SONG  , either an actual " singing " performance, or in a See also:

• LITERARY

literary sense a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short metrical See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition adapted for singing or actually set to See also:

• MUSIC

music . In the second sense of the word it must strictly be lyrical in its nature; but musicians and others frequently use the word in the wider sense of any short poem set to music . A " song," as a See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of poem, usually turns on some single thought or emotion, expressed subjectively in a number of stanzas or strophes . Almost every nation is in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of an immense See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of old See also:

• SIMPLE

simple See also:

• BALLADS

ballads (q.v.), which are the spontaneous outcome of the See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people (" folk-songs "), and represent in a remarkable degree their tastes, feelings and aspirations; but in addition to these, there are, of course, the more finished and See also:

• REGULAR

regular compositions See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born of the conscious See also:

• ART

art of the civilized poet . In a purely literary sense the song may exist, and does largely exist, without any necessary See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of music . With the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English poets was immediately See also:

• DRAWN

drawn to the importance of this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of lyrical literature . The miscellanies, one of which See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

Master Slender would have paid more than See also:

• FORTY

forty shillings to have in his See also:

• POCKET

pocket on a celebrated occasion, were garlands of songs, most of them a little See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude in form, only See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere " packets of bald rhymes." But about 1590 the popularity of the song having greatly in-creased, more skilful writers were attracted to its use, and the famous See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England's See also:

• HELICON
• HELICON (Fr. helicon, bombardon circulaire; Ger. Helikon)

Helicon of 1600 marked the hey-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of Elizabethan song-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . In this See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare, See also:

• SIDNEY
• SIDNEY (or SYDNEY), ALGERNON (1622-1683)
• SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1529-1586)
• SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586)

Sidney, See also:

• LODGE
• LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839)
• LODGE, H
• LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850– )
• LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851– )
• LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558–1625)

Lodge, See also:

• BARNFIELD, RICHARD (1574-1627)

Barnfield and See also:

• GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883)
• GREENE, MAURICE (1695-1755)
• GREENE, NATHANAEL (1742-1786)
• GREENE, ROBERT (c. 1560-1592)

Greene, to name no others, were laid under contribution . See also:

• LYLY (LILLY, or LYLIE), JOHN (1553–1606)

Lyly, with such exquisite See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers as " See also:

• CUPID (Cupido, " desire ")

Cupid and my Campaspe " (1584), had preceded the best anthologies, and is really the earliest of the artist-songsters of England . Among superb song-writers who followed were See also:

• MARLOWE, CHRISTOPHER (1564-1593)
• MARLOWE, JULIA [SARAH FRANCES FROST] (1870– )

Marlowe (" Come live with me and be my love "), See also:

• CAMPION, EDMUND (154o-I581)
• CAMPION, THOMAS (1567-1620)

Campion (" My sweetest Lesbia ") See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

Ben See also:

• JONSON

Jonson (' Drink to me only with thine eyes ") and See also:

• FLETCHER, ALICE CUNNINGHAM (1845– )
• FLETCHER, ANDREW
• FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1548-1611)
• FLETCHER, GILES (c. 1584-1623)
• FLETCHER, JOHN WILLIAM (1729-1785)
• FLETCHER, PHINEAS (1582-1650)

Fletcher (" Here ye Ladies, that depise "), most of these being dramatists, who illuminated their plays, and added a delicate See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament to them, by means of those exquisite lyrical interpolations . See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

Side by side with such poets, and a little later, began to flourish the school of See also:

• CAVALIER
• CAVALIER, JEAN (1681-1740)

cavalier song-writers, for whose purpose the lyric was self-sufficient . They added to our literature jewels of perennial lustre—See also:

• WITHER, GEORGE (1588-1667)

Wither, with his " Shall I wasting in despair," See also:

• HERRICK, ROBERT (1591-1674)

Herrick with " Bid me to live " and " Gather ye Rosebuds," See also:

• CAREW, GEORGE (d. about 1613)
• CAREW, RICHARD (1555–1620)
• CAREW, THOMAS (1595–1645?)

