SUGAR  MANUFACTURE Sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane is a member of the grass See also:

• FAMILY

family, known botanically as Saccharum officinarum, the succulent stems of which are the source of cane sugar . It is a tall perennial grass-like plant, giving off numerous erect stems 6 to 12 ft. or more in height from a thick solid jointed See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root-stock . The stems are solid and marked with numerous shining, polished, yellow, See also:

• PURPLE

purple or striped See also:

• JOINTS

joints, 3 in. or less in length, and about 11 in. thick . They are unbranched and See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear in the upper portion numerous See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long narrow grass-like leaves arranged in two rows; the See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf springs from a large sheath and has a more or less spreading blade 3 ft. in length or longer, and 3 in. or more wide . The small See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers or spikelets are See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in pairs on the ultimate branches of a much branched feathery plume-like terminal See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey inflorescence, 2 ft. or more long . See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

Production of flowers is uncertain under cultivation and See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed is formed very rarely . The plant is readily propagated by cuttings, a piece of .the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem bearing buds at its nodes will root rapidly when placed. in sufficiently moist ground . The sugar-cane is widely, cultivated in the tropics and some sub-tropical countries, but is not known as a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild plant . Its native See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is unknown, but it probably originated in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India or some parts of eastern tropical See also:

• ASIA

Asia where it has been cultivated from See also:

• GREAT

great antiquity and whence its cultivation spread westwards and eastwards . See also:

• ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (I220-1271)

Alphonse de See also:

• CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAME DE (1778—1841)

Candolle (Origin of Cultivated See also:

• PLANTS

Plants, p . 158) points out that the See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch of its introduction into different countries agrees with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that its origin was in India, See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin-See also:

• CHINA

China or the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago, and regards it as most probable that its See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive range extended from See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal to Cochin-China . The sugar-cane was introduced by the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages into See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain where it flourished until the abundance of sugar in the colonies caused its cultivation to be abandoned .

Dom Enrique, See also:

• INFANTE (Spanish and Portuguese form of Lat. infans, young child)

Infante of See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal, surnamed the Navigator (1394—1460) transported it about 1420, from See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus and Sicily to See also:

• MADEIRA
• MADEIRA, or THE MADE1RAS

Madeira, whence it was taken to the Canaries in 1503, and thence to See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil and Hayti See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, whence it spread to See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico, See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba, See also:

• GUADELOUPE

Guadeloupe and See also:

• MARTINIQUE

Martinique, and later to See also:

• BOURBON
• BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (149o-1527)

Bourbon . It was introduced into Barbadoes from Brazil in 1641, and was distributed from there to other See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• INDIAN

Indian islands . Though cultivated in sub-tropical countries such as See also:

• NATAL

Natal and the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern states, of the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union, it is essentially tropical in its requirements and succeeds best in warm See also:

• DAMP

damp climates such as Cuba, See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana')

Guiana and See also:

• HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS)

Hawaii, and in India and See also:

• JAVA

Java in the Old See also:

• WORLD

World . The numerous cultivated varieties are distinguished mainly by the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of the internodes, whether yellow, red or purple, or striped, and by the height of the See also:

• CULM

culm . Apart from the sugar-cane and the See also:

• BEET

beet, which are dealt with in detail below, a brief reference need only be made here to See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple sugar, See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm sugar and See also:

• SORGHUM

sorghum sugar . Maple Sugar.—This is derived from the See also:

• SAP

sap of the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock or sugar maple (Ater saccharinum), a large See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree growing in See also:

• CANADA

Canada and the See also:

• UNITED

United States . The sap is collected in See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, just before the foliage develops, and is procured by making a notch or See also:

• BORING

boring a hole in the stem of the tree about 3 ft. from the ground . A tree may yield 3 gallons of juice a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day and continue flowing for six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks; but on an See also:

• AVERAGE

average only about 4 lb of sugar are obtained from each tree, 4 to 6 gallons of sap giving I lb of sugar . The sap is purified and concentrated in a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple manner, the whole See also:

