See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff ")  , in popular See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language the stalk of a plant, the See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree (for the technical use of the See also:

• TERM

term in See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany see below) . There are many transferred uses of the word, such as for the slender structure which joins the See also:

• FOOT

foot or See also:

• BASE

base of a See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

vase or See also:

• GOBLET
• GOBLET, RENE (1828-1905)

goblet to the bowl, a stock or See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of a See also:

• FAMILY

family, or, in See also:

• PHILOLOGY

philology, a derivative from a See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root, the unchanged See also:

• PART

part in a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of inflected forms . The See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem of a See also:

• SHIP

ship is the See also:

• PROW

prow, properly a curved piece of See also:

• TIMBER

timber or See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal to which the two sides are attached at its foremost end . This was a Scandinavian use See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early adopted in See also:

• ENGLISH

English; the word meant simply See also:

• POST

post, and See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom alone restricted it to the bows rather than to the stern; in Danish the distinction is made between Tram slam and bak slam and also in See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, Vorder-steven Hinter-steven . In botany a stem may be defined as an See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis bearing leaves . The stem with its leaves is known as the shoot . Structurally it differs from a root in having no development of cells forming a cap over the growing-point . Under the term eau/one (stem-structure) are included all those parts of a plant morphologically See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent in bearing leaves . The stem generally ascends, seeking See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air and See also:

• LIGHT

light, and has therefore been termed the ascending axis . Stems have usually considerable firmness and solidity, but sometimes they are weak, and either See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie prostrate on the ground, thus becoming procumbent, or climb on See also:

• PLANTS

plants and rocks by means of rootlets, like the See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy, being then called scandent, or twist See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round other plants in a See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral manner like woodbine, when they are See also:

• TWINING, THOMAS (1735-1804)

twining . Twining plants turn either from right to See also:

• LEFT

left, as the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean, convolvulus, See also:

• DODDER (Frisian dodd, a bunch; Dutch dot, ravelled thread)

dodder and See also:

• GOURD

gourd; or from left to right, as See also:

• HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., honysocle, i.e. any plant from which honey may be sucked,—cf. A.-S. huni-suge, privet; Ger. Geissblalt; Fr. chevrefeuille)

honeysuckle, twining polygonum, See also:

• HOP (Ger. Hopfen, Fr. houblon)

hop and See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black bryony (Tamus) . In other cases climbing plants are supported by tendrils, as in See also:

• VINE

vine; bryony, See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion-See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower, or by the tendril-like See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-stalks, as in See also:

• CLEMATIS

clematis and Tropaeolum .

In warm climates twining plants (lianas) often See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form thick woody stems, while in temperate regions they are generally herbaceous . Some stems are See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed more in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter than in height, and See also:

• PRESENT

present a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar shortened and thickened aspect, as Testudinaria or See also:

• TORTOISE

tortoise-plant, See also:

• CYCLAMEN

cyclamen, See also:

• MELOCACTUS

Melocactus, Echinocactus and other Cactaceae; while in many See also:

• ORCHIDS

orchids (fig . 1) the stem assumes an See also:

• OVAL (Lat. ovum, egg)

oval or rounded form, and is called a pseudobulb . Names are given to plants according to the nature and duration of their stems . Herbs, or herbaceous plants, have stems which See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die down annually . In some of them the whole plant perishes after flowering; in others, the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the stem forming the See also:

• CROWN

crown of the root remains, bearing buds from which the stem arises next See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season . In biennial herbs the whole plant perishes after two years, while in perennial herbs the crown is capable of producing stems for many years, or new See also:

• ANNUAL

annual products are repeatedly added many times, if not indefinitely, to the old stems . The See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short permanent stem of herbaceous plants is covered partially or completely by the See also:

• SOIL

soil, so as to protect the buds . Plants producing permanent woody stems are called trees and shrubs . The latter produce branches from or near the ground; while the former have conspicuous trunks . Shrubbyfrom the radicle in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a root-cap and in its tendency (! q1111°t to ascend . The apical growing portiop constitutes the terminal 1 ,l bud of the plant, and by its development the stem increases l ' . t .

in height; projections appear at c- See also:

• REGULAR

regular intervals, which are the rudimentary leaves, and in addi- FIG . 2.-The Embryo of the See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

