SPECIES  , a See also:

• TERM

term, in its See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general and once See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar significance, applied indiscriminately to animate and inanimate See also:

• OBJECTS

objects and to abstract conceptions or ideas, as denoting a particular phase, or sort, in which anything might appear . In See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic it came to be used as the See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the Gr. eZbos, and meant a number of individuals having See also:

• COMMON

common characters See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to them, and so forming a See also:

• GROUP

group which with other See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups were included in a higher group . The application of the term was purely relative, for the higher group itself might be one of the " species, " or modes of a still higher group . In See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine it was used for the constituents of a See also:

• PRESCRIPTION

prescription . In See also:

• ALGEBRA (from the Arab. al-jebr wa'l-mugabala, transposition and removal [of terms of an equation], the name of a treatise by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi)

algebra it denoted the characters which represented quantities in an See also:

• EQUATION (from Lat. aequatio, aequare, to equalize)

equation . See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early writers on natural See also:

• HISTORY

history used the term in its vague logical sense without limiting it to a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category in the See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy of See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification . To See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray, the famous See also:

• ENGLISH

English naturalist, the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit is generally given of first making species a definite term in See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology and See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany, but Ray owed much of his classification to Kaspar or Gaspard See also:

• BAUHIN, GASPARD (156o-1624)

Bauhin (1550-1624), profressor of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and of See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

Anatomy and Botany at See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel, and much of his clear See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of terms to an unpublished MS. of See also:

• JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831—1907)

Joachim See also:

• JUNG, JOHANN HEINRICH (1740-1817)

Jung of See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg (1587-1657) . See also:

• SIR

Sir W . T . Thisleton See also:

• DYER, JOHN (c. 1700-1758)
• DYER, SIR EDWARD (d. 1607)
• DYER, THOMAS HENRY (1804-1888)

Dyer (See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, 1902, p . 370) thinks that Ray's use of the word may be traced to the last-mentioned authors . It is clear, however, that through Ray's See also:

• WORK

work in the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the common biological application of species became fixed much in its See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, as denoting a group of animals or See also:

• PLANTS

plants capable of interbreeding, and although not necessarily quite identical, with marked common characters .

Working on these lines, and attaching special importance to common descent, naturalists applied the term with more and more precision, until See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus, in his Philosophia botanica, gave the See also:

• APHORISM
• APHORISM (from the Gr. a4oA'ecv, to define)

aphorism, " species tot aunt diversae, quot diversae format ab initio aunt creatae "—" just so many species are to be reckoned as there were forms created at the beginning . " Linnaeus' invention of See also:

• BINOMIAL (from the Lat. bi-, bis, twice, and nomen, a name or term)

binomial nomenclature for designating species served systematic See also:

• BIOLOGY (Gr. Qios, life)

biology admirably, but at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, by attaching preponderating importance to a particular grade in classification, crystallized the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of fixity . The See also:

• LOWER

lower grades in classification such as sub-species and varieties on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and the higher grades on the other, such as genera and families, were admitted to be human conceptions imposed on the living See also:

• WORLD

world, but species were See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete, See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective existences to be discovered and named . G . L . L . See also:

• BUFFON, GEORGE LOUIS LECLERC, COMTE DE (1707-1788)

Buffon and J . P . B . See also:

• LAMARCK,

Lamarck practically conceded the objective existence of species in arguing that they might be modified by See also:

• EXTERNAL

external conditions, and G . L . See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier proclaimed their fixity without reserve .

See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin found the conception of species so definite and fixed that he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose for the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of his See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• BOOK

book (1859) the words On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, although his exposition of See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution applied equally to every grade in classification . E . B . Poulton, in an admirable discussion of contemporary views regarding species (presidential address to the Entomological Society of See also:

• LONDON

London 1904), has shown that Darwin did not believe in the objective existence of species, not only because he was led to discard the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of special creation as the explanation of the polymorphism of See also:

• LIFE

life, but because in practice as a working systematist he could neither find for himself nor ascertain from other systematists any settled criteria by which a group of specimens could be elevated into a genus, accepted as a species; or regarded as a variety . The vast advance in knowledge of the existing forms of living things that has been acquired and recorded since 1859 has accentuated the difficulty of finding any morphological criteria for species . A few writers have insisted that they are discontinuous, and that real gaps exist between them . Equally great gaps, however, may exist between See also:

• MALES

males and See also:

• FEMALES

females, between See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic phases or summer and See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter forms . The See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to find a physiological criterion has similarly failed; many forms that have been universally accepted as true species produce fertile hybrids (see See also:

• HYBRIDISM

HYBRIDISM) . In modern practice (see ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE) systematists no longer regard species as more than as an artificial See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank in classification, to be applied chiefly for reasons of convenience, so that the word is reverting to its older logical significance . The word " species " now signifies a grade or rank in classification assigned by systematists to an assemblage of organic forms which they See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge to be more closely interrelated by common descent than they are related to forms judged to be outside the species, and of which the known individuals, if they differ amongst them-selves, differ less markedly than they do from those outside the species, or, if differing markedly, are linked by intermediate forms . It is to be noted that the individuals may themselves be judged to fall into groups of See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor rank, known as sub-species or See also:

• LOCAL

local varieties, but such subordinate assemblages are elevated to specific rank, if they appear not to intergrade so as to form a linked species, whilst on the other hand assemblages judged to be species are merged, or degraded to sub-species, if they are found to intergrade by discoveries of linking forms . A species, in See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, is a subjective conception, and some writers, as for instance E .

Ray Lankester, have urged that the word is so firmly asssociated with See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical implications of fixity which are now incongruous with its application, that it ought to be discarded from scientific nomenclature . In technical biology each species is designated by two words, one for the genus, printed with an initial See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, and one for the particular species, printed without an initial capital in Zoology, whilst in Botany the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit once common to both subjects is retained, and the specific name if derived from a proper name is printed with a capital . The two words are printed in italics, and may be followed by the name of the author who first described the species . Thus " Canis vulpes Linnaeus " is the specific designation of the common See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox, Canis being the generic term common to See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs, wolves and so forth, and vulpes indicating the particular species, whilst the attached author's name indicates that Linnaeus first named the species in question . (P . C .