• WORK

work being carried on by farmers, who themselves use much of the product for domestic and culinary purposes . Palm Sugar.—That which comes into the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market as Jaggery or khaur is obtained from the sap of several palms, the wild date (See also:

• PHOENIX
• PHOENIX (Gr. 4oivt )

Phoenix sylvestris), the See also:

• PALMYRA

palmyra (Borassus fiabellifer), the coco-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut (Cocos nucifera), the gomuti (Arenga saccharifera) and others . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal source is Phoenix sylvestris, which is cultivated in a portion of the See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges valley to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of See also:

• CALCUTTA

Calcutta . The trees are ready to yield sap when five years old; at eight years they are mature, and continue to give an See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply till they reach See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years .

The collection of the sap (toddy) begins about the end of See also:

• OCTOBER

October and continues, during the cool See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, till the middle of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February . The sap is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn off from the upper growing portion of the stem, and altogether an average tree will run in a season 350 lb of toddy, from which about 35 lb of raw sugar—jaggery —is made by simple and See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude processes . Jaggery production is entirely in native hands, and the greater See also:

• PART

part of the amount made is consumed locally ; it only occasionally reaches the European market . Sorghum Sugar.—The stem of the See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn or sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum) has .long been known in China as a source of sugar . The sorghum is hardier than the sugar-cane; it comes to maturity in a season; and it retains its maximum sugar content a considerable See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, giving opportunity for leisurely harvesting . The sugar is obtained by the same method as cane sugar . Cane Sugar Manufacture.—The value of sugar-canes at a given See also:

• PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant)

plantation or central factory would at first sight appear commercial to vary directly as the amount of saccharine See also:

• CON

con-values of tamed in the juice expressed from them varies, sugar-canes. and if canes with juice indicating 90 Beaume be made a basis of value or See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth, say at 1os. per ton, then canes with juice indicating in degrees Beaume 10° 9° 8° 7° 6° and containing in sugar . . 18•o5 %l 16'23% 14.42 % 12'61% Io.8o % would be worth per ton . . . II/Iy 1o/– 8/too 7/9: 6/8 But this is not an accurate statement of the commercial value of sugar-canes—that is, of their value for the production of sugar to the planter or manufacturer—because a properly equipped and balanced factory, capable of making See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo tons of sugar per day, for too days' See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop, from canes giving juice of g° B., or say 1o,000 tons of sugar, at an aggregate See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure for manufacture (i.e. the annual cost of See also:

• RUNNING

running the factory) of £3 per ton, or f30,000 per annum, will not be able to make as much sugar per day with canes giving juice of 8° B., and will make still less if they yield juice of only 6° B . In practice, the expenses of upkeep for the See also:

• YEAR

year and of manufacturing the crop remain the same whether the canes are See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich or poor and whether the crop is See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good or See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad, the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the factory being limited by its power of evaporation . For example, a factory able to evaporate 622 tons of See also:

• WATER

water in 24 See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours could treat l000 tons of canes yielding juice of 90 B., and make therefrom 100 tons of sugar in that time; but this same factory, if supplied with canes giving_ juice of 6° B., could not treat more than 935 tons of canes in 24 hours, and would only make therefrom 62.2 tons of sugar .

The following table may be useful to planters and central factory owners . It shows the See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative results of working with juice of the degrees of See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density mentioned above, under the conditions described, for one day of 24 hours, and the real value, as raw material for manufacture, of cane giving juice of 6° B. to to° B., with their apparent value based solely on the percentage of sugar in the juice . The canes in each See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case are assumed to contain 88 % of juice and 12 % of fibre, and the extraction by milling to be 75 % of the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of canes—the evaporative power of the factory being equal to 622 tons per 24 hours . The factory expenses are taken at £30,000 per annum, or £3 per ton on a crop of Io,000 tons (the sugar to cost £8 per ton all told at the factory)—See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to £3oo per day for the loo working days of crop time . Degrees Beaume . 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° Tons of canes 935.6 956.2 977.4 See also:

• I000

I000 1023.8 crushed per day Tons of juice ex- 701.7 717.2 733.I 750 767.9 pressed . . Tons of water 622 622 622 622 622 evaporated Tons of 1st Mas- 79.7 95.2 III•I 128 145.9 secuite Tons sugar of all 62.2 74.3 86.7 too 114.0 classes recovered See also:

• TOTAL

Total output of 6220 7430 867o 10,000 11,400 sugar in 100 days . Tons Total value of all £800 £912 sugars per day at £8 per ton . £497, 6/–£594, 4/–£693, 6/– Less factory ex- £300 £30o penses per day . £300 £300 £300 Leaves for canes £500 £612 crushed . . . £197, 6/–£294, 4/–£393, 6/– Real value of See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot– II/Hi canes per ton .

4/24 6/2 8/– A value 6/8 7/94 8/to; 10/- II/I4 seeparent preceding Table) But it is obvious that it would not pay a planter to sell canes at 4s . 24d. a ton instead of at 1os. a ton, any more than it would pay a factory to make only 62.2 tons of sugar in 24 hours, or 6220 tons in the crop of too days, instead of 10,000 tons . Hence arises the imperative See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of good cultivation by the planter, and of circumspection in the See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase and See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of canes on the part of the manufacturer . The details of manufacture of sugar from canes and of sugar from beetroots differ, but there are five operations in the production of the sugar of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce from either material which are See also:

• COMMON

common to both processes . These are: I . The extraction of the juice . 2 . The See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification or defecation of the juice . 3 . The evaporation of the juice to See also:

• SYRUP (0. Fr. ysserop, mod. sirop, Span. xarope, for axarope, Arab. al, the, and sharab, drink; cf. Sherbet " and " Shrub ")

syrup point . 4 . The concentration and See also:

• CRYSTALLIZATION

crystallization of the syrup .

5 . The curing or preparation of the crystals for the market by separating the See also:

• MOLASSES

molasses from them . Extraction of Juice.—The juice is extracted from canes by squeezing them between rollers . In India at the See also:

• PRESENT

present day there are See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou-sands of small See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills worked by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, through which ExtracK/on the See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant cultivators pass their canes two or three by Pressure. at a time, squeezing them a little, and extracting per- haps a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of their weight in juice, from which they make a substance resembling a dirty sweetmeat rather than sugar . In Barbadoes there are still many estates making good Mascabado sugar; but as the juice is extracted from the canes by windmills, and then concentrated in open kettles heated by See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial results are disastrous, since nearly See also:

• HALF

half the yield obtainable from the canes is lost . In the best organized See also:

• MODERN

modern cane sugar estates as much as 121% of the weight of the canes treated is obtained in crystal sugar of high polarizing power, although in See also:

• LOUISIANA

Louisiana, where cultivation and manufacture are alike most carefully and admirably carried out, the yield in sugar is only about 7% of the weight of the canes, and sometimes, but seldom, as much as 9% . This is due to conditions of See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, which are much less favourable for the formation of saccharine in the canes than in Cuba . The See also:

• PROTECTION

protection afforded to the planters by their See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, however, enables them to pursue the See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry with considerable profit, notwithstanding the poor return for their labour in saleable produce . As an instance of the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic conditions combined with high cultivation the cane lands of the See also:

• SANDWICH
• SANDWICH, EDWARD MONTAGU, or MOUNTAGU, 1ST EARL OF (1625–1672)
• SANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU, 4TH EARL OF (1718–1792)

Sandwich Islands may be cited . Here the tropical See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is tempered by See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade winds, there is perfect See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from hurricanes, the See also:

• SOIL

soil is peculiarly suited for cane-growing, and by the use of specially prepared fertilizers and an ample supply of water at command for See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation the See also:

• LAND

land yields from 50 to 90 tons of canes per See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

acre, from which from 12 to 14% of sugar is produced . To secure this marvellous return, with an annual rainfall of 26 in., as much as 52,000,000 gallons of water are pumped per 24 hours from artesian See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells on one See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate alone . With an inexhaustible supply of irrigation water obtainable, there is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason why the lands in Upper Egypt, if scientifically cultivated and managed, should not yield as abundantly as those in the Sandwich Islands .