Carew with " Ask me no more where See also:

• JUNE

June bestows," See also:

• WALLER, EDMUND (1606-1687)
• WALLER, LEWIS (186o- )
• WALLER, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1597-1668)

Waller with " Go, lovely See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

Rose," Suckling with " Why so See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale and wan, fond See also:

• LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868)

Lover?" and See also:

• LOVELACE, RICHARD (1618-1658)

Lovelace with " Tell me not, Sweet, I am unkind." This was the classic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of the true See also:

• BRITISH

British song, which survived all other forms of See also:

• POETRY

poetry after the decay of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, and continued to flourish in the hands of See also:

• DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700)

Dryden, See also:

• SEDLEY, SIR CHARLES (c. 1639-1701)

Sedley, Aphra See also:

• BEHN, APHRA (otherwise AFRA, APHARA or AYFARA) (164o-1689)

Behn and See also:

• ROCHESTER
• ROCHESTER, JOHN WILMOT, 2ND EARL
• ROCHESTER, LAWRENCE HYDE, EARL OF (1641-1711)

Rochester down to the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century .

That outburst of song was followed by nearly a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years during which the simplest and more See also:

• DIRECT

direct forms of lyrical utterance found comparatively little encouragement . Just before the romantic revival the song reasserted its position in literature, and achieved the most splendid successes in the hands of See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

Burns, who adapted to his purpose all kinds of fragmentary material which had survived up to his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in the memories of rustic persons . In See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, indeed, the song was rather revived and adorned than resuscitated; in England it may be said to have been recreated by See also:

• BLAKE, EDWARD (1833– )
• BLAKE, ROBERT (1599-1657)
• BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827)

Blake . At the opening of the loth century it became the vehicle of some of the loveliest fancies and the purest art of See also:

• COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849)
• COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE, 1ST BARON
• COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834)
• COLERIDGE, SARA (1802–1852)
• COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR (1790-1876)

Coleridge, See also:

• KEATS, JOHN (1795-1821)

Keats, See also:

• SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1797-1851)
• SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822)

Shelley, See also:

• BYRON, GEORGE GORDON BYRON, 6TH BARON (1788-1824)
• BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884)
• BYRON, HON
• BYRON, JOHN BYRON

Byron and See also:

• LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE (1775-1864)

Landor; while in a later day songs of rare perfection were composed by See also:

• TENNYSON, ALFRED TENNYSON

Tennyson and by See also:

• CHRISTINA (1626–1689)
• CHRISTINA [MARIA CHRISTINA HENRIETTA DESIREE FELICITE RENIERE]

Christina See also:

• ROSSETTI, CHRISTINA GEORGINA (1830-1894)
• ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL (1828-1882)

Rossetti . (E.G.) Song in Music . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of song as a musical form falls into two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main divisions, the one belonging to the folk-song, the other to the art-song . Though the See also:

• LINE

line of demarcation between the twocannot be definitely drawn, for they have acted and reacted upon each other ever since music existed as a cultivated art, yet it may reasonably be maintained that the folk-song, which lies at the See also:

• BASE

base of all music, preserves, and has in all ages preserved, characteristics such as must always distinguish the rude and unconscious products of the human mind, working more by See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct than by method, from the polished and conscious See also:

• PRO

pro-ducts of the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools . For the purposes then of this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article, art-song may be distinguished from folk-song by the fact that it is the See also:

• WORK

work of trained musicians and is designed, at any See also:

• RATE

rate after the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 16th century, for See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice with instrumental accompaniment, whereas we shall restrict the See also:

• TERM

term folk-song to such melodies as appear to have been the work of untutored minds, and to have arisen independently of any See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for See also:

• HARMONIC

harmonic support . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early history of song on its musical side may be regarded as the history of the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of See also:

• MELODY (Gr. ,ueXw3ia, a choral song, from name, tune, and gi6i, song)

melody: and since what is known of melody before the end of the s6th century, apart from the folk-song, is extremely slight, it is in the folk-song itself that this evolution is primarily to be studied . Previously to the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period named the instrumental accompaniment to vocal melody, both in the folk-song and in the art-song, played an entirely insignificant See also:

• PART

part . Afterwards the new conception of See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony which came in with the 17th century not only shifted the basis of melody itself but made the instrumental accompaniment an essential feature of See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic song . Though it lies beyond the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of this article to discuss fully the complex questions involved in the evolution of vocal melody, some slight See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch is a necessary preliminary to a proper understanding of the subject under See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration .

It may be assumed that in the course of ages the uncouth vocal utterances of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of an instinct for expressing his inner nature through Origins. a more expressive See also:

• MEDIUM

medium than See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language alone, into sounds of more or less definite See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch, bearing intelligible relation-See also:

• SHIPS

ships one to another; and that from these emerged short phrases, in which See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm probably played the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal part, reiterated with that interminable persistency, which many travellers have noted as characteristic of See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage nations in the See also:

• PRESENT

present day . A further See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage is reached when some such, primitive phrase is repeated at a different level by way of contrast and variety, but melody in any true sense of the word does not begin till two different phrases come to be combined in some sort of See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme or See also:

• PATTERN

pattern . When the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to produce such combinations become See also:

• COMMON

common in a nation, its musical history may be said to have begun.' Racial characteristics are displayed in the choice of notes out of which such phrases are formed . But in all races it may be surmised that the main determining cause in the first instance is that natural rise and fall of the voice which gives expressiveness and meaning to speech, even though contributory causes arising from the imitative See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty common to man may perhaps be admitted—such as the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound of the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, the waves of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, the cries of animals, the notes of birds, the striking of one See also:

• OBJECT

object against another, and finally the sounds made by primitive See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments . The tendency of the speaking voice to fall a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth and to rise a fifth has often been noted . It is probable that these intervals were among the first to be defined, and that the many modes or scales, underlying the popular melodies of the various nations of the See also:

• WORLD

world, were the result of different methods 1 If the one phrase is represented by A, and the other by B, the commonest melodic schemes presented by the folk-songs of the world may be viewed thus—AB, AAB, ABB, See also:

• ABA

ABA, ABAB, AABB, AABA, ABBA . Of these, those in which the opening phrase A is repeated at the conclusion are the most satisfactory, for both instinct and See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason are gratified by a connexion between the beginning and the end . As exact conformity to pattern becomes wearisome and is See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien to the progressive instinct, the See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of surprise is introduced into the above schemes by various modifications of the repeated phrase on its second See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, or by the entrance of an entirely new - phrase C . In some See also:

• FINE

fine melodies there is no repetition of phrase, a number of different phrases being knit, by principles, which defy See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis, into one structure . Such melodies imply a melodic sense of an exceptional See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . Many melodies involve more than foul phrases; of these the See also:

• RONDO

rondo form should be mentioned—ABA C'ADA of determining the intervening sounds . It has been generally assumed that the fall of a fourth is the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval earliest arrived at by the instinct of the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• RACE

race—and that intervening sounds were added which resulted eventually in the three possible forms of the diatonic tetrachord, the earliest being that which is characteristic of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Dorian mode or See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale (the basis of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek musical See also:

• SYSTEM

system) in which two tetrachords, having the semitone between the lowest See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note and the next above it, are superimposed (see Bourgault Ducoudray, Introduction to 30 Chansons de Grece et d'Orient) .

It must, however, be remembered that the popular instinct knows nothing about tetrachords or scales, which are abstractions, and only creates melodies, or at least successions of sounds, which are the outward expression of inward feelings . The Greek theorists therefore, in recording certain modes as being in use in their day, were in effect merely stating results arrived at by analysing popular melodies—and from the persistence with which the Greeks, and following them, most of the musical historians of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, have insisted upon a tetrachordal basis for the art of music it may be assumed that in these melodies a basis of four diatonic notes was a conspicuous feature . It is a feature which marks a considerable number of folk-songs heard in See also:

• GREECE

Greece at the present day, and also of many folk-songs which are not Greek, the See also:

• BRETON, BRITTON
• BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE

Breton, for example (see Bourgault Ducoudray, Chansons de Basse-Bretagne) . The interval of a fourth is nearly always prominent too in the music of savages . If it is natural to connect these facts with the drop of a fourth, characteristic of the speaking voice, it is dangerous to assume an exclusively " tetrachordal period " of primitive song, at any rate till it can be shown that melodies based on other principles did not exist side by side with those that are tetrachordal . From the rise of a fifth and the fall of a fourth, the See also:

• OCTAVE (from Lat. octavus, eighth, octo, eight)

octave, which results from combining these intervals, may well have become See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar at a very early See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch . Indeed a prolonged howl beginning on a high note and descending a full octave in semitones—or notes approximately resembling semitones—is recorded both of the Caribs and of the natives of See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, so that familiarity with the octave need not presuppose an advanced stage of musical development . To pass from the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of mere See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation nearer to the domain of history, it may be asserted with confidence that the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest form of song or See also:

• CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to sing; an old form is " chaunt ")

chant which can be established is found in certain recitation formulae . These, as is natural, will be found to be derived from the rise and fall of the voice in speech . It is therefore not surprising that O . See also:

• FLEISCHER, HEINRICH LEBERECHT (1801-1888)

Fleischer (Sammelbdnde der internationalen Musik-Gesellschaft, See also:

• JAN

Jan.–See also:

• MAR, EARLDOM OF
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 1ST OR 6TH EARL OF (d. 1572)
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 2ND OR 7TH EARL
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 6TH OR 11TH EARL OF (1675-1732)

Mar . 1902) is able to trace practically identical formulae in the traditional methods of reciting the Vedas, the See also:

• KORAN

Koran, the Jewish and See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian liturgies .

The simplest form consists of four notes (a diatonic tetrachord), a reciting note, preceded by two notes rising to it, and followed by a fall, or See also:

• CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from cadere, to fall)

cadence, for the close, the voice rising above the reciting note in order to emphasize important words, or according to the nature of the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence . An extended form is both natural and common . The influence of these and similar formulae' upon popular melodies can be illustrated by countless examples (for which 1 The derivation of such formulae from more primitive incantations of magicians and See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine-men is a possible and plausible theory (see J . Combarieu, La Musique: ses lois et son evolution . See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1907).the reader is referred to I.M.G.) . As characteristic as any is the melody of the Christian hymn which begins and concludes See also:

• SIS (anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or Flavias)

Sis prae - sul et cus - to - di - a . Another is the Hungarian folk-song: Nem Szoktam . Many See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French songs have been collected in See also:

• RECENT

recent years, of which the following See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula, or See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of it, form an essential feature: This corresponds closely with the third example given above . That the melodies in question are of See also:

• GREAT

great antiquity may be inferred from the fact that they are almost confined to the oldest class of folk-song, that which celebrates May Day and the begin ning of See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring . M . Tiersot (La Chanson populaire en See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, Paris, 1889) plausibly finds in them a survival of a melodic fragment, which may have belonged to See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan See also:

• HYMNS

hymns in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of spring, basing his supposition upon the fact that the phrase in question occurs in the melody of the See also:

• EASTER

Easter hymn " O Filii et Filiae." The See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, acting on principles familiar in all ages, may well have helped to See also:

• MERGE

merge a pagan in a Christian festival by adopting, not merely old See also:

• RITES

rites and observances, but the actual melody with which these had for ages been associated . A similar survival in French folk-song is that of the melody of the Tonus peregrinus, the chant used for the See also:

• PSALM (from the Gr. word * hXAew, to play the harp)

psalm " When See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel came out of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt " (mentioned in the 9th century by See also:

• AURELIAN [Lucius DoMITIus AURELIANUS]

Aurelian Reome as being very old) .

Its appearance, like that of the Easter hymn, in songs, which on other grounds can be proved to be of great antiquity, points to the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability of its being of popular origin . It also bears equally strong marks of being derived from a recitation formula, as indeed its See also:

• APPROPRIATION (from Lat. appropriare, to set aside)

appropriation for chanting a psalm sufficiently indicates . Endeavours to detach other primitive formulae from the popular melodies in which they are enshrined form a branch of folk-See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore now being actively pursued . It may be hoped that " See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative melodology " —if the phrase may be coined—will , do for this See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of musical knowledge what the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of comparative See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology has done for language . Oscar Fleischer (I.M.G. i . 1) has endeavoured to trace the history in Europe of the primitive phrases belonging to the melody of " See also:

• LES

Les See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

Series " (or Unus est See also:

• DEUS
• DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896)