Pea tion there is a See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for laid open . the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of lateral buds, c, c, The two fleshy cotylewhich develop into lateral shoots dons, or See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed-lobes, which remain more cr less resembling the underground when the plant See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent stem, and by these sprouts . the branching of the plant is r, The See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young root or radicle . determined (fig . 3) . These buds t, The axis bearing the young are found in the axil of pre- shoot or plumule, g, which lies viously-formed leaves or, in in a depression of the cotyleother words, in the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle dons, f . formed- between the Sthm and leaf . They are hence called axillary . They are produced like the leaves from the See also:

• OUTER

outer portion of the stem (exogenous), and at first consist entirely of cellular See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue, but in the progress of growth vascular bundles are fortned in, them continuous•with those of the stem, and ultimately branches are produced,which in every respect resemble the axis whence the buds first sprang . In the Lycopods branching takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place by forking of the growing-point, the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main axis being thus replaced by two equivalent axes (fig . 4); in most cases the new axes develop unequally, the weaker be-coming, puttied aside . and appearing later as a lateral branch of the stronger .

The place of origin of the leaf is called a See also:

• NODE (Lat. nodus, a loop)

node; the intervals between nodes are called internodes.,The stem, although it has a tendency to rise up-wards when first developed, in many instances becomes prostrate, and either lies along the ground partially covered by the soil, or runs completely underneath its See also:

• SURFACE

surface, givin off roots from The first rudiment of the young shoot of the embryo appears from the seed after the radicle (young root) has protruded . It is termed the plumule (fig . 2), and differs (From Strasburger's Lehr-See also:

• BUSK, GEORGE (1807—1886)

busk der Bttaxik, by permission of Gustav See also:

• FISCHER
• FISCHER, EMIL (1852– )
• FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824–1907)

Fischer.) . v, Extreme See also:

• APEX

apex, so-called vegetative See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

Cone . g f, Leaf rudiment . one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and ,buds from the g, Rudiment of an axillary bud . other . Some stems are therefore subterranean, and are distinguished from roots by the provision made for regular leaf-buds . Growth in length of the stem is due to See also:

• ELONGATION

elongation of the internodes ; the See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of most rapid growth is at some distance below the apex; below this the See also:

• RATE

rate of growth gradually diminishes until the portion is reached where growth in length no longer takes place . In some cases, as in the stems of See also:

• GRASSES

grasses, growth in length persists for a longer See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in a small region at the base of the internodes; this is known as See also:

• INTERCALARY (from Lat. intercalare, to proclaim, calare, the insertion of a day in the calendar)

intercalary growth .. In the See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf or short shoots, such as those of the See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch, the internodes do not elongate and the leaves remain See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together . Lateral buds- give rise to branches, from which others, called branchlets or twigs, arise .

The terminal bud, after producing leaves, sometimes See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies at the end of one season, and the whole plant, as in annuals, perishes; or part of the axis is persistent, and remains for two or more years, each of the leaves before its decay producing a bud in its axil . This bud continues the growth in See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring . In See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary trees, in which there is provision made for the formation of numerous lateral buds, any injury done to a few branches is easily repaired ; but in palms, which only form terminal buds, and have no provision for a lateral formation of them, an injury inflicted on the terminal bud is more likely to have a prejudicial effect on the future plant . In the trees of temperate and See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold climates the buds which are developed during one season lie dormant during the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, ready to burst out under the genial warmth of spring . They are generally protected by See also:

• EXTERNAL

external modified leaves in the form of scales, which frequently exhibit a firmer and coarser texture than the leaves themselves . They serve a temporary purpose, and usually fall off sooner or later, after the leaves are See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded . The bud is often protected by a coating of resinous See also:

• MATTER

matter, as in the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut and See also:

• BALSAM (from Gr. f &X raµov, through Lat. balsamum, contracted by popular use to O. Fr. basme, mod. Fr. bdme; Eng. balm)

balsam See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, or by a thick downy covering, as in the See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow . See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus called leaf-buds hibernacula, or the winter quarters of the young branch . In some plants, as in the See also:

• PLANE

plane, the buds destined to live through the winter are so completely surrounded by the base of the petiole as not to be visible until the leaf has fallen off . These are said to be intrapetiolar . In the bud of a See also:

• COMMON

common tree, as the sycamore (fig . 5), there is seen the cicatrix or scar left by the leaf of the previous See also:

• YEAR

year c, then the scales e, e, arranged in alternate pairs and overlying each other in what is called an imbricated manner .

