See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)  , an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city in See also:

• GREECE

Greece, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of See also:

• LACONIA
• LACONIA (Gr. AaKWVLK1])

Laconia and the most powerful See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of the Peloponnese . The city See also:

• LAY

lay at the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern end of the central Laconian See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, on the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the See also:

• RIVER

river Eurotas, a little See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the point where it is joined by its largest tributary, the Oenus (mod . Kelefina) . The site is admirably fitted by nature to guard the only routes by which an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army can penetrate Laconia from the See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, the Oenus and Eurotas valleys leading from See also:

• ARCADIA

Arcadia, its northern See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour, and the Langada Pass over Mt See also:

• TAYGETUS (Tavyeros or Tairyerov, mod. St Elias or Pentedaktylon)

Taygetus connecting Laconia and See also:

• MESSENIA (Gr. M€ rcr vrl or M€o o vta)

Messenia . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time its distance from the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea—See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta is 27 M. from its seaport, See also:

• GYTHIUM

Gythium—made it invulnerable to a maritime attack . I.—See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY Prehistoric See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

Period.—Tradition relates that Sparta was founded by See also:

• LACEDAEMON

Lacedaemon, son of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus and Taygete, who called the city after the name of his wife, the daughter of Eurotas . But Amyclae and Therapne (Therapnae) seem to have been in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times of greater importance than Sparta, the former a Minyan See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles to the south of Sparta, the latter probably the Achaean capital of Laconia and the seat of See also:

• MENELAUS

Menelaus, See also:

• AGAMEMNON

Agamemnon's younger See also:

• BROTHER

brother . Eighty years after the Trojan See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, according to the traditional See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology, the Dorian See also:

• MIGRATION

migration took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . A See also:

• BAND

band of See also:

• DORIANS

Dorians (q.v.) See also:

• UNITED

united with a See also:

• BODY

body of Aetolians to See also:

• CROSS

cross the Corinthian Gulf and invade the Peloponnese from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north- See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . The Aetolians settled in See also:

• ELIS
• ELIS, or ELEIA
• ELIS, PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOL OF

Elis, the Dorians invasa nvasioa . pushed up to the headwaters of the See also:

• ALPHEUS ('AAdseaos; mod. Ruphia)

Alpheus, where they divided into two forces, one of which under Cresphontes invaded and later subdued Messenia, while the other, led by See also:

• ARISTODEMUS (8th century s.c.)

Aristodemus or, according to another version, by his twin sons Eurysthenes and Procles, made its way down the Eurotas valley and gained Sparta, which became the Dorian capital II of Laconia . In reality this Dorian See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration probably consisted of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of inroads and settlements rather than a single See also:

• GREAT

great expedition, as depicted by See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, and was aided by the Minyan elements in the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, owing to their dislike of the Achaean yoke .

The newly founded state did not at once become powerful: it was weakened by See also:

• INTERNAL

internal dissension and lacked the stability of a united and well-organized community . The turning-point is marked by the legislation of See also:

• LYCURGUS
• LYCURGUS (c. 396–325 B.C.)
• LYCURGUS (Gr. AvKofpyor)

Lycurgus (q.v.), who effected the unification of the state and instituted that training which was its distinguishing feature and the source of its greatness . Nowhere else in the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• WORLD

world was the See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure of the individual so thoroughly subordinated to the See also:

• INTEREST

interest of the state . The whole See also:

• EDUCATION

education of the Spartan was designed to make him an efficient soldier . Obedience, endurance, military success—these were the aims constantly kept in view, and beside these all other ends took a secondary place . Never, perhaps, in the world's history has a state so clearly set a definite ideal before itself or striven so consistently to reach it . But it was solely in this consistency and steadfastness that the greatness of Sparta lay . Her ideal was a narrow and unworthy one, and was pursued with a calculating selfishness and a See also:

• TOTAL

total disregard for the rights of others, which robbed it of the moral See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth it might otherwise have possessed . Nevertheless, it is not probable that without the training introduced by Lycurgus the Spartans would have been successful in securing their supremacy in Laconia, much less in the Peloponnese, for they formed a small immigrant band See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face with a large and powerful Achaean and autochthonous population . The Expansion of Sparta.—We cannot trace in detail the See also:

• PROCESS

process by which Sparta subjugated the whole of Laconia, but apparently the first step, . taken in the reign of See also:

• ARCHELAUS

Archelaus and Charillus, was to secure the upper Eurotas valley, conquering the border territory of Aegys . Archelaus' son Teleclus is said to have taken Amyclae, Pharis and Geronthrae, thus mastering the central Laconian plain and the eastern See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau which lies between the Eurotas and Mt See also:

• PARNON (mod. Malevo)

Parnon: his son, See also:

• ALCAMENES

Alcamenes, by the subjugation of Helos brought the See also:

• LOWER

lower Eurotas plain under Spartan See also:

• RULE

rule . About this time, probably, the Argives, whose territory included the whole See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Peloponnese and the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• CYTHERA (mod. Cerigo, but still officially known as Cythera)

Cythera (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. i .

82), were driven back, and the whole of Laconia was thus incorporated in the Spartan state . It was not See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long before a further ex-tension took place . Under Alcamenes and See also:

• THEOPOMPUS (b. c. 380)

Theopompus a war See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out between the Spartans and the Messenians, their neighbours on the west, which, after a struggle See also:

• WARS

Wars.nlan lasting for twenty years, ended in the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of the stronghold of Ithome and the subjection of the Messenians, who were forced to pay See also:

• HALF

half the produce of the See also:

• SOIL

soil as See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute to their Spartan overlords . An See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to throw off the yoke resulted in a second war, conducted by the Messenian See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero See also:

• ARISTOMENES

Aristomenes (q.v.); but Spartan tenacity broke down the resistance of the insurgents, and Messenia was made Spartan territory, just as Laconia had been, its inhabitants being reduced to the status of See also:

• HELOTS (Gr. eYAwres or eiXiorat)

helots, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save those who, as See also:

• PERIOECI (IrEpi00KOI, those who dwell around, in the neighbourhood)

perioeci, inhabited the towns on the sea-coast and a few settlements inland . This See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of Sparta's territory was viewed with See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension by her neighbours in the Peloponnese . Arcadia and See also:

• ARGOS

Argos had vigorously aided the Messenians in their two struggles, and help was also sent by the Sicyonians, Pisatans and Triphylians: only the See also:

• CORINTHIANS

Corinthians appear to have supported the Spar-tans, doubtless on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of their powerful neighbours, the Argives . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the second Messenian War, i.e. by the war 631 at latest, no See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power could See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope with that of Sparta save Arcadia and Argos . Early in the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the Spartan See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon and Agasicles made a vigorous attack on See also:

• TEGEA

Tegea, the most powerful of the Arcadian cities, but it was not until the reign of Anaxandridas and Ariston, about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the century, that the attack was successful and Tegea was forced to acknowledge Spartan overlordship, though retaining its See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence . The final struggle for Peloponnesian supremacy was with Argos, which had at an early period been the most powerful state of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, and even now,though its territory had been curtailed, was a serious See also:

• RIVAL

rival of Sparta . ' But Argos was now no longer at the height of its power: its See also:

• LEAGUE

league had begun to break up early in the A_,Ve century, and it could not in the impending struggle wars. See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count on the assistance of its old See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, Arcadia and Messenia, since the latter had been crushed and robbed of its independence and the former had acknowledged Spartan supremacy . A victory won about 546 B.C., when the Lydian See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell before See also:

• CYRUS
• CYRUS (Gr. KDpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr. Koresh)

Cyrus of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, made the Spartans masters of the Cynuria, the borderland between Laconia and Argolis, for which there had been an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age-long struggle . The final See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow was struck by See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King Cleomenes I .