Deus) as given by De Villemarque in Barzaz-Breiz __= Te lu - cis an - to ter - mi - num, No . 1, in the musical appendix, as also of the opening phrase in the old Christian hymn, " Conditor See also:

• ALME

alme siderum " (attributed to See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop See also:

• AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d.' 778)
• AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771)
• AMBROSE (fl. 119o)
• AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4)
• AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307)

Ambrose) : The phrase here belongs to a melody in the Phrygian mode, but when it is used in See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major melodies its characteristic notes are those of the common chord, with a rise to the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth at the point of See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax, corresponding to the rise in the recitation formulae given above . By what processes the notes of the common chord became universally established it is not possible to determine, but it may be said in a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general way that the reference to a given tonic was felt in all ages to be a necessary See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition even of the simplest melody, and that, as the melodic instinct See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew, an almost equal necessity was found for a point of contrast, and that this point of contrast became with most nations of See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan origin the fifth note above the tonic, at any rate in the more popular scales . Combarieu (La Musique, p . 121) observes that we owe the use of the octave, the fifth and the fourth to the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South and See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, but that the importance of the third in our See also:

• MODERN

modern musical system is due to the instinctive See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North, i.e. to England and Scandinavia (see also See also:

• HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764–1844)
• HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885)

Hugo See also:

• RIEMANN, GEORG FRIEDRICH BERNHARD (1826–1866)

Riemann, Geschichte der Musiktheorie, See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1898, and Wooldridge, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford History of Music, 1 . 161-162, where the well-known See also:

• QUOTATION

quotation from Giraldus Cambriensis, or Gerald See also:

• BARRY
• BARRY, ELIZABETH (1658—1713)
• BARRY, JAMES (1741—1806)
• BARRY, SIR CHARLES (1795-1860)
• BARRY, SIR REDMOND (1813-188o)
• BARRY, SPRANGER (1719-1777)

Barry, of the 12th century, establishing the fact of part-singing in England, is given) . If, as has been shown, the origin of many melodies can be traced to formulae originally used for chanting or reciting, it must not be forgotten that formulae thus derived assume very different characters under the influence of more decided rhythms than that of speech .

To accompany bodily movements (which by a natural See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law become rhythmical when often repeated) with music, vocal or instrumental, is an almost universal human instinct, whether to alleviate the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden or the monotony of labour, as in See also:

• ROWING (O. Eng. rowan, to row, cf. Lat. remus, Gr. perµbr, oar)

rowing, See also:

• SOWING (from "to sow," O. Eng. shwan, cf. Du. zaaijen, Ger. saen, &c.; the root is seen in Lat. severe, cf. "seed")

sowing, See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning, hammering and a See also:

• SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear ")

score of other pursuits, or to promote See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure and excitement, as in the See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance . It is unsafe to infer, as some have done, from the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, known in all ages, of dancing and singing at the same time, that song arose as a mere See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory to the dance . It is more probable that the dance has its origin in the mimetic actions, which are the natural accompaniment of rudimentary song . At the same time, no one will deny that races with ballads of their own early made use of them for the dance, and that, especially on the rhythmical side, melody owes to the dance an incalculable See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt.l It may be assumed then that upon some such basis as has been roughly indicated the different nations of the world have developed each their own musical phraseology, emanating from and answering to their several needs and temperaments and that the short melodic phrases, out of which folk-tunes are made, have their roots in a past as distant as that in which the elements of language were formed, and that the popular instinct which through countless ages has diversified those forms and arranged them into melodies,. whose constructions are mostly susceptible to analysis, is the same instinct as that which has given to language its See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar and its syntax . ` In proceeding now to the actual history of song in Europe, it must be remembered that it is inseparably connected with History of poetry . Melody till within comparatively recent Song in times continued to fulfil its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• FUNCTION

function of europe . / enhancing the value and expressiveness of language . For poetry of the epic See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind with the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long lines common to early European peoples, some such forms of chanting as have been indicated must have sufficed . 1 For the growth of the refrain from communal dancing and singing, see C . J . See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

Sharp, English Folk-Songs, p . 93 .

