SNAKES  , an See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order (Ophidia) in the class of See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

Reptiles . They may be characterized as very elongated reptiles without limbs (unless with tiny vestiges of posterior limbs), without eyelids and See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear openings, with the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth anchylosed to the supporting bones, a bifid slender See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue which is telescoped into its basal See also:

• HALF

half, and with a transverse vent . These characters apply to all snakes, although none are See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to them . The- ' The curious but apparently well-attested fact of the occurrence in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, near See also:

• POOLE
• POOLE, MATTHEW (1624-1699)
• POOLE, PAUL FALCONER (1806-1879)
• POOLE, REGINALD STUART (1832-1895)

Poole, in See also:

• JUNE

June 1851, of a male See also:

• BIRD

bird of this See also:

• SPECIES

species (Zoologist, pp . 3601, 3654) has been overlooked by several writers who profess to mention all cases of a similar See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . More detail concerning See also:

• SKULL

skull, scales and teeth will be found in the diagnostic descriptions of the various families (vide infra) ; for further anatomical See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information the reader is referred so the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article REPTILES (See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

Anatomy) . The snakes are the most highly specialized See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Sauna or Squamata, i.e. of scaly reptiles with movable quadrate bones; with a'transverse vent, near the posterior lateral corners of which open the eversible, paired copulatory See also:

• ORGANS

organs . In the article See also:

• LIZARD (Lat. lacertal)

LIZARD See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn to the many characters which make it difficult, if not impossible, to give diagnoses applicable to all lizards and all snakes . Both these' See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups seem" to have reached their See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax but recently, while the tortoises, crocodiles and See also:

• SPHENODON, or TUATARA

sphenodon are on the descending See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere remnants of formerly much more numerous and See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan' development . The number of See also:

• RECENT

recent species of snakes is about s600 . The order is practically cosmopolitan, with the exception of New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand and certain absolutely isolated oceanic islands, like the Hawaiian islands and the See also:

• AZORES (Acores), or WESTERN ISLANDS

Azores . The N. limit approaches that of the permanently frozen subsoil, going into the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

arctic circle in Scandinavia, elsewhere sinking to about 54° N.; in the S. hemisphere the 45th parallel may indicate their limit .

The number of species and individuals steadily decreases in the cooler temperate zones, whilst it reaches its maximum in the tropics . Every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of terrain is tenanted, from dense, moist and hot forests at the level of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea to arid deserts, high plateaus and mountains . In accordance with this See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution snakes show a See also:

• GREAT

great amount of differentiation with regard to their mode of See also:

• LIFE

life and general organization; and -from the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance alone of a snake a ' safe conclusion can be drawn as to its habits . Dr A . See also:

• GUNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1695-1723)

Gunther characterizes the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief categories as follows:—(t) Burrowing snakes, which live under ground and but rarely appear on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface . They have a cylindrical rigid See also:

• BODY

body, covered with generally smooth and polished scales; -a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short strong tail; a short rounded or pointed See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head with narrow mouth; teeth few in number; small or'-rudimentary eyes; no abdominal scutes or only narrow ones . They feed chiefly on invertebrate animals, , and none are poisonous . (2) Ground snakes rarely ascending bushes or entering See also:

• WATER

water . Their body is cylindrical, flexible in every See also:

• PART

part, covered with smooth or keeled scales, and provided with broad ventral and subcaudal scutes . The non-poisonous kinds of ground snakes are the typical and least specialized snakes, and more, numerous than any of the other kinds . They feed chiefly on terrestrial vertebrates . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are non-poisonous; but the, majority of poisonous snakes must be referred to this See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category .