In the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris See also:

• EXHIBITION

Exhibition of 1900 a cape-crushing See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill was shown with three rollers 32 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter by 6o in. long . It is driven by a powerful See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine through triple gearing of 42 to 1, and speeded to have a See also:

• SURFACE

surface velocity of rollers of 15 ft . 9 in. per See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute . This mill is guaranteed to crush thoroughly and efficiently from 250 to 300 tons of canes in 24 hours . In Louisiana two mills, set one behind the other, each with three rollers 32 in. in diameter by 78 in. long, and driven by one engine through gearing of 15 to 1, are speeded to have a surface velocity of rollers of 25 ft . 6 in. per minute (or 6o% more than that of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French mill described above), and they are efficiently crushing 900 to 1200 tons of canes in 24 hours . In See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, See also:

• DEMERARA

Demerara, Cuba, Java and See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double crushing and maceration (first used on a commercial See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale in Demerara by the See also:

• LATE

late Hon . See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William See also:

• RUSSELL (FAMILY)
• RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
• RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
• RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
• RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
• RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
• RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
• RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
• RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
• RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )

Russell) have been generally adopted; and in many places, especially in the Hawaiian Islands, triple crushing (i.e. passing the canes through three consecutive sets of rollers, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract everything possible of extraction by pressure) is employed . In the south of Spain, in some favoured spots where sugar-canes can be grown, they are submitted even to four successive crushings . It has been found in practice advantageous to prepare the canes for crushing in the mills, as above described, by passing them through a pair of preparing rolls which are grooved or indented in such manner as to draw in and flatten down the canes, no See also:

• MATTER

matter in which way they are thrown or heaped upon the cane-See also:

• CARRIER
• CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1956-1794)

carrier, and thus prepare them for feeding the first mill of the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series; thus the work of crushing is carried on uninterruptedly and without constant stoppages from the mills choking, as is often the case when the feed is heavy and the canes are not prepared . Although it cannot be said that any one See also:

• SYSTEM

system of extraction is the best for all places, yet the following considerations are of See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general application: a . Whatever pressure be brought to bear upon it, the See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable or woody fibre of crushed sugar-canes will hold and retain for the Yield from moment a quantity of moisture equal to its own weight, Crashiag, and in practice to% more than its own weight; or in other words, too lb of the best crushed megass will consist of 47.62 lb of fibre and 52.38 lb of moisture—that Is, water with sugar in See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution, or juice .

b . Canes vary very much in respect of the quality and also as to the quantity of the juice they contain . The quantity of the juice is the test to which recourse must be had in judging the efficiency of the extraction, while the quality is the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor to be taken into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account with regard to the results of subsequent manufacture . For the application of the foregoing considerations to practice, the subjoined table has been prepared . It shows the greatest quantity of juice that may be expressed from canes, according to the different proportions of fibre they contain, but without employing maceration or imbibition, to which processes reference is made hereafter . The percentages are percentages of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original weight of the uncrushed canes . Per Per Per Per Per Per Cent . Cent . Cent . Cent . Cent . Cent .

