slave was introduced with certain customary See also:

• RITES

rites into his position in the family; he was in practice, though not by law, permitted to accumulate a private fund of his own; his See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage was also recognized by See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom; though in general excluded from sacred ceremonies and public sacrifices, slaves were admissible to religious associations of a private See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind ; there were some popular festivals in which they were allowed to participate; they had even See also:

• SPECIAL

special ones for themselves both at Athens and in CO . " c & r.-Sent," c & in a Very 'c vs't1 Corm in l-Xomet, especXaUy iC we \ ot%iet Greek mattes . Thew tessams were deposited in tlhe 5amil-y consider (as Grote suggests) that " all classes were much on a level in See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of their master, who sometimes erected monuments in test-See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, sentiment and instruction." The male slaves were employed in the tillage of the land and the tending of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, and the See also:

• FEMALES

females in domestic work and household manufactures .

The principal slaves often enjoyed the confidence of their masters and had important duties entrusted to them; and, after lengthened and meritorious SLAVERY 217 unworthy compliance on the other, the latter having its raison d'e"tre in degrading services rendered by the slave . See also:

• ARISTOPHANES
• ARISTOPHANES (c. 448–385 B.e.1)

Aristophanes and Plautus show us how often resort was had to the discipline of the lash even in the case of domestic slaves . Those employed in workshops, whose overseers were themselves most commonly of servile status, had probably a harder See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot than domestics; and the agricultural labourers were not unfrequently chained, and treated much in the same way as beasts of See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden . The displeasure of the master some-times dismissed his domestics to the more oppressive labours of the See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill or the mine . A See also:

• REFUGE

refuge from cruel treatment was afforded by the temples and altars of the gods and by the sacred groves . Nor did Athenian law leave the slave without protection . He had, as Demosthenes boasts, an action for See also:

• OUTRAGE (through O. Fr. ultrage, oltrage, oultrage, from Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. Ital. oltraggio; the meaning has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger)

outrage like a See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

freeman, and his death at the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of a stranger was avenged like that of a See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen (Eurip . Hec . 288), whilst, if caused by his master's violence, it had to be atoned for by See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile and a religious expiation . Even when the slave had killed his master, the relatives of the house could not themselves inflict See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment; they were obliged to hand him over to the See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate to be dealt with by legal See also:

• PROCESS

process . The slave who had just grounds of complaint against his master could demand to be sold ; when he alleged his right to See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty, the law granted him a defender and the sanctuaries offered him an See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

asylum till See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment should be given . Securities were taken against the revolt of slaves by not associating those of the same See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality and See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language; they were sometimes fettered to prevent See also:

• FLIGHT

flight, and, after a first See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, branded to facilitate their recovery .

There were See also:

• TREATIES

treaties between states for the See also:

• EXTRADITION (Lat. cx, out, and traditio, handing over)

extradition of fugitives, and contracts of mutual assurance between individuals against their loss by flight . Their inclination to take advantage of opportunities for this purpose is shown by the number that escaped from Athens to join the Spartans when occupying See also:

• DECELEA (Gr. DeeeXeta); an Attic deme, on the pass which led over the east end of Mt. Parnes towards Oropus and Chalcis. From its position it has a commanding view over the Athenian plain. Its eponymous %; ro, Decelus, was said to have indicated to the Ty

Decelea . There were formidable revolts at the mines of See also:

• LAURIUM
• LAURIUM (Aabptov, mod. ERGASTIRI)

Laurium, and more than once in Chios . The See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of slaves—women as well as men—was often, with the consent of their masters, taken by See also:

• TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist)

torture; and that method is generally commended by the orators as a sure means of arriving at the truth . The slave could See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase his liberty with his peculium by agreement with his master . He could be liberated by will, or, during his Emanci- master's life, by See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation in the See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre, the law See also:

• PATIO

patio,, courts, or other public places, or by having his name inscribed in the public registers, or, in the later age of Greece, by sale or donation to certain temples—an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act which did not make the slave a hierodulus but a freeman . Conditions were sometimes attached to emancipation, as of remaining for life or a definite time with the former master, or another See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person named by him, or of performing some special service; payments or rights of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to property might also be reserved . By manumission the Athenian slave became in relation to the state a metic, in relation to his master a client . He was thus in an intermediate condition between slavery and See also:

• COMPLETE

complete freedom . If the freedman violated his duties to his See also:

• PATRON

patron he was subject to an action at law, and if the decision were against him he was again reduced to slavery .. He became a full member of the state only, as in the case of foreigners, by a See also:

• VOTE

vote in an See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of six thousand citizens; and even this vote might be set aside by a graphe paranomon . Slaves who had rendered eminent services to the public, as those who fought at Arginusae and at Chaeronea, were at once admitted to the status of citizens in the class of (so-called) Plataeans .

But it would appear that even in their case some civic rights were reserved and accorded only to their children by a female citizen . The number of freedmen at Athens seems never to have been great . (See further GREECE, Ancient See also:

• HISTORY

History, § 5.) It is well known that See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle held slavery to be necessary and natural, and, under just conditions, beneficial to both parties in Theoretic the relation—views which were correct enough from the views on political side, regard being had to the contemporary slavery. social state . His See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• MOTTO (an Italian word, from Late Lat. muttum, a low sound, a mutter or murmur, cf. mutere, to mutter; the Latin word also gives Fr. mot, word)

motto, if he is the author of the See also:

• ECONOMICS

Economics attributed to him, is—" no outrage, and no familiarity." There ought, he says, to be held out to the slave the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of liberty as the reward of his service . See also:

• PLATO

Plato condemned the practice, which the theory of Aristotle also by implication sets aside as inadmissible, of Greeks having Greeks for slaves . In the See also:

• LAWS

Laws he accepts the institution as a necessary though embarrassing one, and recommends for the safety of the masters that natives of different countries should be mixed and that they should all be well treated . But, whilst condemning harshness towards them, he encourages the feeling of contempt for them as a class . The later moral See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of Greece scarcely at all concern themselves with the institution . The Epicurean had no See also:

• SCRUPLE

scruple about the servitude of those whose labours contributed to his own See also:

• INDULGENCE (Lat. indulgentia, indulgere, to grant, concede)

indulgence and tranquillity . The Stoic regarded the condition of freedom or slavery as an external See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident, indifferent in the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom; to him it was irrational to see in liberty a ground of See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride or in slavery a subject of complaint; from intolerable indignity See also:

• SUICIDE (from Lat. sui, of oneself, and cidium, from cued ere, to kill)

suicide was an ever-open means of escape . The poets—especially the authors of the New See also:

• COMEDY

Comedy—strongly inculcate humanity, and insist on the fundamental equality of the slave . The celebrated " homo sum " is a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation from See also:

• ALEXIS
• ALEXIS, WILLIBALD

Alexis, and the spirit of it breathes in many passages of the Greek See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama .

A fragment of See also:

• PHILEMON
• PHILEMON (c. 361–263 B.C.)
• PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO

Philemon declares, as if in reply to Aristotle, that not nature, but See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune, makes the slave . See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides, as might be expected from his humanitarian See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast of sentiment, andthe " premature modernism " which has been remarked in him, rises above the ordinary feelings of his time in regard to the slaves . As See also:

• PALEY, FREDERICK APTHORP (1815-1888)
• PALEY, WILLIAM (1743-1805)

Paley says, he loves " to See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record their fidelity to their masters, their sympathy in the trials of life, their gratitude for kindness and considerate treatment, and their pride in bearing the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable men . . . . He allows them to See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, to advise, to suggest; and he even makes them philosophize on the follies and the indiscretions of their superiors " (compare Med . 54; Orest . 869; See also:

• HEL, or HELA

Hel . 728; See also:

• ION

Ion . 854; Frag . Melan . 506; Phrix . 823) .