(3) See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

Tree snakes, which are able to climb bushes. or trees with facility or pass even the greater part of, their existence on trees . Their body is generally compressed and slender; their broad ventral scutes are often carinate on the sides . Those kinds which have a less elongate and cylindrical body possess a distinctly prehensile tail . The See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye is generally large . Their coloration consists often of See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright hues, and sometimes resem)aies that of their surroundings . They feed on animals which likewise' See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead an arboreal life, rarely on • eggs . Poisonous as well as innocuous snakes are represented in this category . (4) See also:

• FRESHWATER

Freshwater snakes; living in or frequenting fresh See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters; they are excellent swimmers and See also:

• DIVERS

divers . The nostrils are placed on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the snout and can be. closed whilst the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal is under water . Their body is covered with small scales and the ventral scutes are mostly narrow; the tail tapering; head See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, rather short; and the eyes of small' See also:

• SIZE

size . They feed on See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, frogs and other aquatic animals, and are innocuous and viviparous . (5) Sea snakes are distinguished by the compressed, See also:

• RUDDER (O.E. Rather, i.e. rower)

rudder-shaped tail .

They are unable to move on See also:

• LAND

land, feed on fishes, are viviparous and poisonous . The majority of snakes are active during the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, their See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy increasing with the increasing temperature; whilst some delight in the moist sweltering See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat of dense tropical vegetation, others expose themselves to the fiercest rays of the midday See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun . Not a few, however, lead a nocturnal life, and many of them have, accordingly, their See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil contracted into a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical or more rarely a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal slit . Those which inhabit temperate latitudes hibernate . Snakes are the most stationary of all vertebrates; as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as a locality affords them See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and shelter they have no inducement to See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change it . Their dispersal, therefore, must have been extremely slow and See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual . Although able to move with rapidity, they do not keep in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion for any length of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Their organs of locomotion are the ribs, the number of which is very great, nearly corresponding to that of the vertebrae of the See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk . They can adapt their motions to every variation of the ground over which they move, yet all varieties of snake locomotion are founded on the following See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• PROCESS

process . When a part of the body has found some See also:

• PROJECTION

projection of the ground which affords it a point of support, the ribs are drawn more closely together, on alternate sides, thereby producing alternate bends of the body . The hinder portion of the body being drawn after, some part of it (c) finds another support on the rough ground or a projection; and, the anterior bends being stretched in a straight See also:

• LINE

line, the front part of the body is propelled (from a to d) in consequence . During this peculiar locomotion the numerous broad See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

shields of the belly are of great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage, as by, means of their See also:

• FREE

free edges the snake is enabled to catch and use as points of support the slightest projections of the ground .

A pair of ribs corresponds to each of these ventral shields . Snakes are not able to move over a perfectly smooth surface . The conventional See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of the progress of a snake, in which its undulating body is figured as resting by a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• LOWER

lower bends on the ground whilst the alternate bends are raised above it, is an impossible attitude, nor do snakes ever climb trees in See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, the classical See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic mode of representation . Also the notion that snakes when attacking are able to jump off the ground is quite erroneous; when they strike an See also:

• OBJECT

object, they dart the fore part of their body, which was retracted in several bends, forwards in a straight line . And sometimes very active snakes, like the See also:

• COBRA (Naja tripudians)

cobra, advance simultaneously with the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the body, which, however, glides in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary fashion over the ground; but no snake is able to impart such an impetus to the whole of its body as to lose its contact with the ground . Some snakes can raise the anterior part of their body and even move in this attitude, but it is only about the anterior See also:

• FOURTH

fourth or third of the See also:

• TOTAL

total length which can be thus erected . With very few exceptions, the integuments See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form imbricate scale-like folds arranged with the greatest regularity; they are small and pluriserial on the upper parts of the body and tail, large and uniserial on the See also:

• ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat)

abdomen, and generally biserial on the lower See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the tail . The folds can be stretched out, so that the skin is capable of a great degree of distension . The scales are sometimes rounded behind, but generally rhombic in shape and more or less elongate; they may be quite smooth or provided with a See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge or See also:

• KEEL

keel in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle line . The integuments of the head are divided into non-imbricate shields or plates, symmetrically arranged, but not corresponding in size or shape with the underlying See also:

• CRANIAL

cranial bones or having any relation to them . The form and number of the scales and scums, and the shape and arrangement of the head-shields, are of great value in distinguishing the genera and species, and it willtherefore be useful to explain in the accompanying woodcut (fig . 3) the terms by which these parts are designated .