Percentage of fibre to II 12 13 14 15 in canes . . . Percentage of juice 90 89 88 87 86 85 in canes . . . Percentage of juice 10 II 12 13 14 15 retained in me- gass . . . . Percentage of maxi- 8o 78 76 74 72 70 mum expression . Percentage of best 79 76.9 74.9 72.9 70.6 68.5 average expres- See also:

• SION [Ger. Sitten]

sion, in practice . Percentage of juice It 12.1 13.2 14.3 15.4 16.5 See also:

• LEFT

left in megass, in practice . The British Guiana Planters' Association appointed a sub-See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee to See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report to the West India See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

Commission on the manufacture of sugar, who stated the following: With canes containing 12% fibre the following percentages of sugar are extracted from the canes in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of juice: Single crushing 76% Double crushing 85% Double crushing with 12 % dilution 88 % Triple crushing with to % dilution 90 % See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

Diffusion with 25% dilution 94% These results are equivalent to 66.88 % extraction for single crushing . 74'80% „ ,, double crushing . 77'44% „ ,, double crushing with 12% dilution .

79.20% ,, triple „ to% 82.72 % , . „ diffusion with 205% To prevent the serious loss of juice left in the megass by even the best double and triple crushing, maceration or imbibition was introduced . The megass coming from the first mill MaceratMn was saturated with See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam and water, in weight equal or lmhibito between 20% and 3o% and up to 40 % of the original t/on . weight of the uncrushed canes . Consequently, after the last crushing the mixture retained by the residual megass was not juice, as was the case when crushing was employed without maceration, but juice mixed with water; and it was found that the loss in juice was reduced by one-half . A further saving of juice was sometimes possible if the market prices of sugar were such as to compensate for the cost of evaporating an increased quantity of added water, but a limit was imposed by the fact that water might be used in excess . Hence in the latest designs for large factories it has been proposed that as much normal juice as can be extracted by double crushing only shall be treated by itself, and that the megass shall then be soused with twice as much water as there is juice remaining in it; after which, on being subjected to a third crushing,-it will yield a degraded juice, which would also be treated by itself . It is found that in reducing the juice of these two qualities to syrup, See also:

• FIT

fit to pass to the vacuum pans for cooking to crystals, the total amount of evaporation from the degraded juice is about half that required from the normal juice produced by double crushing . Great improvements have been made in the means of feeding the mills with canes by doing away with hand labour and substituting See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical feeders or rakes, which by means of a mechanical simple steam-driven mechanism will See also:

• RAKE (O.E. rata, cognate with Du. raak, Ger. Rechen, from a root meaning to scrape together, heap up)

rake the canes improve- from the cane wagons on to the cane-See also:

• CARRIERS

carriers . By menta. the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of this system in one large plantation in the West Indies, cru§See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king upwards of 1200 tons of canes per day, the labour of sixty-four hands was dispensed with, and was thus made available for employment in the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields . In Louisiana the use of mechanical feeders is almost universal . With a view of safeguarding themselves from breakdowns caused by the inequality of feeding, or by the See also:

• ACTION

action of malicious persons introducing See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign substances, such as crowbars, bolts, &c., among the canes, and so into the mills, many planters have adopted so-called See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic attachments, applied either to the megass See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll or the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top roll See also:

• BEARINGS

bearings .

These attachments, first invented by See also:

• JEREMIAH

Jeremiah See also:

• HOWARD (FAMILY)
• HOWARD, CATHERINE (d. 1542)
• HOWARD, JOHN (1726-1790)
• HOWARD, LORD WILLIAM (1563–1640)
• HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (1830-19o9)
• HOWARD, SIR ROBERT (1626–1698)

Howard, and described in the United States Patent See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal in 1858, are simply hydraulic rams fitted into the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side or top caps of the mill, and pressing against the side or top See also:

• BRASSES, MONUMENTAL

brasses in. such a manner as to allow the side or top roll to move away from the other rolls, while an See also:

• ACCUMULATOR

accumulator, weighted to any desired extent, keeps a constant pressure on each of the rams . An objection to the top cap arrangement is, that if the See also:

• VOLUME

volume or feed is large enough to lift the top roll from the cane roll, it will simultaneously lift it from the megass roll, so that the megass will not be as well pressed as it ought to be; and an objection to the side cap arrangement on the megass roll as well as to the top cap arrangement is, that in case more canes are fed in at one end of the rolls than at the other, the roll will be pushed out farther at one end than at the other; and though it may thus avoid a breakdown of the rolls, it is See also:

• APT

apt, in so doing, to break the ends off the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of the See also:

• CROWN

crown wheels by putting them out of See also:

• LINE

line with one another . The toggle-See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment, which is an extremely ingenious way of attaining the same end as the hydraulic attachments, is open to the same objections . extraction of cane juice by diffusion (a See also:

• PROCESS

process more fully de-scribed under the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of beetroot sugar manufacture) is adopted in a few plantations in Java and Cuba, in Louisiana Extraction and the Hawaiian Islands, and in one or two factories'''' a in Egypt; but hitherto, except under exceptional by Diffusion . conditions (as at Aska, in the See also:

• MADRAS

Madras See also:

• PRESIDENCY

Presidency, where the See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price for sugar is three or four times the See also:

• LONDON

London price), it would not seem to offer any substantial See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage over double or triple crushing . With the latter system practically as much sugar is obtained from the canes as by diffusion, and the resulting megass furnishes, in a well-appointed factory, sufficient See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel for the crop . With diffusion, however, in addition to the strict scientific See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control necessary to secure the benefits of the process, fuel—that is, See also:

• COAL

coal or See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood—has to be provided for the working off of the crop, since the spent chips or slices from the diffusers are useless for this purpose; although it is true that in some plantations the spent chips have to a certain extent been utilized as fuel by mixing them with a portion of the molasses, which otherwise would have been sold or converted into See also:

• RUM
• RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or bram; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word, in Gipsy rem)

rum . The best results from extraction by diffusion have been obtained in Java, where there is an abundance of clear, good water; but in the Hawaiian Islands, and in Cuba and Demerara, diffusion has been abandoned on several well mounted estates and replaced by double and triple crushing; and it is not likely to be resorted to again, as the extra cost of working is not compensated by the slight increase of sugar produced . In Louisiana diffusion is successfully worked on two or three large estates; but the general See also:

• BODY

body of planters are shy of using it, although there is no lack of water, the See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi being near at hand . Purification.—The second operation is the coagulation of the albumen, and the separation of it with other impurities from the juice which holds them in suspension or solution . The moment the juice is expelled from the cells of the canes chemical See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

inversion commences, and the sooner it is stopped the better . This is effected by the addition of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime to neutralize the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid .

As See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold juice has a greater See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity for lime than hot juice, it is best to treat the juice with lime when cold . This is easily done in liming or measuring tanks of known capacity, into which the juice is run from the mill . The requisite amount of See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk of lime set up at 10° Beaume is then added . Cream of lime of 17° Beaume is sometimes used, but the weaker solution is preferable, since the proper proportion is more easily adjusted . In Demerara and other places the juice is then heated under pressure up to 220° F. to 250° F. for a few moments, on its way to a steam and juice separator, where the steam due to the superheated juice flashes off, and is either utilized for aiding subsiding the steam supplied to the multiple effect evaporators, Tan or for See also:

• HEATING

heating cold juice on its way to the main heater, ks . or it is allowed to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape into the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere . The boiling juice is run down into subsiding tanks, where it cools, and at the same time the albumen, which has been suddenly coagulated by momentary exposure to high temperature, falls to the bottom of the tank, carrying with it the vegetable and other matters which were in suspension in the juice . After reposing some time, the clear juice is carefully decanted by means of a See also:

• PIPE

pipe fixed by a swivel joint to an outlet in the bottom of the tank, the upper end of the pipe being always kept at the surface of the liquor by a See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float attached to it . Thus clear liquor alone is run off, and the mud and cloudy liquor at the bottom of the tank are left undisturbed, and discharged separately as required . In Australia a continuous juice separator is generally used, and preferred to See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary subsiding or filtering tanks . It is a cylin-Continuous drical See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel about 6 ft. deep, fitted with a conical /See also:

• ALOE

aloe bottom of about the same See also:

• DEPTH

depth . Such a vessel is Separator. conveniently made of a diameter which will give the cylindrical portion sufficient capacity to hold the juice expressed from the cane-mill in one See also:

• HOUR

hour .