On making a transverse See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the bud (fig . 6), the overlying scales e, e, e, e, are distinctly seen surrounding the leaves f, which are plaited or folded round the axis or growing-point . In plants of warm climates the buds are often formed by the ordinary leaves without any protecting append-ages; such buds are called naked . A bud may be removed in a young See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state from one plant and grafted upon another by the See also:

• PROCESS

process of budding, so as to continue to form its different parts; and it may even be made to grow in the soil, in some instances, immediately after removal . In some trees of warm climates, as papawtree, palms and tree-ferns, growth by terminal buds is well seen . In these plants the elongation of the stem is generally regular and See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform, so that the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of the plant may be estimated by its height; as there is no See also:

• GREAT

great increase in the leaf See also:

• AREA

area owing to absence of branching, there is no need for a great increase in the diameter of the stem . Although provision is made for the regular formation of buds, there are often great irregularities in consequence of many being abortive or remaining in a dormant state . Such buds are called latent, and are capable of being developed in cases where the terminal bud, or any of the branches, have been injured or destroyed . In some instances, as in firs, the latent buds follow a regular See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• ALTERNATION (from Lat. alternare, to do by turns)

alternation; and in plants with opposite leaves it frequently happens that the bud in the axil of one of the leaves only is developed, and the different buds so produced are situated alternately on opposite sides of the stem . Occasionally, after a partial development as branches, buds are arrested and form knots or nodules . The so-called embryo buds or woody nodules in the bark of the See also:

• BEECH

beech, See also:

• ELM

elm, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive and other trees are of this nature . They are partially developed buds, in which the woody matter is pressed upon by the surrounding tissue, and thus acquires a very hard and See also:

• FIRM

firm texture .

When a section is made, they present woody circles arranged around a central See also:

• PITH (O.E. pitca, cognate with Du. pit, kernel of a nut)

pith, and traversed by medullary rays . The nodules sometimes form knots on the surface of the stem, atother times they appear as large excrescences, and in some cases twigs and leaves are produced by them . When the terminal bud is injured or arrested in its growth the elongation of the main axis stops, and the lateral branches often 'acquire increased activity . By continually cutting off the terminal buds a woody plant is made to assume a bushy See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance, and thus See also:

• POLLARD, EDWARD ALBERT (1828–1872)

pollard trees are produced . Pruning has the effect of checking the growth of terminal shoots, and of causing lateral ones to push forth . The peculiar See also:

• BIRD

bird-See also:

• NEST

nest appearance often presented by the branches of the common See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch depends on an See also:

• ARRESTMENT

arrestment in the terminal buds, a shortening of the internodes, and a consequent clustering or fasciculation of the twigs . In some plants there is a natural arrestment of the main axis after a certain time, giving rise to peculiar shortened stems . Thus the crown of the root is a stem of this nature, forming buds and roots . Such is also the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in the stem of cyclamen, Testudinaria, and in the tuber of the See also:

• POTATO
• POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

potato . The production of lateral in place of terminal buds sometimes gives the stem a remarkable zigzag aspect . The mode in which branches come off from the stems gives rise to various forms of trees, as pyramidal, spreading or weeping—the angles being more or less acute or obtuse . In the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian poplar and See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress the branches are erect, forming acute angles with the upper part of the stem; in the See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak and See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar they are spreading or patent, forming nearly a right angle; in the weeping ash and elm they come off at an obtuse angle; while in the weeping willow and birch they are pendulous from .their flexibility .