The skin does not form eyelids; but the epidermis passes over the eye, forming a transparent disk, See also:

• CONCAVE

concave like the See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass of a See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch, behind which the eye moves . It is the first part which is See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast off when the snake sheds its skin; this is done several times in the See also:

• YEAR

year, and the epidermis comes off in a single piece, being, from the mouth towards the tail, turned inside out during the process . The tongue in snakes is narrow, almost See also:

• WORM

worm-like, generally of a See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour and forked, that is, it terminates in front in two extremely See also:

• FINE

fine filaments . It is often exserted with a rapid motion, sometimes with the object of feeling some object, sometimes under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of anger or fear . Snakes possess teeth in the maxillaries, mandibles, See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine and pterygoid bones, sometimes also in the intermaxillary; they may be absent in one or the other of the bones mentioned . Deatltlon . In the innocuous snakes the teeth are simple and See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform in structure, thin, See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp like needles, and See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent backwards; their See also:

• FUNCTION

function consists merely in seizing and holding the See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey . In some all the teeth are nearly of the same size; others possess in front of the jaws (Lycodonts) or behind in the maxillaries (Diacrasterians) a tooth more or less See also:

• CON

con- n n, - a p r spicuously larger than the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest; whilst others again are distinguished by this larger posterior r tooth being grooved along its See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face . The snakes with this grooved kind of tooth have been named Opisthoglypki, and also Suspecti, because their saliva is more or less poisonous . In the true poisonous snakes the maxillary dentition has undergone a See also:

• SPECIAL

special modification . The so-called colubrine venomous snakes, which retain in a great measure an external resemblance to the innocuous snakes, have the maxillary See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone not at all, or but little, shortened, armed in front with a fixed, erect See also:

• FANG (FAN, FANWE, PANWE, PAHOUIN, PAOUEN, MPANGWE)

fang,. which is provided with a deep groove or See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal FIG . 3.-Head-shields of a Snake for the See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance of the (Ptyas korros) .

See also:

• POISON

poison, the fluid being r, Rostral . secreted by a special f, Posterior frontal . poison-gland . One or f', Anterior frontal . more small ordinary teeth v, Vertical . may be placed at some s, Supraciliary or supraocular. distance behind this o, Occipital . poison-fang . In the other n, n', Nasals . venomous snakes (See also:

• VIPER

viper- 1, Loreal . Ines and crotalines) the a, Anterior ocular or orbital, or praemaxillary bone is very orbital or anteocular . short, and is armed with p, Postoculars . a single very long curved u, u, Upper labials .

fang with a canal and t, t, Temporals . See also:

• APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open)

aperture at each end. m, See also:

• MENTAL

Mental . Although firmly anchy- * *, Lower labials . losed to the bone, the c, c, See also:

• CHIN

Chin-shields . tooth, which when at rest is laid backwards, is erectile,—the bone itself being mcbile and rotated See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round its transverse See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis . One or more reserve teeth, in various stages of development, See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie between the folds of the See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum and are ready to take the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of the one in function whenever it is lost by See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident, or See also:

• SHED

shed . The poison is secreted in modified upper labial glands, or in a pair of large glands which are the homologues of the parotid salivary glands of other animals . For a detailed See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account see See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, J . Linn .. See also:

• SOC

Soc. See also:

• XXV

xxv . (1895), p . 419; See also:

• XXVI

xxvi .

(1898), p . 517; and See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii . (1900) . A duct leads to the furrow or canal of the tooth . The Elapinae have comparatively short fangs, while those of the vipers, especially the crotaline snakes, are much longer, sometimes nearly an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch in length . The Viperidae alone have " erectile " fangs . The mechanism is explained by the diagrams (fig . 4) . The poison-bag lies on the side of the head between the eye and the mandibular See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint and is held in position by strong ligaments which are attached to this joint and to the maxilla so that the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of opening the jaws and concomitant erection of the fangs automatically squeezes the poison out of the glands . Snakes are carnivorous, and as a See also:

• RULE

rule take living prey only; a few feed habitually or occasionally on eggs . Many See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow their victim alive; others first kill it by smothering it between the coils of their body (constriction) . The effects of a bite by a poisonous snake upon a small mammal or bird are almost instantaneous, preventing its See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape; and the snake swallows its victim at its leisure, sometimes See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours after it has been killed .