(q.v.), who maimed for many years to come the Argive power and See also:

• LEFT

left Sparta without a rival in the Peloponnese . In fact, by the middle of the 6th century, and increasingly down to the period of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Wars, Sparta had come to be acknowledged as the leading state of Hellas and the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of See also:

• HELLENISM
• HELLENISM (from Or. EAXspiL'sty, to imitate the Greeks, who were known as "EAAi7ves, after "EAA17v, the son of Deucalion)

Hellenism . See also:

• CROESUS

Croesus of See also:

• LYDIA

Lydia had formed an See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance with her . Scythian envoys sought her aid to See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem the invasion of See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius; to her the Greeks of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor appealed to withstand the Persian advance and to aid the Ionian revolt; See also:

• PLATAEA, or PLATAEAE

Plataea asked for her See also:

• PROTECTION

protection; See also:

• MEGARA

Megara acknowledged her supremacy; and at the time of the Persian invasion under See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes no state questioned her right to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead the Greek forces on land and sea . Of such a position Sparta proved herself wholly unworthy . As an ally she was ineffective, nor could she ever rid herself of her narrowly Peloponnesian outlook sufficiently to throw herself heartily into the affairs of the greater Hellas that lay beyond the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus and across the sea . She was not a colonizing state, though the inhabitants of See also:

• TARENTUM
• TARENTUM (Gr. rapas)

Tarentum, in See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, and of Lyttus, in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, claimed her as their See also:

• MOTHER

mother-city . Moreover, she had no See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the expansion of Greek See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce and Greek culture; and, though she See also:

• BORE

bore the reputation of hating tyrants and putting them down where possible, there can be little doubt that this was done in the interests of See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy rather than of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty . Her military greatness and that of the states under her See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony formed her See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole claim to lead the Greek See also:

• RACE

race: that she should truly represent it was impossible . Constitution.—Of the internal development of Sparta down to this time but little is recorded . This want of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information was attributed by most of the Greeks to the stability of the Spartan constitution, which had lasted unchanged from the days of Lycurgus . But it is, in fact, due also to the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical literature at Sparta, to the small See also:

• PART

part played by written See also:

• LAWS

laws, which were, according to tradition, expressly prohibited by an See also:

• ORDINANCE
• ORDINANCE, or ORDONNANCE

ordinance of Lycurgus, and to the secrecy which always characterizes an oligarchical rule .

At the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the state stood two hereditary kings, of the Agiad and Eurypontid families, equal in authority, so that one could not See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act against the See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto of his colleague, though the Agiad king received greater. See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour in virtue of the seniority of his See also:

• FAMILY

family (Herod. vi . 51) . This dual kingship, a phenomenon unique in Greek xings6lp. history, was explained in Sparta by the tradition that on Aristodemus's See also:

• DEATH

death he had been succeeded by his twin sons, and that this See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint rule had been perpetuated . See also:

• MODERN

Modern scholars have advanced various theories to account for the See also:

• ANOMALY (from Gr. lwvw)

anomaly . Some suppose that it must be explained as an attempt to avoid See also:

• ABSOLUTISM

absolutism, and is paralleled by the analogous instance of the consuls at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . Others think that it points to a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise arrived at to end the struggle between two families or communities, or that the two royal houses represent respectively the Spartan conquerors and their Achaean predecessors: those who hold this last view See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to the words attributed by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (v . 72) to Cleomenes I.: " I am no Dorian, but an Achaean." The duties of the kings were mainly religious, judicial and military . They were the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief priests of the state, and had to perform certain sacrifices and to maintain communication with the Delphian See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary, which always exercised great authority in Spartan politics . Their judicial functions had at the time when Herodotus wrote (about 430 B.C.) been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads; See also:

• CIVIL

civil cases were decided by the ephors, criminal See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction had passed to the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of elders and the ephors . It was in the military See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere that the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of the kings were most unrestricted . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle describes the king-See also:

• SHIP

ship at Sparta as " a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of unlimited and perpetual See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general-ship " (Pol. iii. i285a), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as " subject to an oligarchy at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, to a kingship on See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign " (iii . 24) .