The See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative length of the upper and under branches also gives rise to See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in the See also:

• CONTOUR

contour of trees, as seen in the conical form of spruce, and the See also:

• UMBRELLA

umbrella-like form of the Italian or See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine (Pinus Pinea) . The branching of some trees is peculiar . In the See also:

• AMAZON

Amazon See also:

• DISTRICT

district many Myristicaceae and Monimiaceae have whorled branches coming off in See also:

• FIVES

fives . This is also seen in the Chili pine . Branches are sometimes See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and slender, and run along the ground, producing buds with roots and leaves at their extremity . This is seen in the runner (flagellum) of the See also:

• STRAWBERRY (Fragaria)

strawberry . In the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-See also:

• LEEK

leek (Sempervivum) there is a similar prostrate branch of a shorter and thicker 'nature, known as an offset, producing a bud at its extremity capable of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent existence . In many instances the branch decays, and the young plant assumes a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate existence . Gardeners propagate plants by the process of layering, which consists in bending a twig, fixing the central part of it into the ground, and, after the production of roots, cutting off its connexion with the parent . A stolon differs from these in being a branch which curves towards the ground, and, on reaching a moist spot, takes root and forms an upright stem, and ultimately a separate plant . This is a sort of natural layering, and the plant producing such branches is called stoloniferous . In the See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose and See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

mint a subterranean branch arises from the stem, which runs horizontally to a certain extent, and ultimately sends up an aerial stem, which becomes an independent plant .

Such branches are denominated suckers, and the gardener divides the connexion between the sucker and the parent stem, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to propagate these plants . In the case of See also:

• ASPARAGUS

asparagus and other plants which have a perennial stem below ground, subterranean buds are annually produced which appear above ground as shoots or branches covered with scales at first, and ultimately with true leaves . These branches are herbaceous and perish annually, while the true stem remains below ground ready to send up fresh shoots next season . In' bananas and plantains the apparent aerial stem is a shoot sent up by an underground stem, and perishes after ripening See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit . Branches are sometimes arrested in their development, and, in place of forming leaves, become transformed into spines or thorns, as in the See also:

• HAWTHORN
• HAWTHORN (O. Eng. Naga-, hog-, or hege-thorn, i.e. " hedge-thorn ")

hawthorn . Plants which have spines in a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild state, as the See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple and See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear, often lose them when cultivated, in consequence of their being changed into branches; in some cases, as in the sloe (Prunus spinosa) (fig . 7), a branch bears leaves at its lower portion, and terminates in a spine . In some climbing plants some of the shoots are transformed into tendrils, which help the plant to climb by twining about a support, as in passion-flower and vine; or, as in See also:

• AMPELOPSIS (from Gr. aµtreXor , vine, and &lies, appearance, as it resembles the grape-vine in habit)

Ampelopsis Veitchii, by forming ad- hesive disks at the tips of their branchlets which enable them to cling to See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat supports . In some cases branches become flat and leaf-like, taking the place in the plant See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of the leaves, which are reduced to small scales or spines, as in See also:

• BUTCHER

butcher's See also:

• BROOM

broom; branches showing this modification are termed cladodes or phylloclades (fig . 8) . In Cactaceae (e.g . See also:

• OPUNTIA

Opuntia, prickly pear, fig. q) and fleshy euphorbias, where the leaves are reduced to spines, the fleshy stems become See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green and perform the functions of leaves; they also serve as See also:

• WATER

water reservoirs for the plants, which are natives of very dry countries .

(Frain Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) p/ b, Leaf rudiments; c, Cortex; f, Vascular strands . _,e Buds sometimes become extra-axillary in consequence of the non-appearance or See also:

• ABORTION (from Lat. aboriri, to fail to be born, or perish)

abortion of one or more leaves, or on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the slightly enlarged, showing cladode,, c . See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion of the young branch to the parent stem . In place of one bud there are occasionally several See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory ones produced in the axil, giving origin to numerous branches . By the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of several such buds branches are produced having a thickened or flattened appearance, as is seen in the See also:

• FIR

fir, ash and other trees . In some cases, however, these fasciated branches are owing to the abnormal development of a single bud . The typical form of stems is rounded . They are sometimes compressed or flattened laterally (fig . 9), while at other times they are angular . Various terms are applied to the forms of stems, as cylindrical or terete, quadrangular or square, jointed or articulated, &c . The following are some of the more important modifications of stems: The crown of the root is a shortened stem, often partially underground, which remains in some plants after the leaves, branches and flower-stalks have withered . In this case the internodes are very short, and the nodes are crowded together, so (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bota- that the plant appears to be stemnik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) less .