The prey is always swallowed entire, and, as its. girth generally much exceeds that of the snake, the progress of deglutition is very laborious and slow . Opening their jaws to their fullest extent, they seize the animal generally by the head, and pushing alternately the right and See also:

• LEFT

left sides of the jaws forward, they See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press the body through their elastic gullet into the See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach, its outlines being visible for some time through the distended walls of the abdomen . Digestion is See also:

• QUICK

quick and much accelerated by the quantity of saliva which is secreted during the progress of deglutition, and in venomous snakes probably also by the chemical See also:

• ACTION

action of the poison . The See also:

• PRIMARY

primary function of the poison-apparatus is to serve as the means of procuring their food, but From See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge Natural See also:

• HISTORY

History, vol. viii., " See also:

• AMPHIBIA

Amphibia and Reptiles," by permission of See also:

• MACMILLAN

Macmillan & Co., Ltd . it also serves for See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence . Only very few poisonous snakes (like Naja elaps) are known to resent the approach of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man so much as to follow him on his See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat and to attack him . Others are much less inclined to avoid collision with man than innocuous kinds . They have thus become one of the greatest scourges to mankind, and See also:

• SIR

Sir J . See also:

• FAYRER, SIR JOSEPH

Fayrer has demonstrated that in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India alone annually some 20,000 human beings perish from snake-bites . Therefore it will not be out of place to add here a See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter on snake poison and on the best means (ineffectual though they be in numerous cases) of counteracting its deleterious effects . An excellent account of the nature and of the effect of the venom of snakes, by See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles J . See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin, is in Allbutt's See also:

• SYSTEM

System of See also:

• MEDICINE

Medicine .

The following condensed account has been abstracted from it . The poison is a clear, See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale-yellow fluid which reacts See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid, and contains about 3o%' of solids, but this varies according to the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state Snake of concentration . Most venoms are tasteless, but cobra poison. poison is said to be disagreeably See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter . Dried venom keeps indefinitely, and dissolves readily in water . It keeps also in glycerine . It contains albuminous bodies in See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution, and is in fact a pure solution of two or more poisonous proteids, which are the active agents, with a small quantity of an organic acid or colouring See also:

• MATTER

matter . The venom is destroyed by reagents which precipitate proteids in an insoluble form, or which destroy them, e.g. See also:

• SILVER

silver nitrate or permanganate of potash . Hypochlorites have the same effect . But carbolic acid and See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic potash destroy it only after a day or two, consequently they are not a remedy . The venom is generally introduced into the subcutaneous See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue, whence it reaches the general circulation by absorption through the See also:

• LYMPH

lymph and See also:

• BLOOD

blood-vessels . When introduced directly into a vein, theeffects are instantaneous . It is absorbed by the conjunctiva, but, excepting cobra poison, not by the mouth or alimentary canal, provided there be no hollow teeth and no abrasions .

The venom of the various kinds of snakes acts differently . The Symptoms of Cobra Poison.—Burning See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain, followed by sleepiness and weakness in the legs after half an See also:

• HOUR

hour . Then profuse salivation, See also:

• PARALYSIS, or PALSY (from Gr. aapal,6a , to relax; Wycliffe has palesy, and another old form of the word is parlesy)

paralysis of the tongue and larynx, and inability to speak . Vomiting, incapacity of See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement . The patient seems to be conscious . Breathing becoming difficult . The See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart's action is quickened . The pupil remains contracted and reacts to See also:

• LIGHT

light . At length breathing ceases, with or without See also:

• CONVULSIONS

convulsions, and the heart slowly stops . Should the patient survive, he returns rapidly to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• HEALTH

health . See also:

• RATTLESNAKE

Rattlesnake Poison.—The painful See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound is speedily discoloured and swollen: Constitutional symptoms appear as a rule in less than fifteen minutes: prostration, staggering, See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold sweats, vomiting, feeble and quick See also:

• PULSE

pulse, See also:

• DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and lotus, wide)

dilatation of the pupil, and slight mental disturbance . In this state the patient may See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die in about twelve hours .