But we are not to suppose that even he, latitudinarian and innovator as he was, could have conceived the possibility of abolishing an institution so deeply rooted in the social conditions, as well as in the ideas, of his time . (For the See also:

• HELOTS (Gr. eYAwres or eiXiorat)

Helots in See also:

• LACONIA
• LACONIA (Gr. AaKWVLK1])

Laconia, see HELOTS.) Rome.—We have already observed that the Roman system of life was that in which slavery had its most natural and relatively legitimate place; and accordingly it was at Rome that, as See also:

• BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791–1876)
• BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800)
• BLAIR, JAMES (1656`1743)
• BLAIR, ROBERT (1699—1746)

Blair has remarked, the institution was more than anywhere else " extended in its operation and methodized in its details." We must distinguish from the later slavery at Rome what See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen calls " the old, in some measure See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent " slavery, under which the See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer tilled the land along with his slave, or, if he possessed more land than he could See also:

• MANAGE

manage, Surces, placed the slave—either as a steward, or as a sort of lessee obliged to render up a portion of the produce—over a detached See also:

• FARM

farm . Though slaves were obtained by the early victories of Rome over her See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian neighbours, no large number was employed on the small holdings of those periods . But the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of properties in the hands of the See also:

• PATRICIANS (Lat. patricius, an adjectival form from pater, father; not, as some say, from pater and ciere, to call)

patricians, and the continued absences of citizens required by the expanding system of conquest, necessarily brought with them a demand for slave labour, which was increasingly supplied by captives taken in war . Of the number furnished from this source a few particulars from the time of the mature See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic and the first See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of the empire will give some idea . In See also:

• EPIRUS, or EPEIRUS

Epirus, after the victories of See also:

• AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO Ea111.io) (d. 1529)

Aemilius Paullus, 150,000 captives were sold . The prisoners at See also:

• AQUAE (Lat. for "waters'')

Aquae Sextiae and Vercellae were 90,000 Teutons and 6o,000 See also:

• CIMBRI

Cimbri . See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar sold on a single occasion in See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul 63,000 captives . But slavery, as See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume has shown, is unfavourable to See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population . Hence a See also:

• REGULAR

regular commerce in slaves was established, which was based on the " systematically-prosecuted See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting of man," and indicated an entire perversion of the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive institution, which was essentially connected with conquest . The pirates sold great See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of slaves at See also:

• DELOS

Delos, where was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief market for this kind of wares; and these sales went on as really, though more obscurely, after the successful expedition of See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey . There was a regular importation to Rome of slaves, brought to some extent from See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and Gaul, but chiefly from See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic countries—See also:

• BITHYNIA (BtOvpta)

Bithynia, Galatia, See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia and Syria .

A portorium--apparently one-eighth for eunuchs, one-fortieth for others—was paid on their import or export, and a See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of 2 or 4% on their sale . There were other sources from which slavery was alimented, though of course in a much less degree . Certain offences reduced the guilty persons to slavery (servi poenae), and they were employed in public work in the quarries or the mines . Originally, a See also:

• FATHER

father could sell his children . A creditor could hold his insolvent debtor as a slave, or sell him out of the city (trans Tiberim) . The enslavement of creditors, overwhelmed with See also:

• USURY

usury in consequence of losses by hostile raids or their own See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence on military service, led to the See also:

• SECESSION

secession to the See also:

• MONS (Flemish Bergen)

Mons Sacer (493 B.C.) . The Poetelian law (326 B.C.) restricted the creditor's See also:

• LIEN

lien (by virtue of a nexum) to the goods of his debtor, and enacted that for the future no debtor should be put in chains; but we hear of debtors addicti to their creditors by the tribunals long after—even in the time of the Punic Wars . There were servi publici as well as privati . The service of the magistrates was at first in the hands of freemen; but the See also:

• LOWER

lower offices, as of couriers, servants of the law courts, of prisons Employ- and of temples, were afterwards filled by slaves . The See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of public works also came to be largely See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn- men' to them—as the construction of roads, the cleansing of the sewers and .the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the aqueducts . Both kinds of functions were discharged by slaves, not only at Rome, but in the rural and provincial municipalities . The slaves of a private Roman were divided between the familia rustica and the familia See also:

• URBANA

urbana .