Nor should the association of dancing with all primitive religious ceremonies be forgotten—see K . J . See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

Freeman, Schools of Hellas (1907) . Melody, as we understand it, with compact form and balanced phrases, could only have existed if and when the same qualities appeared in popular poetry . This was probably the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case long before the taste for long epic narratives began to disappear in favour of more concise forms of ballad and of lyric . The See also:

• STANZA (Low Lat. stantia, Ital. stantia or stanza)

stanza form must have been generally familiar in the early See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages from the Latin hymns of the Church, and these hymns themselves are likely to have been formed, in part at any rate, on See also:

• MODELS

models which were already known and popular . We have definite See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information that in the early middle ages two sorts of popular poetry existed—the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical ballads (descendants of those alluded to by See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus in his Germania as characteristic of the Germans, and as constituting g Song . their only historical records), and popular songs of a See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character which caused them to be described as canlica nefaria by St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine; the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of See also:

• AGDE

Agde (5o6) forbade Christians to frequent assemblies where they were sung: St Cesaire, bishop of See also:

• ARLES
• ARLES, KINGDOM OF

Arles, speaks of the chants diaboliques sung by See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country folk, both men and See also:

• WOMEN

women; the Council of Chalons menaced the women, who seem to have been the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief offenders, with See also:

• EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis, common)

excommunication and See also:

• WHIPPING, or FLOGGING

whipping; lastly See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne, whose love for the better class of song is attested by the fact that he ordered a collection of them to be made for his own use, said of the other " canticum turpe et luxuriosum circa ecclesias agere omnino, quod et ubique vitandum est." Beyond the fact of their existence we know nothing of these songs of the early middle ages . Their influence on the popular mind was vigorously resisted, as we have seen, by the Church, and for many centuries efforts were made to supplant them by songs, the subjects of which were taken from the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

Gospel narratives and the lives of the See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, so that folk-song and church song strove together for popularity . Doubtless the church song borrowed musical elements from its See also:

• RIVAL

rival: nor was the folk-song uninfluenced in its turn by the traditional music of the Church . In considering this latter music, it is important to distinguish between the melodies adapted to the See also:

• PROSE

prose portions of the See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual without definite rhythm, and those of the hymns, where the See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre of the Latin verses and their stanza form necessitated a corresponding rhythm and musical form . Rhythm in music, which has its origin and counterpart in the regular bodily movements involved in various departments of labour and in the dance, must, as has already been said, have always been an essential feature of popular melody, and it is reasonable to conclude from its See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence in the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain-song, and indeed for many centuries in the compositions of musicians, which had the plain-song for their basis, that these hymns, which represented the popular part of the Church services, were also representative of the popular tastes of the time .

In all ages the Church has drawn largely from popular song for the melodies of its hymns . It is moreover in the highest degree improbable that the Church should have been able to evolve out of its inner consciousness, without pre-existing models, a melody—to take a single instance—like that of " Conditor alme siderum "—the survival of which in innumerable European folk-songs has already been alluded to . Numerous additions to the store of plain-song melodies were made by the monastic composers of the middle ages• the most notable is that of the See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

Dies Irae, of which the words are attributed to See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas de See also:

• CELANO

Celano (d . 1250) . Reference should also be made to the music of the liturgical dramas or mysteries, popular in medieval times: The Lamentation of See also:

• RACHEL (1821-1858)

Rachel, The See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

Wise and Foolish Virgins and Tke Prophets of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, are given, both See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text and music, in Coussemaker's L'Harmonie au moyen age . They reflect the severe See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of the plain-song, and were probably intended for cultivated rather than popular audiences . The same is probably true of the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular songs quoted in the same work . These have a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• INTEREST

interest as being the earliest specimens of song which have come down to us in Christian times . The best known is the " Complainte," on the See also:

• DEATH

death of Charlemagne (quoted in many histories), the dignified, if somewhat dreary, melody of which revolves mostly on the first three notes of a major scale, once rising to the fourth (thus recalling the old recitation formula) . Rhythm is practically absent . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the song in honour of See also:

• OTTO

Otto III. has definite rhythm and a degree of tunefulness . The " modus Ottino " was a well-known See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, which, unlike the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of those quoted by Coussemaker, was probably of popular origin, for the Latin words do not See also:

• FIT

fit the melody and probably represent a See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation from an original in the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue.' Modus Ottinc .

ors— Mag - nus Cae - sar Ot - to, quem hic mo - dus re - fert, in no - mi - ne Ot - tine dic - tus, quadam noc - to mem-bra su - a dum See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

col- to - See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat Pa - la - ti - See also:

• URN (Lat. urna, either from root of urere, to burn, being made of burnt clay, or connected with urceus, Gr. I5pxa, jar)

urn a a ca - su su - bi - to in - flam - ma - tur . (12 more stanzas.) More remarkable still is a "Chanson de Table" of the loth century, a really graceful melody, the quotation of which may serve to destroy the illusion that the major scale, so often described as modern, has any other claim to the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title than the fact that it has been preserved by modern musicians, while others have been discarded . j Jam,dul-cis a - mi - ca, ve - ni - to, quam si-cut See also:

• COR

cor ' P - • me - urn di - li- go; In - tra in cu - bi - cu-lum me - urn, or - na-men-tis cunc - tis or - na - turn . In the same collection may be found, beside other historical songs, two odes of Boethius and two odes of See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace, set to music;' but whether the melodies given represent medieval music or See also:

• ROMAN

Roman music, corrupted or not, it is, impossible to determine . These songs have been dwelt upon, for they not only represent some kinds of music that were sung in the 9th and loth centuries, but indicate the See also:

• SOURCES

sources from which later on the work of the troubadours was derived . They may be summed up as a church-song and folk-song, and the songs by more or less cultured persons made after these models . For the subsequent history of the art the folk-song represents by far the most potent influence, but the melodies quoted by Coussemaker which might be regarded as the See also:

• WORKS

works of the popular instinct afford in-sufficient data for safe generalization . More direct See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is to be found in the 12th-century See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral See also:

• PLAY

play—Le Jeu de See also:

• ROBIN

Robin et de See also:

• MARION
• MARION, FRANCIS (1732-1795)
• MARION, HENRI FRANCOIS (1846-1896)

Marion, till within recent years considered as the work of See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam de la See also:

• HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909)
• HALE, HORATIO (1817–1896)
• HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806–1873)
• HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776)
• HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676)
• HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1849- )

Hale, but since the able criticisms of M . Tiersot in the work referred to above, likely henceforth to be regarded as ' This melody, which is plainly derived from recitation, with A as tonus carrens, closely resembles that of Ljomur, a folk-song of the See also:

• FAEROE (also written FAROE or THE FAEROES, Danish Faeroerne or Fliroerne, "the sheep islands ")

Faeroe islanders, noted by H . Thuren in 1902 and identified by him with a piece of recitation (" Fill care'') from a 12th-century " Drame liturgique " (deciphered by O . Fleischer, Neumenstudien, Bd . II. p .

23) . See Folkesangen paa Faroerne, H . Thuren (See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen, 19o8) . Identity of style between a popular song of the 9th century, a drame liturgique of the 12th and a folk-song still sung in the loth is sufficiently striking—especially in view of the fact that in the Faeroe Islands instrumental music is practically unknown . ' See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• ASHBURNHAM, JOHN (c. 1603-1671)

Ashburnham has a See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil of the loth century, " Bans lequel les discours directs de l'Eneide sont accompagnes de notations musicales" (Coussemaker).the oldest collection of folk-songs in existence; for the original compositions which Maitre Adam has bequeathed to posterity preclude us from believing that he could have originated the dainty airs contained in that play, of which Robin m'aime is generally familiar, and is still to be heard on the lips of peasants in the north of France (see Tiersot, p . 424, n.) . If M . Tiersot's view is correct, the melodies in Robin et Marion may be taken to represent the popular style of an epoch considerably anterior to the date of the play itself (though See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance must be made for the correcting hand of a professional musician) which is our excuse for introducing them at this See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . Before speaking of the songs of troubadours, trouveres and See also:

• MINNESINGERS (Ger. Minnesinger from Minne, love)

minnesingers, allusion must be made to a class of men who played a part the importance of which both in the social and See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• LIFE

life of the middle ages is attested by innumerable chroniclers and poets, viz. the skalds, bards or minstrels—the chief depositories of the musical and poetical traditions of the several countries t