If he recovers from the depression, the See also:

• LOCAL

local symptoms begin to See also:

• PLAY

play a much more important part than in cobra-poisoning: great swelling and discoloration extending up the See also:

• LIMB

limb and trunk, rise of temperature and repeated See also:

• SYNCOPE (Gr. vvyKO7n , a cutting up or short, from Kbirrew, to cut)

syncope, and laboured respiration . See also:

• DEATH

Death may occur in this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage . The local haemorrhagic extravasation frequently suppurates, or becomes gangrenous, and from this the patient may die even See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks afterwards . Recovery is sudden, and within a few hours the patient becomes bright and intelligent . Symptoms of Bite from the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European Viper.—Local burning pain; the bitten limb soon swells and is discoloured . Great prostration, vomiting and cold, clammy See also:

• PERSPIRATION (Lat. per, through, and spirare, to breathe)

perspiration follow within one to three hours . Pulse very feeble, with slight difficulty in breathing, and restlessness . In severe cases the pulse may become imperceptible, the extremities may become cold, and the patient may pass into See also:

• COMA (Gr. K(.7)

coma . In from twelve to twenty-four hours these severe constitutional symptoms usually pass off, but in the meantime the swelling and discoloration have spread enormously . Within a few days recovery usually occurs somewhat suddenly, but death may occur from the severe depression, or from the secondary effects of suppuration . The symptoms of the bite from the Daboia or Vipera russeli resemble the effects of rattlesnake poison, but sanious discharges from the rectum, &c., are an additional and prominent feature . The recovering patient suffers from haemorrhagic extravasations in various organs, besides from the lungs, See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose, mouth and bowels .

See also:

• KIDNEY

Kidney See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage and See also:

• ALBUMINURIA (Physiological or Functional)

albuminuria is a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant symptom . The pupil is always dilated and insensitive to light . Bite of Australian Eta See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine Snakes.—Pain and local swelling . The first constitutional symptoms appear in fifteen minutes to two hours . First faintness and irresistible See also:

• DESIRE

desire to See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep . Then alarming prostration and vomiting . Pulse extremely feeble and See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread-Iike, and uncountable . The limbs are cold and the skin is blanched . Respiration becomes shallow with the increasing coma . Sensation is blunted . The pupil is widely dilated and insensible to light . There is sometimes passing of blood .

If the patient survives the coma, recovery Is complete and as a rule rapid, without secondary symptoms . The Australian venom and that of all viperine snakes, perhaps also that of the cobra, if introduced rapidly into the circulation, occasions extensive intravascular clotting . If the venom is slowly absorbed, the blood loses its coagulability, owing to the breaking down of the red blood-corpuscles, most so with vipers, less with Australian snakes, least so with the cobra . The cobra venom is supposed to extinguish the functions of the various See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve-centres of the cerebro-See also:

• SPINAL

spinal system, the paralysation extending from below upwards, and it has a special See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity for the See also:

• RESPIRATORY

respiratory centre . The toxicity or relative strength of the cobra venom has been calculated to be sixteen times that of the European viper . Snakes can poison each other, even those of the same kind . Treatment.—Apply a ligature above, not on the top of, the situation of the bite, twist the See also:

• STRING

string tightly with a stick . Then make a free incision into the wound . Sucking out is dangerous ! Then bandage the limb downwards, progressing towards the wound ; re-See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat this several times . Do not keep the ligature longer than half an hour . Then let the circulation return, and apply the ligature again .