It is seen in perennial plants, FIG . 9.-Opuntla monacan- the leaves of which die down to Chia, showing flower and fruit. the ground annually . A rhizome The leaves are reduced to or root-stock (fig . Io)Jis a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal thorns. stem usually sending out numerous roots and leaf-buds from its upper surface . It occurs in ferns, See also:

• IRIS

iris, Hedychium, Acorus or sweet See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag, See also:

• GINGER (Fr. gingembre, Ger. Ingwer)

ginger, waterlily, many See also:

• SPECIES

species of forming buds and See also:

• ADVENTITIOUS (from Lat. adventicius, coming from abroad)

adventitious roots . a, bud which will form the aerial shoot next season; b, c, d, e, scars of successive aerial shoots ; w, root . Carex, rushes, See also:

• ANEMONE

anemone, &c . The leaves are reduced to scales and by their presence, and the absence of a root-cap, a rhizome can be distinguished from a root . A rhizome such as occurs in See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon's See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal (fig. to) is not a single stem, i.e. the product of a single bud, but is composed of portions of successive axes, the aerial parts of which have died off, leaving their scars (fig. to, b, c, d, e) . Rhizomes are well seen in See also:

• BRITISH

British ferns . A rhizome sometimes assumes an erect form, as in Scabiosa succisa, in which the so-called praemorse root is in reality a rhizome, with the lower end decaying . The erect rhizome of Cicuta virosa (water-See also:

• HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found in any other language, and the origin is unknown)

hemlock) shows hollow internodes, separated by partitions .

In the See also:

• CORAL

coral-root orchid Corallorhiza, which grows in soil See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in humus, no roots are developed, the coral-like branching rhizome acting as the absorbing See also:

• ORGAN

organ (fig . 13) . A pseudobulb (fig . 1) is an enlarged bulbous-like aerial stem, common in epiphytic orchids; it is covered with a thick epidermis and acts as a water-See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store for the plant, which from its growth on branches of trees and in similar positions is often unable to get sufficient water for its immediate needs . A sobole is a creeping underground stem, sending roots from one part and leaf-buds from another, as in See also:

• COUCH, DARIUS NASH (1822-1897)

couch-grass, Carex arenaria, and Scirpus lacustris . It is often called a creeping root, but is really a rhizome with narrow elongated internodes . A tuber is a thickened stem or branch produced by the approximation of the nodes and the swelling of the internodes, as in the potato . The b' b eyes of the potato are leaf-buds . Tubers are sometimes aerial, occupying the place of branches . The ordinary herbaceous stem of the potato, when cut into slips and planted, sends off branches from its base, which assume the form of tubers . Tubers frequently store up a quantity of See also:

• STARCH

starch, as in Maranta arundinacea, whence See also:

• ARROWROOT

arrowroot is derived . Another form of thickened underground stem is the corm, as seen in the autumn See also:

• CROCUS

crocus (See also:

• COLCHICUM

Colchicum, fig .

11), See also:

• GLADIOLUS

gladiolus, &c . Structurally it is composed of a solid more or less rounded axis covered by a layer of thin membranous scales (fig . 12, h, h) . A corm is only of one year's duration, giving off buds annually in (After See also:

• SACHS, HANS (1494-1576)
• SACHS, JULIUS VON (1832-1897)
• SACHS, MICHAEL (1808–1864)

Sachs.) k, See also:

• OLDEST

Oldest corm . h, h, See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown scales covering it . w, Its roots . st, Its withered flowering stem . k', Younger corm produced from k . w', Roots from k', which grows at expense of k. s, s' s", Sheathing leaves . See also:

• SAFFRON (Arab. za'faran)

Saffron or Autumn Crocus k,,, Young corm produced (Colchicum autumnale). from k' in autumn, a, Old corm shrivelling. which in succeeding b, Young corm produced later- autumn will produce ally from the old one. See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers . the form of young corms . In autumn the young corm gives origin to leaves, the lower of which (s, s', s") form sheaths round the corm and flower stalk, the upper (1',1") remaining very small ; and in the axil of the uppermost leaves the flowering-stem develops and bears the flowers (b, b') .