The hot liquor is con-ducted downwards" in a continuous steady stream by a central pipe to eight See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal branches, from which it issues into the separator at the level of the junction of the cylindrical and conical portions of the vessel . Since the specific gravity of hot liquor is less than that of cold liquor and since the specific gravity of the scum and particles of solid matter in suspension varies so slightly with. the temperature that practically it remains constant, the hot liquor rises to the top of the vessel, and the scums and particles of solid matter in suspension See also:

• SEPARATE

separate themselves from it and fall to the bottom . By the mode of See also:

• ADMISSION

admission the hot liquor at its entry is distributed over a large See also:

• AREA

area relatively to its volume, and while this is necessarily effected with but little disturbance to the contents of the vessel, a very slow velocity is ensured for the current of ascending juice . In a continuous separator of which the cylindrical portion See also:

• MEASURES

measures 13 ft. in diameter and 6 ft. deep (a suitable See also:

• SIZE

size for treating a juice supply of 4000 to 4500 gallons per hour), the upward current will have a velocity of about i See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch per minute, and it is found that all the impurities have thus ample time to separate themselves . The clear juice when it arrives at the top of the separator flows slowly over the level edges of ,a See also:

• CROSS

cross See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal and passes in a continuous stream to the service tanks of the evaporators or vacuum See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan . The sloping sides of the conical bottom can be freed from the coating of scum which forms upon them every two or three hours by two rotatory scrapers, formed of L-irons, which can be slowly turned by an attendant by means of a central See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft provided with a suitable handle . The scums then See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle down to the bottom of the See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone, whence they are run off to the scum tank . Every twenty-four hours or so the flow of juice may be conveniently stopped, and, after all the impurities have subsided, the superincumbent clear liquor may be decanted by a See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock placed, at the side of the cone for the purpose, and the vessel may be washed out . These separators are carefully protected by non-conducting See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement and wood lagging, and are closed at the top to prevent loss of heat ; and they will run for many hours without requiring to be changed, the duration of the run depending on the quality of the liquor treated and amount of impurities therein . Smaller separators of the same construction are used for the treatment of syrup . In Cuba, Martinique, Peru and elsewhere the old-fashioned double-bottomed defecator is used, into which the juice is run Double- direct, and there limed and heated . This defecator is Dobouble made with a hemispherical See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper bottom, placed in bottomed an See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast-See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron casing, which forms a steam jacket, Defecators .

and is fitted with a cylindrical curb or See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast above the bottom . If double-bottomed defecators are used in sufficient number to allow an hour and a half to two hours for making each defecation, and if they are of a size which permits any one of them to be filled up by the cane-mill with juice in ten to twelve minutes, they will make as perfect a defecation as is obtainable by any known system; but their employment involves the expenditure of much high-pressure steam (as exhaust steam will not heat the juice quickly enough through the small surface of the hemispherical inner bottom), and also the use of See also:

• FILTER (a word common in various forms to most European languages, adapted from the medieval Lat. fi-ltrum, felt, a material used as a filtering agent)

filter presses for treating the scums . A great See also:

• DEAL

deal of skilled superintendence is also required, and first cost is comparatively large . When a sufficient number are not available for a two hours' defecation, it is the practice in some factories toskim off the scums that rise to the top, and then See also:

• BOIL

boil up the juice for a few minutes and skim again, and, after repeating the operation once or twice, to run off the juice to separators or subsiders of any of the kinds previously described . In Java and See also:

• MAURITIUS

Mauritius, where very clean canes are grown, double-bottomed defecators are generally used, and to them, perhaps as much as to the quality of the canes, may be attributed the very strong, See also:

• FINE

fine sugars made in those islands . They are also employed in Egypt, being remnants of the plant used in the. days when the juice passed through See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone-See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black before going to the evaporators . A modification of the system of double-bottom defecators has lately been introduced with considerable success in See also:

• SAN

San Domingo and in . Cpba, by which a continuous and steady See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge Contlauous of clear defecated juice is obtained on the one hand, and Defecaton. on the other a comparatively hard dry cake of scum or cachaza, and without the use of filter presses . These results are brought about by adding to the cold juice as it comes from the mill the proper proportion of milk of lime set up at 8° B., and then delivering the limed juice in a constant steady stream as near the bottom of the defecator as possible; it is thus brought into immediate contact with the heating surface and heated once for all before it ascends, with the result of avoiding the disturbance caused in the ordinary defecator by pouring cold juice from above on to the surface of the heated juice, and so establishing down-currents of cold juice and up-currents of hot juice . In the centre of the defecator an open-topped cylindrical vessel is placed, with its bottom about 6 in. above the bottom of the defecator and its top about 12 in. below the top of the defecator . In this vessel is placed the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg of a draw-off See also:

• SIPHON, or SYPHON (Lat. sipho; Gr. vi4xov, a tube)

siphon, reaching to nearly the bottom . The action of the moderate heat, 2 1o° F., on the limed juice causes the albumen in it to coagulate; this rising to the surface collects the cachazas, which form and float thereon .

The clear juice in the meantime flows over the edge of the cylindrical vessel without disturbance and finds its way out by the short leg of the siphon, and so passes to the canal for See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting the defecated juice . The admission of steam must be regulated with the greatest nicety, so as to maintain an equable temperature, 208° to 210° F., hot enough to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act upon the albumen and yet not enough to cause ebullition or disturbance in the juice, and so prevent a proper separation of the cachazas . This is attained by the aid of a copper pipe, 4 in. in diameter, which follows the See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of the hemispherical bottom, and is fitted from one side to the other of the defecator;, one end is entirely closed, and the other is connected by a small pipe to a shallow circular vessel outside the defecator, covered with an india-See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber See also:

• DIAPHRAGM (Gr. Scat/pay,aa, a partition)

diaphragm, to the centre of which is attached a See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• ROD (O.E. rodd, probably related to Norw. rudda, stick, rodda, stake)
• ROD, EDOUARD (1857-1910)

rod actuating a steam throttle-See also:

• VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve, and capable of being adjusted as to length, &c . The copper pipe and circular vessel are filled with cold water, which on becoming heated by the surrounding juice expands, and so forces up the india-rubber diaphragm and shuts off the steam . By adjusting the length of the connecting rod and the amount of water. in the vessel, the amount of steam admitted can be regulated to a nicety . To make this apparatus more perfectly automatic, an arrangement for continually adding to and mixing with the juice the proper proportion of milk of lime has been adapted to it; and although it may be objected that once the proportion has been determined no See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance is made for the variation in the quality of the juice coming from the mill owing to the See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations that may occur in the canes fed into the mills, it is obviously as easy to vary the proportion with the automatic arrangement from time to time as it is to vary in each separate direction, if the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge will take the trouble to do so,' which he very seldom does with the ordinary defecators, satisfying himself with testing the juice once or twice in a See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch . The scums forming on the top of the continuous defecator become so hard and dry that they have to be removed from time to time with a specially constructed See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument like a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• SPADE

spade with three flat prongs in front . These scums are not worth passing through the filter presses, and are sent to the fields direct as manure . The scums separated from the juice by ordinary defecation entangle and carry away with them a certain amount of the juice with its contained saccharine . In some factories they Treatment are collected in suitable tanks, and steam is blown into T eat them, which further coagulates the albuminous See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par- ticles . Scums . These in their upward passage to the top, S where they float, free themselves from the juice, which they leave below them comparatively clear .

The juice is then drawn off and pumped up to one of the double-bottomed defecators and redefecated, or, where juice-heaters have" been used instead of defecators, the scums from the separators or subsiders are heated and forced through filter presses, the juice expressed going to the evaporators and the scum cakes formed in the filter presses to the fields as manure .