In any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case do not keep the ligature on for more than an hour for fear of See also:

• GANGRENE (from Gr. y&yypawa, an eating sore, from ypaivewv, to gnaw)

gangrene . See also:

• DIRECT

Direct application into the widened wound of See also:

• CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (o= x6)]

calcium hypochlorite, i.e. See also:

• BLEACHING

bleaching See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, is very See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, or of a 1% solution of permanganate of potash, or Condy s fluid . Vigorous cauterization with nitrate of silver, See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving the stick into the widened wound, is also good, and it is a remedy which one can carry in the See also:

• POCKET

pocket . Quick amputation of the See also:

• FINGER

finger is the best remedy of all if a large snake has bitten it . See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal Remedies.—The See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of enormous doses of See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol is to be condemned strongly . Small, stimulating doses, and repeated, are good, but stimulation can be more effectively produced by See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia or See also:

• STRYCHNINE

strychnine . Hypodermic injection of strychnine, in some cases as much as one to two grains (but not into a vein!), has in some cases had good results; but injection of ammonia, instead of doing any good, has disastrous sloughing results . There is only one fairly reliable treatment, that by serum See also:

• THERAPEUTICS (Gr. BepaaeuTLKIi, Sc. TEXVrt, from Beparebsty, to serve)

therapeutics, the injection of considerable quantities of serum of animals which have been partially immunized by repeated doses of [that particular] snake-venom . Unfortunately this treatment will not often be avail-able . Several mammals and birds are supposed to be immune by nature against snake-venom . Some more or less immune creatures are the mongoose, the, See also:

• HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN

hedgehog and the See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig„ the secretary-bird, the See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey See also:

• BUZZARD

buzzard, the See also:

• STORK (A. S. store, Ger. Storch)

stork and probably other snake-eaters . Snakes are oviparous; they See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit from ten to eighty eggs of an See also:

• ELLIPSOID

ellipsoid shape, covered with a soft leathery See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell, in 'places where they are exposed to and hatched by moist heat .

The parents ' pay no further attention to them, except the pythons, which incubate their eggs by coiling their body over them, and fiercely defend them . In some families, as many freshwater snakes, the sea snakes, Viperinae. and Crotalinae, the. eggs are retained in the oviduct until the embryo is fully. See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed: These snakes bring forth living See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young . The See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of snakes has undergone many vicissitudes: J . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller (Zeitschr. f..Physiol., 1831, p . 265) divided them into Ophidia macrostomata and O. microstomata . A . M . C. ccation . Dumeril (Catal. methodique, See also:

• MUS

Mus. d'Hist . Nat., See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris; 181, p . 199) distinguished between Opoterodonta, Aglyphodonta, Proteroglypha. and Solenoglypha . H .

Stannius (Zoolomie d . Amphib., 1856) made a further improvement by See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of the principles used by his predecessors, and he divided the Angiostomataor narrow-mouthed snakes into Tortricina, Typhlopina and Uropeltacea; the Eurystomnta into Iobola or poisonous, and Asinea or innocuous snakes: Meanwhile J . E . See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

Gray (See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

Cat . Snakes, Brit . Mus., 1849) had distinguished only between Viperina and Colubrinia . A . Gunther (Cat . Colubrine Snakes, Brit . Mus., 1858; " Reptiles of See also:

• BRITISH

British India," See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray Soc., 1864; article SNAKES, Ency . Brit., 9th ed.) recognized at last four sub-orders:—Hopoterodontes, Colubriformes, Colubriformes venenosi, Viperiformes; the most serious See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback being the merging of the Peropoda in the non-poisonous Colubriformes . E .