Meanwhile in the axil of one of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle leaves on the corm, a bud—the rudiment of a new corm—appears (k") . The flowering-stern (lies down, and the young corm k' from which it arose enlarges greatly during the winter at the expense of its parent corm (k), which thus becomes shrivelled . In spring the leaves produced on it (1', 1"), which were merely rudiments in autumn, appear above ground as conspicuous large leaves . At the end of spring these leaves die down, the bases of the lower ones alone remaining, and constituting thin brown scales around the corm (as at h) . Meanwhile, the 'young bud-corm (k") in the exit of the middle leaf grows rapidly , at the expense .of its parent corm (k'), but it does not attain a great See also:

• SIZE

size . In autumn it produces new leaves, which remain small, but from the axil of the two upper the flowering stem rises up and , bears flowers; whilst in the axil of one of its middle leaves a new bud-corm appears, which . will the following autumn- See also:

• PRO

pro- duce young leaves; flowering •stem, and a new bud-corm, and thus the See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle goes on . The buds or new corms formed from the old corms may be produced, either laterally, as in Colchicum autum- nale, or terminally, as in crocus and gladiolus . The bulb, is another form of underground stem or bud . The axis in this case is much shortened, and the internodes are hardly developed . The bases of the leaves rising from the stem are quite close together, and become succulent and enclose the axis . In the See also:

• LILY

lily the thick and narrow scales are arranged separately in rows, and the bulb is called scaly; while in the leek, (From Strasburgeda rrhRMrrh See also:

• ONION (Fr. oignon, Lat. unio, liberally unity, oneness, applied to a large pearl and to a species of onion)

onion, See also:

• SQUILL

squill and See also:

• TULIP (Tulipa)

tulip the scales are der Boranik by pettfission-•of broad, and enclose each other in, a See also:

• CON

con-Gustav Fischer.) centric manner, the outer ones being thin size.) new lateral shoots arise, forming new a, Floral shoot. bulbs . The lateral buds or See also:

• CLOVES

cloves some- b, Rudiments of new. times remain attached to the axis,, and rhizome branch@9, produce flowering stems, so that ,appar- ently the same bulb continues. to flower for many years, as in the See also:

• HYACINTH (Gr. ualavOor)
• HYACINTH, or JACINTH

hyacinth and tulip; at' other times the young bulbs are clenched, and form separate. plants .

• In the axil of the leaves of Lilian bulbiferum, Dentaria bulbifera, and some other plants, small cbvical or rounded bodies are produced, calleh bulbils or bulblets (fig . 14, b) . They resemble bulbs in their aspect, and, consist of a small number of: thickened, scales enclbsing a growing-point . These scales are frequently See also:

• UNITED

united closely together, so as to form a solid See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass . Bulbils are therefore transformed leaf-buds, which` are easily detached, and are See also:

• CABLE (from Late Lat. capulum, a halter, from capere, to take hold of)
• CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844– )

cable `'pf ' roducirg young plants when placed M.. favourable circumstances . The, scates,iie bulbslyary in number . In Gagea there is only onil See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale; g p reduced axil of an outer smote, andthis gives in the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile of the rise to a new flowering axis, andea new leaves. bulb, at the side of which then; former bulb is attached in a withered state. a; Adventitious shoots are those which arise elsewhere thahin the normal predetermined place, as from old stems., or rootsi Such shoats are frequent on the roots of elm, poplar, See also:

• PLUM

plum and other ' fruit- trees . Occasionally ad- ventitious buds ' are produced on the, edges of leaves, as! in Bryo- phyllune calycittum (fig . 15), Malaxis paludosa, and various species of Asplenium, and on the surface of leaves, as at the extremities of the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary See also:

• VEINS

veins, capable of formingg in dependent plants . Simi- See also:

• LAR

lar buds are also made to appear on the leaves of See also:

• BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany)

Begonia, Gesnera, See also:

• GLOXINIA

Gloxinia and See also:

• ACHIMENES (perhaps from the Gr. km/aspic, an Indian plant used in magic)

Achimenes, by wounding various parts of them, and placing them in moist soil; this is the method often pursued by gardeners in their See also:

• PROPAGATION

propagation . The See also:

• IPECACUANHA

ipecacuanha plant has been propagated by means of leaves inserted in the soil . In this case the lower end of the leaf becomes thickened like a corm, and from it roots are produced, and ultimately a bud and young plant .