At the head of the familia rustica was the villicus, himself a slave, with the wife who was given him at once to aid him and to bind him to his duties . Under him were the several See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups employed in the different branches of the exploitation and the care of the cattle and flocks, as well as those who kept or prepared the food, clothingand tools of the whole See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff and those who attended on the master in the various See also:

• SPECIES

species of rural See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports . A slave See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison (ergastulum). was See also:

• PART

part of such an establishment, and there were slaves whose See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office it was to punish the offences of their See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows . To the familia urbana belonged those who discharged the duties of domestic attendance, the service of the See also:

• TOILET

toilet, See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath, table and See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen, besides the entertainment of the master and his guests by dancing, singing and other arts . There were, besides, the slaves who accompanied the master and See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress out of doors, and were chosen for their beauty and See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace as See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

guards of See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour, for their strength as chairmen or porters, or for their readiness and address in remembering names, delivering messages of See also:

• COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie)

courtesy and the like . There were also attached to a great household physicians, artists, secretaries, librarians, copyists, preparers of See also:

• PARCHMENT

parchment, as well as pedagogues and preceptors of different kinds—readers, grammarians, men of letters and even philosophers—all of servile condition, besides See also:

• ACCOUNTANTS

accountants, managers and agents for the transaction of business . Actors, comic and tragic, pantomimi, and the performers of the See also:

• CIRCUS (Lat. circus, Gr. Kipeos or Kptxot, a ring or' circle; probably " circus " and " ring " are of the same origin)

circus were commonly slaves, as were also the See also:

• GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword)

gladiators . These last were chosen from the most warlike races—as the See also:

• SAMNITES

Samnites, Gauls and Thracians . Familiae of gladiators were kept by private speculators, who hired them out; they were sometimes owned by men of high rank . Several special examples and other indirect indications show that the wealthier See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans possessed large familiae . This may be inferred from the columbaria of the house of Livia and of other great houses . The slaves of Pedanius See also:

• SECUNDUS, JOHANNES
• SECUNDUS, PUBLIUS POMPONIUS

Secundus, who, in spite of a threatened outbreak of the indignant populace, were all put to death because they had been under their master's roof when he was murdered, were four See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred in number .

See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny tells us that See also:

• CAECILIUS

Caecilius, a freedman of the time of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus, See also:

• LEFT

left by his will as many as 4116 . The question as to the See also:

• TOTAL

total number of slaves at Rome or in Italy is a very difficult one, and it is not, perhaps, possible to arrive with any degree of certainty at an approximate estimate . Gibbon sup-poses that there were in the Roman See also:

• WORLD

world in the reign of See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius at least as many slaves as free inhabitants . But Blair seems right in believing that this number, though probably correct for an earlier period, is much under the truth for the age to which it is assigned . He fixes the proportion of slaves to free men as that of three to one for the time between the conquest of Greece (146 B.C.) and the reign of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus (A.D . 222-235) . The entire number of slaves in Italy would thus have been, in the reign of Claudius, 20,832,000 . By the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Roman law the master was clothed with absolute dominion over the slave, extending to the power of life and death, which is not surprising when we consider the nature of the patria Laws. potestas . The slave could not possess property of any kind ; whatever he acquired was legally his master's . He was, however, in practice permitted to enjoy and accumulate chance earnings or savings, or a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of what he produced, under the name of peculium . A master could not enter into a See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract with his slave, nor could he accuse him of See also:

• THEFT

theft before the law; for, if the slave took anything, this was not a subtraction, but only a displacement, of property . The union of a male and female slave had- not the legal character of a marriage; it was a cohabitation (contubernium) merely, which was tolerated, and might be terminated at will, by the master; a slave was, therefore, not capable of the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime of See also:

• ADULTERY (from Lat. adulterium)

adultery .

Yet general sentiment seems to have given a stronger See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction to this sort of connexion; the names of See also:

• HUSBAND

husband and wife are freely used in relation to slaves on the stage, and even in the laws, and in the language of the tombs . For entering the military service or taking on him any state office a slave:was punished with death . He could not in general be examined as a See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness, except by torture . A master, when accused, could offer his slaves for the " question," or demand for the same purpose the slaves of another; and, if in the latter case they were injured or killed in the process, their owner was indemnified . A slave could not accuse his master, except of adultery or See also:

• INCEST (Lat. incestus, unchaste)