D, See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

Cope (Prot . Ac . Philad.,1864, p . 230) resorted to the modifications of the squamosal,ecto- and endopterygoid bones, the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the vestigial limbs, and the teeth: Scolecophidia (Typhlopidae), Catodonta (Glauconiidae), Tortricina (Ilysiidae and Uropeltidae), Asinea, Proteroglypha and Solenoglypha, He adhered to this arrangement in his last comprehensive See also:

• WORK

work (Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North A merica, 1898, Smithsonian Inst., 1900), but combined the Asinea and Proteroglypha as Colubroidea, subdividing these into Peropoda, Aglyphodonta, Glyphodonta, Proteroglypha and Platycerca (Hydrophinae) . In his last work he used, with doubtful success, the See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of the penes and the lungs. as additional characters, chiefly for the grouping of the great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the Colubroid snakes . G . A . Boulenger (Cat . Snakes, Brit . Mus., 1893-1896) . accepted Cope's principles, and mainly by combining the Asinea of Stannius and Cope with the Proteroglypha as . Colubridae—wherein he was followed by Cope, as mentioned above—and separating therefrom the Peropoda or Boidae, he has produced a logically-conceived system, by far the best hitherto proposed . It is followed in the See also:

• PRESENT

present article .

Boulenger's phylogenetic system stands as follows: Viperidae Uropeltidae C . Opisthoglypha C . Proteroglypha Amblycephalidae Ilysiil ae Xenopeltidae Colubridae Aglypha I I I Typhlopidae Boidae Glauconiidae This means that the Boidae retain most See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive characters . Likewise primitive, but in various respects degraded, mainly owing to burrowing habits, are the Typhlopidae with the Ilysiidae, and Uropeltidae as a terminal branch, and on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the Glauconiidae . The solitary Xenopeltis is in several ways intermediate between Boidae and FIG, 5,--Typhlops bothriorhynchus, from India, natural size . Ilysiidae . The rest of the snakes are supposed to have started from some primitive, non- a horny spine . They are widely distributed in all tropical and sub-degenerate, therefore See also:

• BOA

boa-like See also:

• GROUP

group, leading by loss of the tropical countries, even in such solitary places as See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, vestiges of the See also:

• HIND

hind-limbs and loss of the coronoid bone of the but they do not occur in New Zealand . The chief genus is Typhlops, mandible to the aglyphous or innocuous Colubridae, whence. further differentiation in three new lines has taken place,—(z) the harmless Amblycephalidae as a side-issue, (2) the very poisonous proteroglyphous Elapidae, (3) the moderately or incipiently poisonous Opisthoglypha, out of some of which seem to have arisen the venomous Viperidae . I . No ectopterygoid; pterygoid not extending to quadrate; no supratemporal or squamosal; prefrontal forming a suture with nasal; coronoid present; vestiges of See also:

• PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. 7rEX?a )

pelvis present . Maxillary vertical, loosely attached, toothed; mandible toothless; a single pair of pelvis bones: Typhlopidae .

Maxillary bordering the mouth, forming sutures with the pre-maxillary, prefrontal and frontal, toothless; lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw toothed; pubis and ischium present, the latter forming a symphysis: Glauconiidae . II . Ectopterygoid present; upper and lower jaws toothed . A . Coronoid present, prefrontal in contact with nasal . i . Vestiges of hind-limbs; supratemporal present . Squamosal large, suspending the quadrate: Boidae . Squamosal small, intercalated in the cranial See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall: Ilysiidae . 2 . No vestiges of limbs: squamosal absent: Uropeltidae . B .

Coronoid absent; squamosal present . z . Maxillary horizontal; pterygoid reaching quadrate or mandible . Prefrontal in contact with nasal: Xenopeltidae . Prefrontal not in contact with nasal: Colubridae . 2 . Maxillary horizontal ; pterygoid not reaching quadrate or mandible: Amblycephalidae . 3 . Maxillary vertically erectile, perpendicularly to ectoptery- goid, and reaching quadrate or mandible: Viperidae . For ordinary See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical purposes this synopsis is useless, most of the anatomical characters being visible only in the macerated skull . The following characterization of the families is, based upon more accessible features . Eyes vestigial or hidden; lower jaw toothless; without enlarged ventral scales: Typhlopidae .