Here also, however, the royal prerogatives were curtailed in course of time: from the period of the Persian wars the king lost the right of declaring war on whom he pleased, he was accompanied to the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field by two ephors, and he was supplanted also by the ephors in the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign policy . More and more, as time went on, the kings became See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere figure-heads, except in their capacity as generals, and the real power was transferred to the ephors and to the See also:

• GEROUSIA (Gr. yepovo'ia, Doric yepwta)

gerousia (q.v.) . The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for this See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change lay partly in the fact that the ephors, chosen by popular See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election from the whole body of citizens, represented a democratic See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the constitution without violating those oligarchical methods which seemed necessary for its satisfactory See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration; partly in the weakness of the kingship, the dual See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of which inevitably gave rise to jealousy and discord between the two holders of the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, often resulting in a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical deadlock; partly in the loss of See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige suffered by the kingship, especially during the 5th century, owing to these quarrels, to the frequency with which kings ascended the See also:

• THRONE

throne as minors and a regency was necessary, and to the many cases in which a king was, rightly or wrongly, suspected of having accepted bribes from the enemies of the state and was condemned and banished . In the powers exercised by the See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly of the citizens or See also:

• APELLA

apella (q.v.) we cannot trace any development, owing to the scantiness of our See also:

• SOURCES

sources . The Spartan was essentially a soldier, trained to obedience and endurance: he became a politician only if chosen as See also:

• EPHOR (Gr. i4opos)

ephor for a single See also:

• YEAR

year or elected a See also:

• LIFE

life member of the council after his sixtieth year had brought freedom from military service . Shortly after See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth the See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child was brought before the elders of the tribe, who decided whether it was to be reared: if de-Traln)ngoi fective or weakly, it was exposed in the so-called Citizens . Apothetae (al 'Airo%See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

rat, from ?,nroOeror, hidden) . Thus was secured, as far as could be, the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of a high See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical efficiency, and thus from the earliest days of the Spartan the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute claim of the state to his life and service was indicated and enforced . Till their seventh year boys were educated at home: from that time their training was undertaken by the state and supervised by the 2ratbovoµor, an See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official appointed for that purpose . This training consisted for the most part in physical exercises, such as dancing, gymnastics, See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

ball-See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games, &c., with See also:

• MUSIC

music and literature occupying a subordinate position . From the twentieth year began the Spartan's liability to military service and his membership of one of the avbpeia or etblrta (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, to one of which every See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen must belong . At See also:

• THIRTY

thirty began the full citizen rights and duties .

For the exercise of these three conditions were requisite: Spartiate birth, the training pre-scribed by See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, and participation in and contribution to one of the dining-clubs . Those who fulfilled these conditions were the dpoZoi (peers), citizens in the fullest sense of the word, while those who failed were called vrousLover (lesser men), and retained only the civil rights of citizenship . Spartiates were absolutely debarred by law from See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the perioeci (q.v.), and were forbidden to possess either See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold or See also:

• SILVER

silver, the currency consisting of bars of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron: but there can be no doubt that this See also:

• PRO

pro- hibition was evaded in various ways . See also:

• WEALTH

Wealth was, in theory at least, derived entirely from landed See also:

• PROPERTY

property, and consisted in the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual return made by the helots (q.v.) who cultivated the plots of ground allotted to the Spartiates . But this attempt to equalize property proved a failure: from early times there were marked See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of wealth within the state, and these became even more serious after the law of Epitadeus, passed at some time after the Peloponnesian War, removed the legal See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of the See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift or See also:

• BEQUEST (from 0. Eng. becwethan, to declare or express in words; cf. " quoth ")

bequest of land . Later we find the soil coming more and more into the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of large land-holders, and by the middle of the 3rd century B.C. nearly two-fifths of Laconia belonged to See also:

• WOMEN

women . See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

Hand in hand with this process went a serious diminution in the number of full citizens, who had numbered 8000 at the beginning of the 5th century, but had sunk by Aristotle's See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day to less than See also:

• I000

i000, and had further decreased to 700 at the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• AGIS

Agis IV. in 244 B.C . The Spartans did what they could to remedy this by law: certain penalties were imposed upon those who remained unmarried or who married too See also:

• LATE

late in life . But the decay was too deep-rooted to be eradicated by such means, and we shall see that at a late period in Sparta's history an attempt was made without success to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the evil by much more drastic See also:

• MEASURES

measures . The 5th Century B.c.—The beginning of the 5th century saw Sparta at the height of her power, though her prestige must have suffered in the fruitless attemp s made to impose upon See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens an oligarchical regime afte the fall of the Peisistratid tyranny in 510 . But after the Persian Wars the Spartan supremacy could no longer remain unchallenged . Sparta had despatched an army in 490 to aid Athens in repelling the armament sent against it by Darius under the command of Datis and See also:

• ARTAPHERNES

Artaphernes: but it arrived after the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• MARATHON

Marathon had been fought and the issue of the conflict decided .

In the second campaign, conducted ten years later by Xerxes in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, Sparta took a more active share and assumed the command of the combined Greek forces by sea and land . Yet, in spite of the heroic See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of See also:

• THERMOPYLAE (Gr. OepµSs, hot, and 1rf)X,

Thermopylae by the Spartan king See also:

• LEONIDAS

Leonidas (q.v.), the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of the decisive victory at See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis fell in great measure to the Athenians, and their patriotism, self-See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice and See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy contrasted strongly with the hesitation of the Spartans and the selfish policy which they advocated of defending the Peloponnese only . By the battle of Plataea (479 B.C.), won by a Spartan general, and decided chiefly by the steadfastness of Spartan troops, the state partially recovered its prestige, but only so far as land operations were concerned: the victory of Mycale, won in the same year, was achieved by the united Greek See also:

• FLEET

fleet, and the capture of Sestos, which followed, was due to the Athenians, the Peloponnesians having returned home before the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege was begun . Sparta See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that an effort was necessary to recover her position, and See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias, the See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

victor of Plataea, was sent out as See also:

• ADMIRAL

admiral of the Greek fleet . But though he won considerable successes, his overbearing and despotic behaviour and the suspicion that he was intriguing with the Persian king alienated the sympathies of those under his command: he was recalled by the ephors, and his successor, Dorcis, was a weak See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man who allowed the transference of the hegemony from Sparta to Athens to take place without striking a blow (see DELIAN LEAGUE) . By the withdrawal of Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies from the fleet the perils and the glories of the Persian War were left to Athens, who, though at the outset merely the leading state in a confederacy of See also:

• FREE

free allies, soon began to make herself the See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress of an empire . Sparta took no steps at first to prevent this . Her interests and those of Athens did not directly clash, for Athens included in her empire only the islands of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean and the towns on its north and east coasts, which lay outside the Spartan See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon: with the Peloponnese Athens did not meddle . Moreover, Sparta's See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was at this time fully occupied by troubles nearer home—the plots of Pausanias not only with the Persian king but with the Laconian helots; the revolt of Tegea (c . 473-71), rendered all the more formidable by the participation of Argos; the See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake which in 464 devastated Sparta; and the rising of the Messenian helots, which immediately followed . But there was a growing estrangement from Athens, which ended at length in an open See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach . The insulting dismissal of a large body of Athenian troops which had come, under See also:

• CIMON [Kiµwp] (c. 507-449)

Cimon, to aid the Spartans in the War wtt>a siege of the Messenian stronghold of Ithome, the AtAeas .

consummation of the See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy under Ephi- altes and See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles, the conclusion of an alliance between Athens Social See also:

• SYSTEM

System . Persian wars . and Argos, which also about this time became democratic, united with other causes to bring about a rupture between the Athenians and the Peloponnesian League . In this so-called first Peloponnesian War Sparta herself took but a small share beyond helping to inflict a defeat on the Athenians at Tanagra in 457 B.C . After this battle they concluded a truce, which gave the Athenians an opportunity of taking their revenge on the Boeotians at the battle of Oenophyta, of annexing to their empire See also:

• BOEOTIA

Boeotia, See also:

• PHOCIS

Phocis and Locris, and of subjugating See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina . In 449 the war was ended by a five years' truce, but after Athens had lost her mainland empire by the battle of Coronea and the revolt of Megara a thirty years' See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace was concluded, probably in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter 446-445 B.C . By this Athens was obliged to sur- render Troezen, See also:

• ACHAEA

Achaea and the two Megarian ports, Nisaea and Pegae, but otherwise the status quo was maintained . A fresh struggle, the great Peloponnesian War (q.v.), broke out in 431 B.C . This may be to a certain extent regarded as a contest between Ionian nd Dorian; it may with greater truth be called a struggle bgween the democratic and oligarchic principles of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government; but at bottom its cause Pelopon- nesian war. was neither racial nor constitutional, but economic . The maritime supremacy of Athens was used for commercial purposes, and important members of the Peloponnesian confederacy, whose wealth depended largely on their commerce, notably See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth, Megara, See also:

• SICYON, or SECYON (the latter being the older form used by the natives)

Sicyon and See also:

• EPIDAURUS

Epidaurus, were being slowly but relentlessly crushed . Materially Sparta must have remained almost unaffected, but she was forced to take See also:

• ACTION

action by the pressure of her allies and by the necessities imposed by her position as head of the league . She did not, however, prosecute the war with any marked vigour: her operations were almost confined to an annual inroad into See also:

• ATTICA

Attica, and when in 425 a body of Spartiates was captured by the Athenians at See also:

• PYLOS (mod. Navarino)

Pylos she was ready, and even anxious, to terminate the war on any reasonable conditions .

That the terms of the Peace of See also:

• NICIAS
• NICIAS (d. 414 B.C.)

Nicias, which in 421 concluded the first phase of the war, were rather in favour of Sparta than of Athens was due almost entirely to the energy and insight of an individual Spartan, See also:

• BRASIDAS (d.422 B.C.)

Brasidas (q.v.), and the disastrous attempt of Athens to regain its lost land-empire . The final success of Sparta and the capture of Athens in 405 were brought about partly by the treachery of See also:

• ALCIBIADES (c. 450-404 B.c.)

Alcibiades, who induced the state to send See also:

• GYLIPPUS

Gylippus to conduct the defence of See also:

• SYRACUSE
• SYRACUSE (Gr. Mvpaaovoat; Lat. Syracusae, Ital. Siracusa)

Syracuse, to fortify See also:

• DECELEA (Gr. DeeeXeta); an Attic deme, on the pass which led over the east end of Mt. Parnes towards Oropus and Chalcis. From its position it has a commanding view over the Athenian plain. Its eponymous %; ro, Decelus, was said to have indicated to the Ty

Decelea in northern Attica, and to adopt a vigorous policy of aiding Athenian allies to revolt . The lack of funds which would have proved fatal to Spartan See also:

• NAVAL

naval warfare was remedied by the intervention of Persia, which supplied large subsidies, and Spartan See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune culminated in the possession at this time of an admiral of boundless vigour and considerable military ability, See also:

• LYSANDER (Gr. Abcavdpos)

Lysander, to whom much of Sparta's success is attributable . The 4th Century.—The fall of Athens left Sparta once again supreme in the Greek world and demonstrated clearly her,, .. total unfitness for rule . Everywhere democracy was replaced by a See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

philo-Laconian oligarchy, usually consisting of ten men under a harmost or See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor pledged to Spartan interests, and even in Laconia itself the narrow and selfish character of the Spartan rule led to a serious See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy . For a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time, indeed, under the energetic rule of Agesilaus, it seemed as if Sparta would pursue a Hellenic policy and carry on the war against Persia . But troubles soon broke out in Greece, Agesilaus was recalled from Asia Minor, and his schemes and successes were rendered See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit- less . Further, the naval activity displayed by Sparta during the closing years of the Peloponnesian War See also:

• ABATED

abated when Persian subsidies were withdrawn, and the ambitious projects of Ly- sander led to his disgrace, which was followed by his death at Haliartus in 395 . In the following year the Spartan See also:

• NAVY

navy under See also:

• PEISANDER

Peisander, Agesilaus' brother-in-law, was defeated off See also:

• CNIDUS (mod. Tekir)

Cnidus by the Persian fleet under See also:

• CONON

Conon and See also:

• PHARNABAZUS

Pharnabazus, and for the future Sparta ceased to be a maritime power . In Greece itself meanwhile the opposition to Sparta was growing increas- ingly powerful, and, though at Coronea Agesilaus had slightly the better of the Boeotians and at Corinth the Spartans maintained their position, yet they felt it necessary to rid them-selves of Persian hostility and if possible use the Persian power to strengthen their own position at home: they therefore concluded with See also:

• ARTAXERXES

Artaxerxes II. the humiliating Peace of See also:

• ANTALCIDAS

Antalcidas (387 B.C.), by which they surrendered to the Great King the Greek cities of the Asia Minor coast and of See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus, and stipulated for the independence of all other Greek cities . This last clause led to a long and desultory war with See also:

• THEBES (anciently &Oat, Thebae, or in poetry sometimes Oif3a, in modern Greek Phiva, or, according to the corrected pronunciation, Thivae)
• THEBES (e 3a1)
• THEBES, ROMANCE OF

Thebes, which refused to acknowledge the independence of the Boeotian towns under its hegemony: the Cadmeia, the citadel of Thebes, was treacherously seized by Phoebidas in 382 and held by the Spartans until 379 .

Still more momentous was the Spartan action in crushing the Olynthiac See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation (see See also:

• OLYNTHUS

OLYNTHUS), which might have been able to stay the growth of Macedonian power . In 371 a fresh peace See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress was summoned at Sparta to ratify the Peace of See also:

• CALLIAS

Callias . Again the Thebans refused to renounce their Boeotian hegemony, and the Spartan attempt at See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

coercion ended in the defeat of the Spartan army at the battle of See also:

• LEUCTRA

Leuctra and the death of its See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader, King Cleombrotus . The result of the battle was to trajusfer the Greek supremacy from Sparta to Thebes . In the course of three expeditions to the Peloponnese See also:

• CON

con-ducted by See also:

• EPAMINONDAS (c. 418-362)

Epaminondas, the greatest soldier and statesman Thebes ever produced, Sparta was weakened by the loss of Messenia, which was restored to an in-dependent position with the newly built See also:

• MESSENE

Messene as its capital, and by the foundation of See also:

• MEGALOPOLIS

Megalopolis as the capital of Arcadia . The invading army even made its way into Laconia and devastated the whole of its southern portion; but the courage and coolness of Agesilaus saved Sparta itself from attack . On Epaminondas' See also:

• FOURTH

fourth expedition Sparta was again within an See also:

• ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

ace of capture, but once more the danger was averted just in time; and though at Mantinea (362 B.C.) the Thebans, together with the Arcadians, Messenians and Argives, gained a victory over the combined Mantinean, Athenian and Spartan forces, yet the death of Epaminondas in the battle more than counterbalanced the Theban victory and led to the speedy break-up of their supremacy . But Sparta had neither the men nor the See also:

• MONEY

money to recover her lost position, and the continued existence on her See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent Messenia and Arcadia kept her in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant fear for her own safety . She did, indeed, join with Athens and Achaea in 353 to prevent See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip of Macedon passing Thermopylae and entering Phocis, but beyond this she took no part in the struggle of See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

Rice of Greece with the new power which had sprung up on ma' her northern borders . No Spartiate fought on the field of Chaeronea . After the battle, however, she refused to submit voluntarily to Philip, and was forced to do so by the devastation of Laconia and the transference of certain border districts to the neighbouring states of Argos, Arcadia and Messenia . During the absence of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the Great in the East Agis III. revolted, but the rising was crushed by See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Anti-See also:

• PATER, WALTER HORATIO (1839-1894)

pater, and a similar attempt to throw off the Macedonian yoke made by Archidamus IV. in the troublous period which succeeded Alexander's death was frustrated by See also:

• DEMETRIUS

Demetrius Poliorcetes in 294 B.C .

Twenty-two years later the city was attacked by an immense force under See also:

• PYRRHUS (c. 318–272 B.C.)

Pyrrhus, but Spartan bravery had not died out and the formidable enemy was repulsed, even the women taking part in the defence of the city . Ab