Eyes vestigial; teeth restricted to the lower jaw; without enlarged ventral scales: Glauconiidae . Eyes very small; head not distinct; teeth in the upper and lower jaws; ventral scales scarcely enlarged; tail extremely short, ending obtusely and covered with peculiar scales: Uropeltidae . Eyes functional, free, with vestiges of the hind-limbs appearing as claw-like spurs on each side of the vent . Ventral scales scarcely enlarged: Ilysiidae . Ventral scales transversely enlarged: Boidae . Eyes free; with a pair of poison-fangs in the front part of the mouth, carried by the otherwise toothless, much shortened, and vertically erectile maxillaries; ventral scales transversely enlarged: Viperidae . All the remaining snakes combine the following characters. the maxillaries are typically horizontal, not separately movable, with a series of teeth . The mandible is toothed but has no coronoid bone . There are no vestiges of limbs or of their girdles . The eyes are free . Dentary movably attacned to the tip of the articular bone of the mandible . Skin beautifully iridescent: .Xenopeltidae .

Without a mental groove; the ends of the pterygoids are free, not reaching the quadrate- . Head thick and very distinct: Amblycephalidae . With a median longitudinal groove between the shields of the skin: Colubridae . See also:

• FAMILY

Family 1 . TYenLOPIDAE.—Burrowing snakes, mostly small, which have the body covered with smooth, shiny, uniform See also:

• CYCLOID (from Gr. iciidws, circle, and ennos, form)

cycloid scales . The teeth are restricted to the small maxillary bones . The quadrates slant obliquely forward' and are attached directly to the prootics, owing to the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of squamosals . The prefrontals are in lateral contact with the nasals . The vestiges of the pelvis are reduced to a single bone on each side, and there are no traces of limbs, The eyes are hidden by shields of the skin . The mouth is very narrow, and the halves of the under-jaw are not distensible . About See also:

• IOO

ioo species of these rather archaic snakes are known; in See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to their burrowing life and worm and See also:

• INSECT

insect See also:

• DIET

diet, they have undergone degradation . The tail is mostly very short and sometimes ends in of which, for instance, T. braminus ranges from See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• ASIA

Asia, the islands of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian Ocean and the See also:

• MALAY

Malay Islands to southern See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa .

Family 2 . GLAUCONIIDAE.—Burrowing like the Typhlopidae, which they much resemble externally, but the maxillaries retain their normal position and are toothless, teeth being restricted to the lower jaw, which is short, stout, and not dis- tensible . The pelvic See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle and the hind-limbs show the least reduction found in any recent snakes, ilia, pubes and See also:

• ISCHIA (Gr. II19r)KO"va, Lat. Aenaria, in poetry Inarime)

ischia being still distin- guishable, the last even retaining their sym- physis, and there are small vestiges of the femurs . About 3o species, mostly of the genus Glauconia, in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-western Asia, Africa, See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar, the See also:

• ANTILLES

Antilles and both Americas, G. dulcis ranging northwards into See also:

• TEXAS

Texas, G. humilis into See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California . Family 3 . ILYSIIDAE.—MOStly burrowing . The scales of the long, cylindrical body are smooth and small, scarcely enlarged on the ventral side . The tail is extremely short and See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

blunt . The head is very small and not distinct from the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck, a usual feature in burrowing snakes and lizards . The gape of the mouth is narrow . The quadrate bones are short and stand rather vertically . The squamosals form part of the cranial wall, being firmly wedged in between the quadrate, prootic and occipital bones .

Vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs are small, but they terminate in claw-like spurs which protrude FIG . 6 . Three between the scales on either side of the vent . Views of Head of as in the Boidae . The smali eyes are some-T y p h l o p s bra- times covered by transparent shields . About minus (India)" half-a-dozen species only are known in South magnified . See also:

• AMERICA

America, See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon, the Malay Islands and Indo- See also:

• CHINA

China . They are viviparous like the Typhlopidae, upon which they feed besides See also:

• WORMS

worms and See also:

• INSECTS

insects . Ilysia s . Tortsix scytale, one of the " See also:

• CORAL

coral-snakes " of tropical South America, is beautiful coral-red with black rings, grows to nearly a yard in length, and is said sometimes to be worn as a necklace by native ladies